bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Decay of natural stones caused by fire damage
Authors: Sippel J. , Siegesmund S. , Weiss T. , Nitsch K.-H. , Korzen M. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Almost every representative ancient building suffered from a fire during its history. Therefore, several limestones, sandstones, a gypsum, granites, tuffs, an orthogneiss and two marbles have been tested to analyse the effect of fire. Thermal expansion measurements up to 1000 °C reveal that every rock shows a specific expansion behaviour. Variations are caused by the single crystal thermal expansion properties of rock-forming minerals and by different damage processes. In silicate rocks, intragranular fracturing is the predominant damage phenomenon. Carbonate rocks show, at low temperatures, a behaviour mainly controlled by the anisotropic expansion of calcite. At higher temperatures, mineral reactions, such as decarbonatization, are directly evidenced by sudden jumps in thermal expansion curves. If water is present, a second stage of deterioration follows fire damage: the huge volume increase due to portlandite formation from decarbonized CaO causes severe scaling at the outermost surface of limestone when exposed to the environment. Small amounts of silicates in carbonate rocks may improve the stability of those rocks due to dicalciumsilicate formation. At high temperatures, an increase in the expansion coefficient may be explained by partial melting for some rock types. Phase changes (e.g. quartz) are monitored by a sudden increase in the expansion coefficient. Investigations on gypsum reveal that dehydration reactions reduce fire temperatures in the vicinity of gypsum rocks significantly. In general, all experiments show that samples are severely damaged after being subjected to fire. Real fire tests show that the penetration depth of heat and the associated damage types vary as a function of lithology. While for granites, cracks in feldspars predominate, the firing of limestone causes a scaling of the outermost layer. The investigations may lead to an improved assessment of natural building stones that have been damaged by fire. Implications can also be drawn for the recent use of facade panels made of natural building stones in case of a future fire.
The effects of wetting and drying, and marine salt crystallization on calcarenite rocks used as building material in historic monuments
Authors: Andriani G. F. , Walsh N. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract

The results of a study of the effect of marine salt crystallization on the physical and mechanical properties of Plio-Pleistocene calcarenites cropping out in southern Italy are presented here. Owing to their workability, aesthetic appeal and availability, the calcarenites have been widely used as building stones in many historic monuments. Samples of medium-grained packstones and fine-grained packstones-wackestones were prepared for the salt crystallization test defined by EN 12370, using sea water instead of a 14% solution of Na
2
SO
4
· 10H
2
O. To determine the effect of imbibition alone on the performance of the calcarenites, the same procedure was followed with distilled water without soluble salts. Microfabric analysis, evaluation of index parameters and grain-size distribution were carried out as well. Particular attention was given to pore-size distribution by mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), loss of weight and uniaxial compressive strength determined before and after the tests, and after every five cycles of complete immersion in sea water and distilled water. The results suggest that detailed information on fabric and pore network are indispensable to predicting the weatherability of rocks. Crystallization tests that involve the complete immersion of the samples in a saline solution are not effective for an understanding of the real importance of salt damage on soft and porous calcarenites owing to a significant incidence of imbibition in accelerating deterioration rates and in influencing patterns and intensity of weathering.
Length changes of sandstones caused by salt crystallization
Authors: Ruedrich J. , Seidel M. , Rothert E. , Siegesmund S. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Salt crystallization in the pore spaces of building stones can produce significant deterioration. The properties of the salt solution, the salt phases and the climatic conditions, as well as the rock fabric, significantly influence the state of rock weathering. To examine the influences of rock fabric and salt type on salt weathering, detailed investigations were performed on three sandstones. The fabric (mineralogical composition, grain size, etc.) and the petrophysical properties (porosity, pore-size distribution and hygric dilatation) of the sandstones were analysed and correlated with length changes during cyclic salt loading. The salt tests were carried out with two different salt types: (i) sodium sulphate and (ii) sodium chloride. The observed length changes differ for the investigated sandstones. Contractions of the samples, as well as a pronounced residual strain after the applied salt cycles, were observed. Specific deterioration features can be determined for the sandstones independent from the salt types used. However, the decay mechanisms, which lead to a significant deterioration, are different for sodium sulphate and sodium chloride. For sodium sulphate, a strong expansion occurs during the solution uptake cycles. This expansion can be attributed to hydration pressure during the transition from the water-free thenardite to the hydrate phase mirabilite. In contrast, the samples in the sodium chloride test show the main expansion in the drying stage. This can be related to the crystallization pressure caused by the growth of halite.
Complex weathering effects on durability characteristics of building stone
Authors: Warke P. A. , Smith B. J. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract

Durability characteristics of five stone types are assessed and compared using the standardized sodium sulphate salt crystallization test and a modified laboratory weathering simulation in which a combination of salt weathering (Na
2
SO
4
) and freeze-thaw cycles are used. Data indicate significant differences in durability rankings between the two test methods especially in lower-order durability stone types. Both the standard salt crystallization test and the modified durability test identify Leinster Granite and Stanton Moor B Sandstone as the most durable of the five stone types, with the granite performing well under both sets of conditions. Discrepancy between rankings arises in the lower orders, with Portland Limestone, Stanton Moor A Sandstone and especially Dumfries Sandstone responding differently to the two sets of experimental conditions. In the modified durability test the range of permeability values for each stone type produced the same ranking as that indicated by mean percentage weight change values but mean permeability values for each stone type do not appear to be reliable predictors of weathering response. Differences in durability rankings between the two test regimes are attributed in the first instance to the temperature conditions used, with more extreme and unrealistic heating to 103 °C in the standardized test ‘over-weathering’ stone while conditions in the modified test allowed the development of stone-specific decay characteristics. Inclusion of salt weathering and freeze-thaw cycles in the modified test introduced complexity into the decay process that more accurately reflects ‘real-world’ conditions. Data also indicate that relatively minor structural and mineralogical differences between samples of the same stone type can significantly influence weathering behaviour, resulting in distinct rates and patterns of breakdown.
Texture, spatial and orientation dependence of internal strains in marble: a key to understanding the bowing of marble panels?
Authors: Scheffzük Ch. , Siegesmund S. , Nikolayev D. I. , Hoffmann A. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract

A Carrara marble sample was measured using neutron time-of-flight diffraction on its crystallographic preferred orientation (texture), a strain scan through the sample and strain pole figures to explain the effect of deformation of marble plates. Strong compressional residual strain values of up to ɛ = -1.3 × 10
-3
measured with residual strain pole figures in a virgin bulk sample have been found. Obviously, the magnitude of residual strain depends on the sample size. Features of the observed texture pole figures and internal strain pole figures are related to each other by their sample orientations. Texture and residual strain measurements were combined with investigations of thermal expansions under dry and wet conditions in different directions to the main stress direction.
The influence of lithology and pore-size distribution on the durability of acid volcanic tuffs, Hungary
Authors: Török Á. , Forgó L. Z. , Vogt T. , Löbens S. , Siegesmund S. , Weiss T. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Eight different types of acid tuffs of the Eger Castle (Hungary) and two tuffs from nearby quarries have been studied in detail. Mapping of wall sections reveals that tuffs show weathering forms that are similar to common sedimentary rocks, such as limestones or sandstones. Different lithologies display various weathering features. On pumice-rich tuff ashlars relief due to selective weathering, weathering crusts, multiple flakes and scales occur, while crumbling is common on layered flow tuffs. Conversely, cemented tuff types do not show deep weathering. Pore-size distribution rather than effective porosity controls the weathering susceptibility of tuffs. Frequent larger micropores are the main causes of freeze-thaw-related weathering. Besides clays, newly formed gypsum and calcite are the weathering-related index minerals. Schmidt hammer rebound values mark the weathering process when quarry stones and ashlars of historic walls are compared.
Differences in texture, physical properties and microbiology of weathering crust and host rock: a case study of the porous limestone of Budapest (Hungary)
Authors: Török Á. , Siegesmund S. , Müller C. , Hüpers A. , Hoppert M. , Weiss T. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Ashlars of the Parliament building and Citadella fortress made of three porous Miocene limestones, a fine-grained limestone, a medium-grained oolitic limestone and a coarse-grained bioclastic limestone, were studied and compared with quarry blocks of the same lithologies. The commonest weathering forms are white (thin and thick) and black (laminar and framboidal) crusts. To assess the processes of crust formation and detachment, descriptions of lithologies and associated weathering features were combined with micro-drilling, pore-size distribution and ultrasonic pulse velocity tests. Microbiological and textural analyses were also performed. The micro-drilling resistance measurements and ultrasonic pulse velocities clearly document the presence of crusts and the degradation of underlying fine- and medium-grained limestones. A textural change, with calcite recrystallization, is also marked by pore occlusion and reduction of microporosity in the crust zone. Crust detachment is initiated by the opening up of microfissures that develop below the cemented crust zones. Fine-grained limestone appears to be less durable than the coarse-grained variety and more prone to rapid crust formation and detachment. Ashlars from where the crusts were removed have lower micro-drilling resistance compared to quarry stones. Microbiological activity appears to play an insignificant role in crust formation and removal. Indeed, the combined effect of air pollution and related gypsum crystallization and more probably freeze-thaw weathering activity lead to crust detachment with rates strongly controlled by the texture and porosity of the limestone substrate.
A comparative and critical study of X-ray CT and neutron CT as non-destructive material evaluation techniques
Authors: Vlassenbroeck J. , Cnudde V. , Masschaele B. , Dierick M. , van Hoorebeke L. , Jacobs P. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
X-ray computerized tomography (CT) has traditionally been used as a medical diagnostic tool. This non-destructive technique has developed as an important research tool for a wide variety of scientific subjects. For material research ‘medical’ CT, microCT and, very recently, nano- or submicroCT have been used as non-destructive material evaluation techniques for engineering and geological purposes. The fact that X-ray CT visualizes the internal structure of natural building stones and yields information on porosity values and pore-size distributions is a major advantage for the study of their conservation. The penetration of fluids like water, consolidants or water repellents inside porous materials is important when dealing with conservation and restoration research. Recently, high-speed neutron tomography has been introduced as a visualization technique for fluids inside porous materials. High-speed neutron tomography can be used as a complementary technique to X-ray tomography as elements like hydrogen, which have a weak attenuation for X-rays, are easy to detect using neutrons. In this paper the basic principles of computerized tomography and more specifically X-ray and neutron tomography are discussed. In addition, application possibilities, advantages and limitations of medical CT, X-ray microCT and high-speed thermal neutron CT are outlined.
Rock petrophysics v. performance of protective and consolidation treatments: the case of Mt Arzolo Sandstone
Authors: Carò F. , Di Giulio A. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The petrophysical characteristics of a building stone used in the city of Pavia, northern Italy, are analysed in the light of stone conservation through the application of water repellent and consolidant products. The research focuses on the modification of petrophysical properties as a function of the applied products, and on the critical assessment of the performances of fluorinated and siloxane resins as a function of the variable nature of the same lithotype. The studied material is a calcareous sandstone (Mt Arzolo Sandstone), Late Miocene-Early Pliocene in age, extensively employed as a building material during the 11th and 12th centuries. Experimental investigations on samples from historic quarries were performed before and after application of treatments: i.e. petrographical and fabric analyses; ultrasonic measurements; mercury porosimetry; abrasion resistance measurements; contact angle measurements; capillary and low-pressure water absorptions; water vapour permeability; and colour measurements. Two main lithotypes of Mt Arzolo Sandstone were recognized according to their petrophysical features: the open porosity being similar, differences exist concerning their fabric. These differences influence the physical-mechanical properties of the material and consequently the performances of the applied products. In particular, the difficulties in penetration of products when sandstone of smaller pore size is treated can lead to a significant reduction of the overall performances, which is more evident for products containing organic solvent with high molecular weight.
Genesis Chapter 1 and geological time from Hugo Grotius and Marin Mersenne to William Conybeare and Thomas Chalmers (1620–1825)
Authors: Roberts Michael B. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract

In 1550 few questioned the ‘biblical’ age of the earth, but by the mid-nineteenth century no educated person accepted it. The change is considered to have been a period of conflict between Christianity and science over the age of the earth. In fact, the conflict was small because from the Reformation era most considered the bible to be accommodated to its culture and that at the beginning of time God created a Chaos, which was re-constituted in ‘six days’. This was put forward by Grotius and Mersenne. then by the
Theories of the Earth
of Burnet. Whiston and others and then by later writers to allow for geological time. This reached its climax in early nineteenth century Britain with Chalmers. Conybeare and Buckland, thus preventing any major conflict between geology and Genesis. The perceived conflict of these centuries is a matter of retrospective interpretation, which does not do justice to those Christian thinkers, like de Luc, Chalmers and Townsend who accommodated geological time with little conflict, and those like Patrick, Ray and Whiston who opened up the way for this accommodation to geological time in the seventeenth century. The conflict between geology and Genesis is one of retrospective perception rather than historical reality. Only a minority of Christians, as with the anti- or scriptural geologists of the early nineteenth century, considered there to be a conflict.
Writing on the walls: geological context and early American spiritual beliefs
Authors: Hough Susan E. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Native American culture in many parts of California is preserved in fragmentary oral and conventional written histories, but also in sometimes dramatic petroglyphs and pictographs throughout the state. The symbolism of these images has been interpreted to reflect the natural environment, in particular issues related to rain. Although there is little doubt that rain was of paramount concern to native tribes, I suggest that geological context also played an important role in shaping early spiritual beliefs in general, and petroglyph sites in particular. From the standpoint of Native American philosophies and spiritual beliefs, geological unrest is not merely a reflection but in some cases an actual embodiment of the spiritual world. To understand the significance of petroglyph sites, they must be considered in the context of overall Native American beliefs. In this context, sites of repeated geological unrest would invariably have evolved great spiritual significance. Petroglyph locations and ages may thus provide independent age controls on ‘prehistoric’ earthquakes in California.
The Bible and geology: destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah
Authors: Trifonov Vladimir G. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract

The biblical story of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah is interpeted as a reflection of a real natural disaster. According to the Bible. Sodom and Gomorrah were situated near the southern part of the Dead Sea basin or in the Jordan River valley. The description of their destruction in the Bible can be interpreted only as volcanic eruption. Evidence of middle Holocene volcanism is absent both in the Dead Sea and Jordan River regions, but has been found in the Neogene—Quaternary lava highland in the southern Syria. At two settlements, Khirbet El-Umbashi and Hebariye, dated around the second part of the third millennium
bc
, many animal bones were covered by the basaltic lava. It is possible that, the Bible's story of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah combined collective memories about two events. Located in the Dead Sea region, Sodom and Gomorrah were most probably destroyed by a strong earthquake or flood, but the fresh memory about two settlements perishing from a volcanic eruption caused the population to merge these two events.
Myth and catastrophic reality: using myth to identify cosmic impacts and massive Plinian eruptions in Holocene South America
Authors: Masse W. Bruce , Masse Michael J. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Major natural catastrophes such as floods, fire, darkness, and ‘sky falling down’ are prominently reflected in traditional South American creation myths, cosmology, religion, and worldview. Cosmogonic myths represent a rich and largely untapped data set concerning the most dramatic natural events and processes experienced by cultural groups during the past several thousand years. Observational details regarding specific catastrophes are encoded in myth storylines, typically cast in terms of supernatural characters and actions. Not only are the myths amenable to scientific analysis, some sets of myths encode multiple catastrophes in meaningful relative chronological order. The present study considers 4259 myths, including 284 ‘universal’ (perceived in the narratives to be worldwide) catastrophe myths, from 20 cultural groups east of the Andes. These myths are examined in light of available geological, palaeoenvironmental, archaeological, and documentary evidence. Our analysis reveals three likely major Plinian volcanic eruptions in Columbia and the Gran Chaco. We also identify a set of traditions that are probably linked to the well-known Campo del Cielo iron meteorite impact in northern Argentina around 4000 years ago, along with a separate set of traditions alluding to a possible airburst in the Brazilian Highlands. These impacts apparantly triggered widespread mass fires. There are hints of cosmic impacts in the mythologies for other locations in South America.
Meteorite records in the ancient Greek and Latin literature: between history and myth
Authors: D'Orazio Massimo 
Published: December 2007

Abstract

A catalogue of citations related to possible meteorites has been assembled by searching the ancient Greek and Latin literature up to the end of the West Roman Empire (
ad
476). The catalogue illustrates the attitude of ancient populations towards the fall of meteorites and extends the record of meteorite falls back in time. The citations are arranged in the catalogue as: i) ‘meteorite falls’, when both the locality and the date of the fall are, at least approximately, indicated; ii) ‘worshipped stones’, when the written and archaeological sources suggest the actual existence of a stone as an object of worship, but the information about the locality and the date of the fall are missing or vague; iii) ‘myths’, when the connexion between an object said to have fallen from the heaven and the fall of a meteorite is weak or obscured by mythological traditions.
Place names describing fossils in oral traditions
Authors: Mayor Adrienne 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Folk explanations of notable geological features, including fossils, are found around the world. Observations of fossil exposures (bones, footprints, etc.) led to place names for rivers, mountains, valleys, mounds, caves, springs, tracks, and other geological and palaeontological sites. Some names describe prehistoric remains and/or refer to traditional interpretations of fossils. This paper presents case studies of fossil-related place names in ancient and modern Europe and China, and Native American examples in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Evidence for the earliest known fossil-related place names comes from ancient Greco-Roman and Chinese literature. The earliest documented fossil-related place name in the New World was preserved in a written text by the Spanish in the sixteenth century. In many instances, fossil geonames are purely descriptive; in others, however, the mythology about a specific fossil locality survives along with the name: in still other cases the geomythology is suggested by recorded traditions about similar palaeontological phenomena. The antiquity and continuity of some fossil-related place names shows that people had observed and speculated about mineralized traces of extinct life forms long before modern scientific investigations. Traditional place names can reveal heretofore unknown geomyths as well as new geologically-important sites.