bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Boom and Bust: The Rise and Fall of the Tobacco Industry in Spanish Louisiana, 1770-1790
Authors: Coutts Brian E. 
Published: July 2006

French royal officials, speculators such as John Law, and the French Crown itself had placed great hopes in the development of the tobacco industry in French Louisiana. Some officials even anticipated that Louisiana tobacco might someday be grown in sufficient quantities to supply all the needs of the French Tobacco Monopoly. These lofty expectations were never realized although tobacco production did reach 400,000 pounds in 1740.By the time of the transfer of the colony to Spain in 1766 the perils of war and erratic shipping had almost killed the industry. Most planters had switched to the more profitable production of indigo. Historian Jacob Price claims that the failure of the French government's efforts to develop the tobacco trade resulted from a misunderstanding about costs. In Louisiana, he writes, labor was expensive and freight dear, yet French authorities expected Louisiana tobacco to be competitive in price in the French market with Virginia tobacco, grown in an established market, with abundant labor, and much closer to Europe. Fortunately, the Spanish officials had no such illusions.
“Mendacious Inventions”, Veracious Perceptions: “The Peruvian Reality of Vargas Llosa'sLa Ciudad Y Los Perros”
Authors: Nunn Frederick M. 
Published: July 2006

“The interpretation of our reality through patterns not our own serves only to make us more unknown, ever less free, ever more solitary.”Gabriel García Márquez, Nobel Lecture, 1982In the second half of this century, we have been told, the Latin American novel came of age. Authors no longer felt constrained to subject indigenous contents to alien forms. Instead contents suggested forms truly representative of societies, polities, and cultures in search of identity and struggling with numerous historic problems, some not even of their own region's making.Although Latin American novels have long been recognized as important to the area's cultural development, as indicators of literary achievement, and as valuable sources for scholars, few works published between Machado de Assis'sDom Casmuro(1900) and Miguel Angel Asturias'sMen of Corn (Hombres de maiz, 1949) could be described as aestheticmagna opera. In the long hiatus essayists took up the task of portraying reality, producing such classics as Euclides da Cunha'sRebellion in the Backlands (Os Sertões, 1902), José Vasconcelos's The Cosmic Race (La raza cósmica, 1925), José Carlos Mariátegui'sSeven Interpretive Essays on Peruvian Reality (Siete ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana, 1927), Alberto Edwards Vives'sThe Aristocratic Fronde (La fronda aristocrática, 1927), and Ezequiel Martínez Estrada'sX-Ray of the Pampa (Radiografía de la pampa, 1933).
A Scholarly Debate: The Origins of Modern Mexico-Indígenistas vs. Hispanistas
Authors: Lafaye Jacques , Lockhart James 
Published: July 2006

This year, 1992, marks the quincentenary or quincentennial of the first voyage of Columbus to the Western Hemisphere. In 1990, as Chair of the Mexican Studies Committee of the Conference on Latin American History, I invited two of the leading scholars on Mexico during the colonial period– Professor Jacques Lafaye (Universite de Paris IV) and Professor James Lockhart (UCLA)–to help set the debate for the upcoming anniversary by delivering a 20 minute summary of the role of Spain in the history of colonial Mexico at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association in San Francisco. The following essays are the result of that discussion held on December 29, 1990 in San Francisco.Barbara A. Tenenbaum
The Last Battle of the American Revolution: Yorktown. No, The Bahamas! (The Spanish-American Expedition to Nassau in 1782)
Authors: Beerman Eric 
Published: July 2006

History generally records Lord Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown in October 1781 as the last battle of the American Revolution. Nevertheless, six months after that epic campaign, warships of the South Carolina Navy commanded by Commodore Alexander Gillon, transported Spanish General Juan Manuel de Cagigal's infantrymen from Havana to Nassau in the Bahamas, where the British capitulated on May 8, 1782. Thus, the Treaty of Versailles signed the following year made this little-known Spanish and American expedition the last battle of the American Revolution.The Bahamas, or Lucayos, an archipelago off the southeastern coast of the United States, take on increasing historical interest with the approach of the 500th Anniversary of Columbus's first landing in the New World 200 miles southeast of Nassau at Guanahani. The Bahamas, however, played only a minor role in the Spanish colonization of the Americas whereas, Great Britain gave priority to these strategic islands, making an initial settlement on the island of Eleuthera. The British later found a better harbor to the west and named the island New Providence which became their Bahama stronghold. King Charles II granted the Duke of Albemarle the Bahamas in 1670 and appointed John Wentworth as governor. Harrassed by plundering pirates, the British governor constructed a fort on New Providence in 1695 and named it Nassau in honor of King William III. The island's preoccupation changed in 1703 from marauding corsairs to a Spanish and French invasion during the War of the Spanish Succession. Great Britain regained control and maintained it until the outbreak of the American Revolution when John Paul Jones participated in the brief American seizure of Nassau in March 1776 in one of the first offensive operations in the history of the United States Navy.
The Politics of Conquest: An Interpretation of the Relación De Michoacán
Authors: Krippner-Martínez James 
Published: July 2006

Therefore Most Illustrious Sir, the elders of this city of Michoacán present to Your Lordship this writing and relación, and I also in their name, not as author but rather as an interpreter of them. -Fray Jerónimo de Alcalá, ca. 1540.The Relación De Las Ceremonías Y Ritos Y Población Y Gobernación De Los Indios De La Provincia De Michoacán is a complex, and beautiful, colonial text. We know that it was compiled by a Franciscan missionary, most probably Fray Jerónimo de Alcalá, although we cannot state his identity with complete certainty. We also know that it was based on the testimony of Michoacán's indigenous elite. Beyond that, however, it is not possible to obtain specific information about the text. For example, we do not know how or when the indigenous testimonies were collected, except that it was during the first twenty years after the Conquest (1519). The indigenous elite informants, with one exception, are also unknown.
An English Utilitarian Looks at Spanish-American Independence: Jeremy Bentham’s Rid Yourselves of Ultramaria
Authors: Harris Jonathan 
Published: July 2006

On August 31 1832, when news arrived of the death of the English utilitarian philosopher and jurisconsult, Jeremy Bentham, the Guatemalan Statesman José del Valle introduced a resolution to the congress of the Central American Republic requesting all its members to wear mourning as a mark of respect. He also took the opportunity to bestow fulsome praise on Bentham, not only as the sage who had taught the art of legislation and government, but also as the defender of Spanish-American independence.Few would dispute the first claim. Bentham’s work on the science of legislation, Traités de législation, had been translated into Spanish and was widely read throughout Spanish America. Francisco Santander was said to have always had a copy open on his desk and it was adopted as a basic text for study at University level in Buenos Aires and Santiago. Many of Bentham’s other works enjoyed similar esteem and his opinions on what constituted good government were constantly cited and debated in the assemblies of the new republics.
The ‘Alienated’ Body: Slaves and Castas in the Hospital de San Bartolomé in Lima, 1680 to 1700
Authors: van Deusen Nancy E. 
Published: July 2006

“A machine which does not serve the purpose of labor is useless. So a slave who becomes equated with a machine is useless when some component part no longer works.” (Karl Marx,Manuscripts, 459)“Verás de abanzada edadA muchos bozales negrosQue al público pensionandoEstán después que sirvieron.”For years after the 1687 earthquake had devastated much of Lima, various published sermons pondered the significance of the inauspicious event. One specific panegyric written in 1694 detailed the structural damage to the Hospital of San Bartolomé, founded in 1661 for “freed, disabled, ill or elderly blacks.” In the baroque literary style characteristic of the period, the author, Francisco de Vargas Machuca, described how the heroic viceroy Laso de Portocarrero, the Count of Monclova, “born like the sun for the remedy of all,” exercised his “divine charity” toward the poor of the Royal hospital, and “bore the weight of its ruins upon his own majestic shoulders to attend to the poor slaves and their hospital at his own expense.” According to the author, only Christ himself could have predicted that in 1694 the viceroy would refurbish the vestibule with exquisitely adorned doors, place “costly stones of the court” in the portal and replace the damaged cornices with more ornate ones in order to replicate a “hospital of heaven where the poor would enter.” After four months of intensive labor, the wards, in the shape of a Greek cross, were restored and the roofing and masonry work completed. Ample food, bedding and medicine once again provided adequate sustenance for the poor, infirm and elderly slaves and free castas in the hospital.
Gunboat Diplomacy's Last Fling in the New World: The British Seizure of San Quintin, April 1911
Authors: Taylor Lawrence D. 
Published: July 2006

In considering acts of military intervention by foreign powers which occurred in Mexico during the Mexican Revolution, one is apt to think of the years 1914, 1916 and 1919, when U.S. forces invaded or occupied portions of Mexican territory. There was, however, one case of intervention of this sort during the revolution in which U.S. military personnel were not involved–the landing of a small party of British marines belonging to the H.M.S. “Shearwater” at the port of San Quintín on the northwest coast of the Baja Californian peninsula in April 1911.The British landing at San Quintm constituted a vestige or remnant of "gunboat diplomacy", an aspect of English foreign policy that had originated in the age of Palmerston and which reflected the unrivaled naval supremacy enjoyed by Great Britain during the period extending from the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 to the end of the Second World War. The episode represented, in a rather overt way, the hard-nosed attitude characteristic of British foreign policy at that time with regards to Latin America in general and other so-called "backward" regions of the globe.
Bishop Marroquin–Zumárraga’s Gift to Central America
Authors: Lamadrid Lázaro 
Published: July 2006

In the History of the Central American hierarchy there is no personality so highly praised and so little disputed as that of Don Francisco Marroquín, the first Bishop of Guatemala. His good sense, activity and zeal for the conversion of the natives, and his interest in the culture, moral welfare and progress of the incipient province rest upon solid bases in the reports and eulogies of documents and historians, although, strangely enough, he has never been the subject of a full-length biography.No less praiseworthy was his moderate position as to the very serious problem which confronted Spain, and which she herself posed for consideration and decision, from the very beginnings of the colonization and pacification of the New World—namely, the problem of what treatment should be accorded to the natives.
The Franciscan Provinces of South America
Authors: Habig Marion A. 
Published: July 2006

Known by various names, this Franciscan Province at one time comprised the territory of all the states in the vast basin of the Rio de la Plata and its great tributaries: the Rio de la Plata and Tucumán colonies (present Argentina), Paraguay, and Uruguay—and in the beginning also the southernmost part of Brazil.Though it was the last of the Franciscan Provinces to be established in Spanish South America during colonial times, it was founded as the independent Custody of Paraguay-Plata as early as 1538. In 1565 another Custody, that of St. George of Tucumán, was founded by Franciscans of the Peruvian Province (see The Americas, II, 83–90). These two Custodies were united into one in 1575, but separated again into two in 1597, both remaining dependent on the Province in Peru. Fifteen years later, the General Chapter held in Rome on July 12, 1612, once more joined the two Custodies to form the Province of Rio de la Plata.
Don Fray Juan De Zumárraga Pioneer of European Culture in America
Authors: Carreño Alberto Maria 
Published: July 2006

The Southern Portion of the United States is greatly indebted to the Franciscan friars who planted there the seed of what was, in the course of time, to become the mighty tree of Christian culture that flourishes in the land today. Fray Juan de Zumárraga, first Bishop and Archbishop of Mexico, was instrumental in bringing Franciscans to New Spain from where, as pioneers, they were to take Christian culture and religion to Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California.Zumárraga was born in Durango, Province of Vizcaya, Spain, near the close of 1468 or the beginning of 1469. He was the son of Juan López de Zumárraga and Teresa de Lares, both of noble lineage.
An Ohio Argonaut’s Observations on the Church in Nicaragua
Authors: Marshall Schuyler O. 
Published: July 2006

President Polk’s message to Congress on December 5, 1848, informed that body—and thus the country—that the reports “of the abundance of gold” in California, though “of such an extraordinary character as would scarcely command belief,” had been “corroborated by the authentic reports of officers in the public service.” The President’s message touched off the gold mania in the East. There were, of course, by this time thousands in the “diggings,” but they were mostly from California or Oregon.Most of the Argonauts traveled to California by the various overland trails, but many, especially from the East, went by sea. In 1849 almost all those who traveled by ship either went “round the Horn” or by water to Panama, across the isthmus, and then again by ship to California. In 1849 apparently only one group of gold seekers chose to cross Central America at Nicaragua rather than Panama. The next year, however, as reports came back of the various disadvantages of the all-water route and of the Panama crossing, more and more of the Argonauts turned to Nicaragua.
The Franciscan Provinces of South America
Authors: Habig Marion A. 
Published: July 2006

Hardly had the Spaniards established themselves in Peru, when they founded a settlement also in Upper Peru or Charcas, the present Bolivia. Los Charcas, the name of an Indian tribe, was given not only to the first town, but also to the entire province which in 1825 became an independent republic named for the “Liberator,” Simón Bolívar.As early as 1538, Diego de Rojas, sent out by the governor of Peru, founded a colony at Charcas. He also was the first to enter Tucumán, or northern Argentina, in 1543. Charcas is the present capital of Bolivia, and since Independence it has been known as Sucre. In colonial times the town was known also as Chuquisaca and as La Plata, which latter should not be confused with the La Plata colony, south of Paraguay, the present Argentina.
The Soul of Spain
Authors: Rubio David 
Published: July 2006

Few Americans had any insight into the critical part that Spain had played and still continues to play in the development of the modern world, through the fact that Spain endeavored to transpose the dying medieval culture into a modern key; witness Loyola’s Society of Jesus.Spain gave to her colonies in the New World her language, religion, civic institutions, her system of education, her social customs, her chivalric sense of honor and her mystic fervor. Spain gave her body and soul to the New World.It is, therefore, in my humble opinion, of paramount importance to know the soul of Spain in order to comprehend and understand the Spanish American people. To that purpose—to better understand the spiritual and cultural background of Spanish America by studying the “Soul” of Spain—this work is dedicated.—THE AUTHOR.At the close of the eighteenth century Nicholas Masson de Morvilliers raised a hubbub in Europe by asking these two questions in the Encyclopédie Méthodique: “Mais que doit-on a I’Espagne? Et depuis deux siecles, depuis quatre, depuis six, qu’a-t-elle fait pour l’Europe?”At the end of a century of positivistic philosophy and at the beginning of the industrial era this was a very logical question. It is true that Spain did not invent the locomotive, the telegraph, the telephone nor the modern frigidaire; but in the realm of human and eternal values could a more idiotic question have been asked? The metaphysics of Suarez, the international law of Victoria, the great theologians of the Council of Trent, Cano and Soto, had no value whatsoever for this Positivistic century; nor did the fact that Spain had produced one of the most human and original theatres with Lope de Vega, Calderón, Tirso de Molina and Alarcón; the greatest novel in the modern sense of the word, Don Quijote;the most profound satirist of all Europe, Quevedo; the outstanding moralist of the seventeenth century, Lorenzo Gracian; and above all these a school of mystics in Saint Teresa of Avila, Saint John of the Cross, Fray Luis de León and Juan de los Angeles, which has never been equaled. Even if Mr. Masson de Morvilliers could not see the importance of these contributions it is difficult to comprehend how he could ignore the transcendental fact that Spain had broken the columns of Hercules and had spread Mediterranean culture through the countries lying on the other side of the Atlantic and on the remotest shores of the Pacific.
New Mexico as a Historical Laboratory of the Good Neighbor Policy: With Special Reference to the Hispano-American Cultural Contribution
Authors: Espinosa J. Manuel 
Published: July 2006

Much has been written about New Mexico, but few of those who have described its unique heritage and character have fully understood its true spirit and appreciated what it represents as a part of the present-day United States.New Mexico has a personality all of its own. Three cultural groups have been most important in forming the American way of life to be found there: the Pueblo Indians, who were the first permanent settlers of the region; the Spanish, who made it a part of Western civilization; and the Anglo-Americans, who have brought it into the current of modern American life. Today, New Mexico is neither Indian, nor Spanish, nor Anglo, but a harmonious combination of all three; and in the persistance and, generally speaking, local appreciation of the permanent values of each of the dominant cultural heritages, it has been for the past one hundred years a significant laboratory of the Good-Neighbor Policy. I speak as one whose ancestors were among the pioneers of both the Anglo and Hispano-American frontiers of settlement who, advancing from northeast and southwest, met and joined hands in what is now the state of New Mexico during the first half of the nineteenth century.
Spain’s Investment in New Mexico Under the Hapsburgs
Authors: Bloom Lansing S. 
Published: July 2006

It is not an easy matter to disentangle the motives lying back of any great enterprise such as the Spanish conquest and colonization in the Americas. The idea has been very generally held, even among historians, that the Spaniards were universally obsessed with a lust for gold, and however much or little other motives may have entered in, that this lust for gold was the motive above all others which inspired them to feats with few if any parallels in all history for courage and endurance and achievement. “Tell your master,” Cortés is reported to have said to the emissaries of Moctezuma, “that we Spaniards have a fever in our blood which can be cooled only by gold.”The Mexican of today is proud of his Indian descent, and the heavy discount which he places on what the Spaniard has done for him is typified, for example, in the imposing statue to Cuauctemoc which was given one of the points of greatest prominence on the stately Paseo of Mexico City. One of the large bronze tablets on the base of that statue portrays Cortés and his captains putting the Aztec princes to the torture, roasting their feet to compel them to reveal their hidden treasure; and at that statue today centers the national Fiesta de la Raza.
A Good Neighbor Policy of the XVI Century: The Spanish Missionaries
Authors: Rubio David 
Published: July 2006

I Dedicate this article to the so-called Indigenists and Apristas, who, perhaps with very good intentions, preach the return to Indian primitivism. They advocate this, in the first place, without ever having lived the life of the Indian and secondly, with complete forgetfulness that the only thing that made men of the Indians was the doctrine of the gospel of Christ and that the only ones who understood the Indians were the Catholic missionaries.I also want to emphasize the long and special preparation the missionaries underwent before attempting the conversion of millions of Indians, a fact which has not been stressed sufficiently in the works dedicated to this subject.
Important California Missionary Dates Determined
Authors: Geiger Maynard 
Published: July 2006

Lacking in the standard histories of the California missions as well as in several excellent biographical sketches, are long-sought, important vital statistics with regard to two among California’s greatest missionaries, Fray Francisco Palóu, O.F.M., and Fray Fermín Francisco Lasuén, O.F.M., respectively California’s first historian and the California missions’ second regularly appointed presidente. Why the chronological niche of the two missionaries in the facade of California history has stood unfinished is due to peculiar circumstances of recording and the hideout that certain necessary documents have maintained. Other missionaries, less prominent, are often much better outlined in Franciscan chronology.With regard to Palóu, our interest centers on the exact day and year of his death. Even that of his birth was made known only in 1924 through the combined efforts of the Rev. LeRoy Callahan of the diocesan clergy of Los Angeles, and the Rev. Zephyrin Engelhardt, O.F.M., of Mission Santa Barbara. Father Callahan was in Mallorca doing research work on the early life of Junípero Serra while Father Engelhardt was composing his San Francisco Mission.
The Brazilian Negro
Authors: Saunders J. V. D. 
Published: July 2006

An adequate comprehension of Brazilian institutions, history, economics, and other aspects of national life could be but with great difficulty acquired without a consideration of the role played by the Negro in the development of the Brazilian nation. His influence has been far-reaching, encompassing the major social institutions; and his impress is to be found in virtually every phase of the culture. Although originating from a wide diversity of African nations with distinctive cultural backgrounds, he has received as well as given culturally, and is distinctively Brazilian.In this paper the Negro in Brazil will be discussed from three different points of view: the demographic; the historical; and the social.