bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
History of Schistosomiasis
Authors: Power Helen Joy 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The history of schistosomiasis (infection with species of blood flukes or flatworms of the genus
Schistosoma
) is concerned with initial clinical descriptions of the urinary form of the disease; recognition of the aetiology of schistosome worms; discovery of snails as intermediate hosts and completing the life cycle; realization that different worms cause different forms of disease; measures to control and treat the disease.
Coordination, Integration and Behaviour in Invertebrates
Authors: Combes Denis , Simmers John 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The production of behaviourally appropriate movements requires coordinating neural interactions within an animal's nervous system, the integration of sensory input from the periphery, and instruction from central neuromodulatory commands. Much of our understanding of the neural correlates of adaptive behaviour has derived from studying the simpler nervous systems of invertebrates.
Invertebrate Skeletons
Authors: Willmer Pat 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A skeleton is any mechanical system that interacts with muscle activity to allow movement and locomotion; the skeleton provides an external force or framework to restore muscles to their relaxed state. Invertebrate skeletons may be hydrostatic or stiff, either type serving to support the body and keep it in shape; stiff skeletons usually also have protective functions.
Bryophytes (Liverworts)
Authors: Brown Elizabeth A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The liverworts are a group of green land plants that diverged before the dominant land plants such as angiosperms and gymnosperms. Together with mosses and hornworts, liverworts differ from all other land plants in having a free living gametophyte (a plant with only one set of chromosomes) as the dominant generation.
Pteridophytes (Ferns)
Authors: Yatskievych George 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Pteridophytes (vascular cryptogams or ferns and fern allies) comprise about 12 000 species of primitive vascular plants; they do not produce flowers or seeds and reproduce instead via spores. They occur in most terrestrial habitats and also in some aquatic communities. Some species are very beneficial to humans, but the group also contains important species of weeds.
Poaceae (Gramineae)
Authors: Peterson Paul M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The grass family (Poaceae or Gramineae) is the fourth largest flowering plant family and contains about 11 000 species in 800 genera worldwide. Twenty‐three genera contain 100 or more species or about half of all grass species, and almost half of the 800 genera are monotypic or diatypic, i.e. with only one or two species.
Brassicaceae (Mustard Family)
Authors: Al‐Shehbaz Ihsan A 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) or mustard family is a well‐defined group that includes many vegetable crops (cabbage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, horseradish, turnip, radish, watercress, etc.) and the model organism,Arabidopsis thaliana. It is easily recognized by the flowers with four petals in the form of a cross and by the pungent taste of its crushed leaves.
Illiciales
Authors: Sampson F Bruce 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The order Illiciales is a member of the basal subclass of angiosperms, the Magnoliidae, and is made up of two small families. The family Illiciaceae contains one genus,
Illicium
, which has about 42 species, and the family Schisanraceae, which contains two genera –
Kadsura
(24 species) and
Schisandra
(about 25 species), including the Chinese star anise.
Alismatales (Water Plantains)
Authors: Haynes Robert R , Les Donald H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The Alismatales comprise an angiosperm order commonly known as ‘water plantain’. All members are aquatic or wetland plants with vegetation totally submersed and flowers floating or emergent, or with floating leaves and floating or emergent flowers, or with emergent vegetation and flowers. Most species have a totally submerged juvenile phase, and some species, for example
Baldellia ranunculoides
,
Luronium natans
,
Ottelia ovalifolia
,
Ottelia alismoides
, and
Blyxa alternifolia
, develop submerged cleistogamous flowers.
Geraniales (Geranium)
Authors: Bakker Freek T 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The angiosperm order Geraniales, as currently informally recognized, contains about 800 species, some of which are of economical and horticultural importance. Geraniales mainly comprises three families: Geraniaceae (geraniums, pelargoniums), Melianthaceae, a family of 18 species, Ledocarpaceae totalling 12 species in three genera, and Vivianiaceae, a small family containing a single genus with six species.
Cornales (Dogwood)
Authors: Xiang Jenny Qiu‐Yun 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cornales is a relatively small, but diverse, plant order of flowering plants belonging to the asterids clade. It contains trees, shrubs, lianas, and rhizomatous and rarely aquatic herbs that occur from cold temperate regions to the tropics, rarely in subarctic zones. Common representatives include flowering dogwood, bunchberry, cornelian cherry, black gum, hydrangea, mock orange, and blazing star.
Boreal and Temperate Forests
Authors: Vankat John L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Earth's latitudinal gradient of forests encompasses boreal to temperate deciduous to temperate evergreen forests (as well as tropical forests). In addition, there are several variants of the temperate evergreen forest and there are montane forests at high elevations. Boreal and temperate forests differ in environment, structure, composition and disturbance.
Fluctuating Asymmetry
Authors: Tomkins Joseph L , Kotiaho Janne S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Fluctuating asymmetry refers to small random deviations from perfect symmetry in bilaterally paired structures; it is thought to reflect an organism's ability to cope with genetic and environmental stress during development and its utility as an indicator of such stresses is based on the assumption that perfect symmetry is an
a priori
expectation for the ideal state of bilateral structures. Fluctuating asymmetry has been used as an indicator of individual quality in studies of natural and sexual selection and as a bioindicator tool for environmental monitoring and conservation biology.
Enzymes: Phosphopantetheine‐dependent
Authors: Crump Matthew P , Shoolingin‐Jordan Peter M 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPhosphopantetheine‐dependent enzymes are a group of multifunctional or individual enzymes including fatty acid synthases, polyketide synthases and nonribosomal polypeptide synthases, all of which utilize the 4′‐phosphopantetheine moiety attached to an acyl carrier protein or a peptide carrier protein. The terminal thiol group of 4′‐phosphopantetheine is covalently attached to any of a number of acyl groups in the form of a thiol ester to facilitate acyl transfer and nucleophilic activation.
Nick Translation
Authors: Woodward K 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Nick translation is a rapid and easy method of labelling duplex DNA with radioactive or chemically modified nucleotides. The technique is based on the ability of DNase I to introduce random nicks in the target DNA and the simultaneous exonuclease and polymerase activity of
Escherichia coli
DNA polymerase I to replace existing nucleotides with labelled nucleotides (Kelly
et al.
, 1970; Rigby
et al.
, 1977).
Reverse Transcription and PCR
Authors: Woodgate L , Mills K 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The ability to study comparatively the expression of messenger RNA (mRNA) populations from different samples has become accessible by the novel application of reverse transcription (RT), together with the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), to isolate gene sequences which can then be visualized by displaying on a sequencing gel. Differentially expressed transcripts can be analysed by Northern blotting or semiquantitative PCR to confirm differential expression. Utilization of various primer combinations facilitates the isolation of approximately 15 000 mRNA species, which represents gene expression in a mammalian cell at any one time.
Enzyme‐linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) to Measure Pure Protein
Authors: Liddell JE 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is used to measure the concentration of a soluble protein. The protein is coated to an assay plate and detected using a three‐step detection process. A colour change is observed which is proportional to the concentration of protein bound to the plate.
Dideoxy Sequencing of DNA
Authors: Wilton S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The enzymic sequencing approach uses a DNA polymerase to synthesize transcripts that have been terminated at specific bases. A primer anneals to a complementary region on the template strand and acts as a starting point for DNA synthesis, which occurs in the presence of a mixture of deoxyribonucleotides (building blocks) and specific dideoxyribonucleotides (chain‐terminators). Originally four separate reactions were set up, each with a base‐specific chain‐terminator. Separation of these reaction products on a DNA sequencing gel will generate a ladder of bands indicating the position of each terminated base relative to the end of the sequencing primer. A homogeneous sequencing template should generate a single band in one of the four lanes where a band in the ‘A stop’ lane indicates an ‘A’, a band in the ‘C stop’ lane represents a ‘C’ and so on. In this manner it is possible to deduce the DNA sequence of the target template by identifying consecutive bands in one of the four lanes of the ladder. Since DNA synthesis occurs in the 5′ to 3′ direction, the sequence is read 5′ to 3′ from the bottom to the top (origin) of the gel. Although it was originally suited to the sequencing of single‐stranded DNA templates, there have been many advances in the chemistry of enzymatic sequencing, including the application of thermostable DNA polymerases and fluorescent dye‐terminators as used in automated DNA sequencers.
Direct Sequencing of PCR Products
Authors: Wilton S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Direct sequencing of PCR products allows immediate and detailed analysis of those particular fragments without the extra steps associated with cloning. Although cloning of PCR products is now routine, there are still extra steps (which may take several days) in obtaining the recombinant sequencing templates. In addition to this extra effort, it is then necessary to sequence at least four independent recombinants to ensure that the average sequence has been obtained, so as to detect differences in the cloned sequences reflecting errors introduced during the PCR. Prior to the introduction of the thermostable polymerases and cycle sequencing, double‐stranded sequencing of either PCR products or plasmid DNA was less efficient and more difficult than sequencing single‐stranded templates. Fluorescent sequencing chemistry and template preparation have advanced to such a state where it is now possible to generate hundreds of bases of sequence information from the same primers used in the original PCR. Further sequence information can be obtained using ‘internal’ primers.
Direct Labelling of Proteins with
125
I
Authors: Gjøen Tor , Berg Trond 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

To quantify binding to receptors and endocytosis of protein ligands, radioactive labelling with
125
I is still the most widely used technique. It combines high sensitivity with simple analysis and is the method of choice for most applications. Radioactive iodine can be directly coupled to tyrosine residues or via adducts that accumulate in the cells at their site of degradation.
Production of Monoclonal Antibodies
Authors: Liddell JE 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies are the secreted products of a hybridoma cell line that is created from the fusion of an antibody‐producing lymphocyte and a histocompatible myeloma cell. The hybrid cell inherits the ability to survive in tissue culture from the parent myeloma cell and the capacity to produce antibody from the parent lymphocyte. Each hybrid cell can develop into a clone of identical cells producing identical antibodies that bind to one epitope. Production of such monoclonal cell lines from the fusion mixture requires several rounds of dilution and selection on the basis of specific antibody secretion. Once established, the pure cell line can be stored frozen and recovered to produce unlimited quantities of identical antibodies as required. The vast majority of monoclonal antibodies are derived from mouse cells, although it is also possible to produce them from rat cells. There are a few human monoclonal antibodies derived from hybridomas, but these tend to be very difficult to establish and maintain. All the steps required to make mouse monoclonal antibodies are described here.
Denaturing Gel Electrophoresis of
RNA
and
DNA
Using Urea–Polyacrylamide Gels
Authors: Southern Edwin M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

At high concentrations, urea is able to denature both DNA and RNA and polyacrylamide gels containing urea at 7 mol L
−1
can be used to separate nucleic acids under denaturing conditions.
Nuclear Run‐on Assays
Authors: Bates N , Hurst H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The nuclear run‐on assay is used to measure the transcriptional activity of selected endogenous genes. Nuclei are isolated from appropriate cells using techniques that keep engaged RNA polymerase complexes bound to genomic DNA. Subsequent incubation with the four ribonucleotide triphosphates, one of which is radiolabelled, allows polymerase complexes to progress several hundred base pairs along the genome, producing short, radioactive RNA molecules. After purification, the RNA species of interest are detected by hybridization to appropriate DNA sequences immobilized on a membrane. The amount of specifically hybridized RNA is proportional to the number of engaged polymerase complexes and therefore reflects the transcriptional activity of the gene in the intact cell.
Electroblotting of Gels
Authors: Southern Edwin M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Quite often the gel electrophoretic migration pattern of individual components in a sample is determined not by analysing the gel but rather by analysing an image of the gel created by blotting the gel on to membrane. One of the simplest procedures is capillary blotting but this takes several hours and cannot be used with polyacrylamide gels. The transfer of nucleic acids can be speeded up by electroblotting.
Single‐step Method of Total RNA Isolation by Guanidine–Phenol Extraction
Authors: Chomczynski Piotr 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The single‐step method isolates total RNA from a variety of sources including tissues and cells from human, animal, plant, yeast, bacterial and viral origins. The method is based on liquid‐phase separation resulting in sequestration of pure RNA into the aqueous phase. RNA is precipitated from the aqueous phase, dissolved, reprecipitated and washed with alcohol. The entire procedure can be completed in less than 4 h.
Isolation of a Light Mitochondrial Fraction from a Homogenate
Authors: Graham John M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

A light mitochondrial fraction is one of the four principal fractions obtained by differential centrifugation of a mammalian tissue or cell homogenate. It is obtained by centrifugation of a 3000

g

supernatant at approx. 15 000

g

for 15 min. It contains principally the lighter mitochondria and most of the lysosomes and peroxisomes and any intact Golgi membranes and is used as a primary step in the purification of lysosomes and peroxisomes.
Electrophoresis of DNA and RNA in Non‐denaturing Vertical Polyacrylamide Gels
Authors: Southern Edwin M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Electrophoresis in non‐denaturing polyacrylamide gels is a simple and useful technique for analysing RNA and DNA of less than 1000 bp. Separations are generally not affected by hidden nicks in the molecules but are subject to conformational factors of individual molecules
Intestinal Epithelial Cells: Immunological Aspects
Authors: Stadnyk Andrew W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Intestinal epithelial cells are active participants in the inflammatory and immune response because they (1) secrete certain cytokines and (2) are capable of presenting antigens to T lymphocytes. Antigen presentation is a requirement in the initiation of a specific immune response, whether humoral (antibody) or cellular.
Chromosome Rearrangements
Authors: Savage John RK 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Structural changes in chromosomes can be induced by a wide variety of agents. Such changes, especially those that can be transmitted to future cell generations, play an important role in relation to genetic disease, congenital malformations and cancer. They are also used extensively for determining the extent of individual exposure in the case of radiation accident scenarios, and for environmental hazard screening in general.
Ribosomal RNA
Authors: Lafontaine Denis LJ , Tollervey David 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
All proteins are synthesized by ribosomes, large ribonucleic acid (RNA)–protein complexes that are the targets of several clinically relevant antibiotics. Ribosomes contain highly conserved ribosomal RNA (rRNA) species, which catalyse the key steps in protein synthesis, together with 70–80 proteins that play important roles in the correct folding and packaging of the rRNAs.
mRNA Splicing: Role of snRNAs
Authors: Padgett Richard A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Many small nuclear ribonucleic acids (snRNAs) of eukaryotic cells are involved in the maturation of primary transcripts of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Certain snRNAs are involved in the formation and function of the spliceosome, a large ribonucleoprotein structure in which pre‐mRNA splicing takes place.
Heterochromatin and Euchromatin
Authors: Eissenberg Joel C , Elgin Sarah C R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Eukaryotes are characterized by the extensive packaging of their genomes, initially in a nucleosomal array, and further into higher order domains. Differential packaging is used as a mechanism of gene regulation, with stable silencing of large domains achieved by packaging the DNA into a heterochromatic structure.
DNAPackaging in Sperm
Authors: Hennig Wolfgang 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe chromatin constitution of spermatozoa differs from that of all other cell types. The DNA is mainly associated with basic chromosomal proteins that are different from the otherwise universal histones, allowing packaging of the chromatin in a much smaller volume. Other biological functions in addition to a higher degree of chromatin compaction may be related to the difference in chromatin constitution but their nature is speculative.
Allergy
Authors: Hanson Lars Å 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Allergic diseases are defined as hypersensitivity reactions caused by the immune system reacting erroneously to external material to which it normally should not react. There are two types of allergic disease, of which the most common and complex are the atopic allergies such as asthma and hay fever. A smaller group of patients have contact dermatitis caused by delayed hypersensitivity reactions.
Protein Synthesis in Eukaryotes: IRES‐mediated Internal Initiation
Authors: Sonenberg Nahum 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Internal initiation is an alternative mechanism to the general pathway of translation initiation in eukaryotes and involves the internal binding of ribosomes to a specific sequence in the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) called the internal ribosome entry site (IRES). The mRNA 5′ cap structure and a cap‐binding protein, eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) 4E, play a key role in the canonical mechanism of translation initiation. However, internal initiation is independent of the cap structure and eIF4E. IRES‐mediated translation initiation has been documented for viral and cellular mRNAs, and functions during mitosis and stress conditions, such as apoptosis and hypoxia.
Base Excision Repair,
AP
Endonucleases and
DNA
Glycosylases
Authors: Sander Miriam , Wilson Samuel H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Base excision repair is an important cellular mechanism that protects the integrity of DNA by repairing damage caused by alkylating agents and reactive oxygen species. The altered DNA base, and in some cases a few nucleotides adjacent to the altered base, is removed by excision, and the DNA is repaired by DNA synthesis and ligation.
Developmentally Programmed
DNA
Rearrangements
Authors: Fillingham Jeffrey S , Pearlman Ronald E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Developmentally programmed DNA rearrangements are structural reorganizations of the genome that occur reproducibly during the development of a variety of organisms. In the majority of cases, programmed DNA rearrangements function to alter gene expression. However, in a few cases a putative function has yet to be ascribed to large‐scale developmentally programmed DNA rearrangements.
Adenosine Triphosphate
Authors: Cohn Mildred 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAdenosine triphosphate consists of the purine adenine linked through its N9 tod‐ribose via a β‐N‐glycosidic C(1′) linkage; the α‐phosphoryl group is linked via an ester linkage to the alcoholic O of ribose (C5′), and the β‐ and γ‐phosphoryl groups form anhydride bonds. The chemical energy stored in the anhydride bonds is released upon hydrolysis at the γ‐ or β‐phosphorus.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
: Applications
Authors: Pausch Mark H , Kirsch Donald R , Silverman Sanford J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
has traditionally found useful applications in the production of food and alcoholic beverages. The completed sequence of its genome has revolutionized the use of yeast as a model system for the investigation of eukaryotic cell processes at a whole‐genome level. The production of enzymes and recombinant proteins and the development of drug screening assays are commercial applications of yeast cells.
Radical Enzymes
Authors: Sjöberg Britt‐Marie , Sahlin Margareta 
Published: September 2006

AbstractRadical enzymes harbour a stable free radical in their polypeptide chain, which participates in catalysis. A growing number of enzymes are known to require a posttranslationally generated free radical for their proper functioning. The radical is generally used to remove a hydrogen atom from an unreactive position in the substrate, activating the substrate to undergo difficult chemistry. Some radical enzymes have unexpectedly been found to harbour a stable radical on an amino acid side‐chain that is distinct from the side‐chains of the active site region; during catalysis, the stable free radical interacts with the active site via electron or radical transfer and between turnovers it serves as a radical sink.
Cellulose: Structure and Distribution
Authors: Stone Bruce 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cellulose, a (1→4)‐β‐D‐glucan, is the most abundant carbohydrate polymer in the biosphere, where it may account for 50% of the carbon. Cellulose has a structural and protective function in walls of plant cells and surfaces of other organisms. The insolubility and high tensile strength of cellulosic materials arises from the regular, extended, ribbon‐like conformation of the individual molecules, their enormous lengths and their ability to aggregate into crystalline microfibrils.
Bacterial Restriction–Modification Systems
Authors: Gormley Niall A , Watson Mark A , Halford Stephen E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Restriction–modification systems allow bacterial cells to distinguish between their own DNA and any foreign DNA entering the cell, and to destroy the latter. They operate through two enzyme activities: a restriction endonuclease that cleaves the foreign DNA, and a modification methyltransferase that protects the host DNA.