bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Field Measurement of Effectiveness: Historical Review and Examination of Analytical Methods
Authors: Fingas MF 
Published: December 2008

Data are provided on 106 separate offshore experimental spills to determine dispersant field effectiveness. Effectiveness ratings for 25 of these spills were assigned by the experimenters; they vary from 0 to 100% and have an average of 33%.
Measurement techniques used for these experiments are reviewed and described. The techniques include: subsurface measurements to determine oil in the water column, surface sampling to determine oil remaining, dispersant application amount or distribution, and the use of remote sensing to observe visually the results or to quantify the area of surface oil. Existing means of detection and quantification appear to be effective.
Most experimenters have used subsurface oil data in an attempt to establish a mass balance and thereby an effectiveness value. This technique is critically examined using values from historical trials, and it is shown that the subsurface oil does not have a regular distribution in relation to the surface slick. Correlation cannot be established between concentrations at depth or with time and distance. This lack of correlation implies that mass balance values based on subsurface oil concentrations in relation to the surface slick are not reliable. Effectiveness results claimed in the literature are also suspect because they do not correlate well with the maximum oil concentration seen at a given depth.
The mathematical relationships used to provide the integrated amount of oil in the water column are also examined. It is shown by simulation that effectiveness claimed is highly sensitive to both assumptions and mathematical treatment. Historical data are used to show that effectiveness values can vary over an order of magnitude depending on the algorithm used. Values in the literature are generally the highest one would obtain using reasonable algorithms.
A number of phenomena have been observed at spill sites. Herding of oil occurs immediately after dispersant application and has sometimes been misinterpreted as dispersion.
Examinations of spills where slicks were monitored for longer than 3 h show that extensive resurfacing of oil occurred. Resurfacing is particularly problematic because, depending on current and wind, resurfacing may occur outside slick boundaries. When this occurs, resurfaced oil is not included in subsequent calculations, and consequently, effectiveness is overestimated.
Field effectiveness cannot be reliably determined by using only measurements of oil in the water column. The distribution of oil in the water column is not known nor does it necessarily bear a relationship to surface slick boundaries. Furthermore, in the initial hours—perhaps as many as 7—the oil concentration in the water column may be transitory as significant amounts of oil resurface. Remote sensing over a long term such as two or three days is suggested as the primary technique for monitoring experimental spills and for attempting to establish a mass balance.
Test Approach for Dense Slurry Erosion
Authors: Roco MC , Nair P , Addie GR 
Published: December 2008

The paper presents two test devices to simulate erosion wear by friction and by impact in dense slurry flow. The empirical coefficients determined experimentally are introduced in a predictive model, which numerically simulates the wear by directional impact of solid particles, random impact, and coulombic friction. The last two components are specific for high concentrated slurries (C ≳ 5 to 10% by volume).
The device for erosion by friction has a moving frame with a fast oscillating motion in a horizontal plane. The layer of abrasive particles slides on the bottom side, where the exposed specimens are located. Tests performed with alumina and sand particles are discussed.
The directional and random impacts are both simulated on an inclined wall, which divides into two parts a confined jet of suspension. The experimental results are illustrated for four worn materials under the impingement of a sand-water slurry stream.
The equivalence between the energy dissipated by particles-wall interactions and erosion intensity gives a unified way to determine all erosion components. The suggested test devices provide the coefficients of proportionality. The approach can be used for the dense slurry flows usually encountered in industrial applications, for various flow regimes and wall geometries.
Collision Injuries in Alpine Skiing
Authors: Lystad H 
Published: December 2008

A controlled study of collision injuries in Hemsedal, Norway, is presented. Accident data for 1982 through 1986 seasons were analyzed. A total of 883 injured skiers and 379 controls were compared for epidemiological data.
Eighteen percent (n = 158) of the injuries were due to collision. There was a great difference in collision injury rate during the recording time. A peak injury rate of 0.27/1000 skier days in 1984 when a new chairlift doubled the lift capacity without opening any new slopes declined to 0.11/ 1000 skier days in 1986 after making new slopes and widening old ones.
Beginners and children were more at risk, and 28% of the injured by collision suffered a head injury.
In conclusion, different degrees of difficulty of the slopes give a better separation between the different skiing-ability groups, and wider slopes reduce relatively the “collision zone” at the tree/ slope border. This results in safer skiing on each slope.
Reliability Testing of Seven Nondestructive Pavement Testing Devices
Authors: Bentsen RA , Nazarian S , Harrison JA 
Published: December 2008

Nondestructive pavement testing devices produce and collect deflection data using methods unique to each device. Loadings are produced on various-sized loaded areas by vibratory motions of various loads and frequencies and also by dropping masses from various heights. Deflections are measured using various types of deflection sensors.
Data from three vibratory loading and four falling weight loading nondestructive pavement testing devices are evaluated and compared for accuracy, reliability, and repeatability. The loading output of each device is compared to the output of a load cell placed under the loaded area. The output of the deflection gauges at varied load levels is compared to the output from both a linear variable differential transformer placed under the gauge and a transducer placed next to the gauge. The repeatability of each device to produce consistent and accurate data at one location on various pavement types is determined by loading that location many times in a short period of time. The long-term repeatability of each device is determined by loading a specific location many times over a long period of time. Conclusions are drawn for each device concerning its reliability for producing accurate loading and deflection output and its repeatability for producing accurate results over time.
ILLI-PAVE Based NDT Analysis Procedures
Authors: Thompson MR 
Published: December 2008

ILLI-PAVE (a stress-dependent, finite-element pavement model)-based procedures have been developed for flexible pavement analysis and design. Full-depth asphalt concrete (AC), AC granular base, and AC high-strength stabilized base (HSSB) type pavements can be considered. Pertinent ILLI-PAVE inputs are the moduli of the AC and stabilized base layers and ERi (the stress-dependent subgrade resilient modulus).
ILLI-PAVE data bases were used to develop direct plot procedures and algorithms for backcalculatirtg pavement layer and subgrade moduli from falling weight deflectometer (FWD) type nondestructive testing (NDT) data. FWD 9-kip surface deflection basin measurements (at 0, 12, 24, and 36-in. offsets) and AREA (a calculated deflection basin parameter) are the required plot and/or algorithm inputs.
Stress Dependency of the (Sand) Subgrade Modulus by the Dead Weight of the Pavement Layers: Field Experiments with the Falling Weight Deflectometer
Authors: Pronk AC 
Published: December 2008

In the Netherlands nearly all pavements for motorways and highways can be modelled into a three-layer system: 1. A wearing and base course of asphalt concrete. 2. A Base of (un)bound material. 3. A subbase and subgrade of sand.
In situ deflection measurements can be used for the backcalculation of the moduli of the separate pavement layers including the subgrade. Sand is an unbound granular material, and therefore its modulus ought to be stress dependent. This dependency is rarely noticed when falling weight deflection (FWD) measurements are carried out on a pavement at different force levels. Also, within the measurement on the asphalt surfacing (I) of the sections at issue, no changes were obtained in the backcalculated subgrade moduli when the applied FWD load was varied. However, when the wearing course and base course had been removed carefully, a significant decrease was noticed in the backcalculated subgrade moduli from the FWD measurement carried out on the bound base (II) compared to the values gained from the measurement on the asphalt surfacing (I). But when the load was varied again no significant changes were observed in the backcalculated moduli. The decrease in the subgrade moduli of Measurement I and Measurement II can be explained by assuming a stress dependency for the subgrade modulus. The difference in the subgrade modulus found in both measurements is caused by the difference in the dead weight of the overlaying construction layers. The problem is that this stress dependency will not be found when the load is varied and a backcalculation procedure is used which is based on curve fitting.
An explanation is given why this stress dependency of the subgrade modulus will be overlooked in the backcalculation procedure of FWD measurements at different force levels. Also, a backcalculation procedure is proposed, using a simple model for the stress-dependent character of the subgrade modulus, in which the road can still be considered as a linear elastic multilayer system.
SHRP Plans for Nondestructive Deflection Testing in the Development of Pavement Performance Prediction Models
Authors: Richter CA , Rauhut JB 
Published: December 2008

Nondestructive deflection testing using falling weight deflectometers is one element of the monitoring effort planned by the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) for the Long-Term Pavement Performance Studies (LTPP). Nondestructive deflection testing provides data for the backcalculation of moduli for the various pavement structural layers, as well as critically important data on material variability that is expected to be an important independent variable in future pavement performance prediction models. The backcalculated layer moduli are critical to the development of calibrated mechanistic-empirical models for a variety of uses. These moduli must be calculated using standard procedures representing the state of the art. Current studies are aimed at identifying specific problems leading to unacceptable variations in backcalculated moduli when using different computer codes and closure tolerances. It is expected that these studies will provide a wealth of information which will be useful as SHRP planning for the use of deflection testing proceeds. Backcalculated moduli from measurements at a number of locations within a test section are to be used to establish the mean, minimum, maximum, and standard deviation of moduli for each layer. In addition, it is planned that four drop heights will be used to apply four different load levels at a single location. Four load levels should provide the variations in layer moduli with stress sensitivity.
Presently it is planned to use nondestructive testing to study variations in deflections and moduli on a seasonal basis, especially variations through the spring thaw in northern climates. These studies should provide critically important information that has been a severe limiting factor in past attempts to predict the performance of pavements subjected to spring thaw conditions. While major damage occurs to pavements during the spring thaw, these conditions have never been adequately accounted for on a mechanistic basis.
This paper summarizes current (as of Spring 1988) SHRP planning for the utilization of nondestructive deflection testing in their Long-Term Pavement Performance Studies. The plans presented herein are preliminary. It is hoped that this presentation will generate comments as well as constructive criticism, which might be incorporated into SHRP plans before work has progressed to a point where changes are difficult to make.
Characterization and Control of Solidified Radioactive Wastes According to the Italian Rules: Organization of a Characterization Facility and First Results
Authors: Ricci GA , Donato A 
Published: December 2008

According to Technical Guide No. 26, officially published in 1987 by the Italian Regulatory Body (ENEA-DISP), the radioactive wastes are now classified in Italy in accordance with the identities and the concentrations of radionuclides, no distinction being made from the point of view of the physical state.
Three “radwaste” categories have been established: The first refers to wastes that decay below exemption limits for free discharge, as defined by current Italian laws, within a few months or within a few years, maximum. The second category of radwastes, which is the most important in terms of overall production, refers to those wastes whose radioactivity decays to radioactive levels comparable with the exemption limits set up for natural radioactive solids within a few centuries, maximum. The radwastes falling into this second category, which are generated mainly by nuclear power plants, must be solidified by means of suitable solidification agents such as cement, bitumen, or polymers. Moreover, a test program must be performed to assure the compliance of the waste forms with a set of specified waste form characteristics.
The third category of radwastes refers to the high-activity liquids arising from the first cycle of the fuel reprocessing facilities and to the alpha-bearing wastes.
The tests to be applied for the characteristics control of real radioactive solidified wastes of the second category are briefly described. They require, in some cases, that a noncommercial apparatus be operated in radiation-controlled areas. A glove-box chain, also suitable for the characterization of solidified alpha wastes, has been designed and built.
The first characterization test campaign has been carried out on radwastes produced by boiling water reactor power plants solidified in cement and the results are presented.
The Canadian Standards Association and the Evolution of Head and Face Protection in Canadian Hockey
Authors: Dixon JL 
Published: December 2008

The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) is Canada's foremost and best-known standards development, certification, testing, and inspection organization. CSA has published over 1300 standards in 8 major areas. About one third of these standards are referenced in legislation. Standards benefit society in many ways. They provide protection, guide purchasing, enhance interchangeability, compatibility, and reliability, and they have many other advantages.
The development of a standard involves committees, public reviews, consumer group reviews, and other activities.
In 1959, the need for quality hockey helmets was identified. Their design improved over the years, particularly in terms of impact attenuation. The first CSA standard was published in 1975. Many improvements in the standard have been made since then.
In 1973, the need for quality hockey face protectors was identified, and a CSA standard was published in 1978 to address this need.
Since the inception of these CSA standards, eye injuries and blind eyes have been dramatically reduced. All players who suffered eye injuries and blinded eyes had not worn CSA-certified face protectors.
In 1979, the need for international standards on protective equipment for hockey was identified. The first ISO/TC83/SC5 meeting was held in Ottawa, Canada, where the first drafts of hockey helmet and face protector standards were completed. The second meeting was held during August 1988 in Helsinki, Finland, and the third meeting was held in Stockholm, Sweden, during April 1989. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards are expected to be published in 1991–1992.
Facially-featured headforms have been developed to test hockey helmets and face protectors accurately.
Testing, certification, inspections, audits, and investigations are also services provided by CSA in support of their standards work.
The institution of standards followed by the certification of products have proven to be effective in reducing sports injuries.
Effect of Aggregates on Performance of Bituminous Concrete
Authors: Brown ER , McRae JL , Crawley AB 
Published: December 2008

Because aggregate comprises approximately 95% of asphalt mixtures, it has a major effect on the performance of mixtures. The quality of filler and amount of filler greatly affect asphalt concrete performance. To insure satisfactory performance, procedures must be available that can be used to detect poor-quality mixtures and there must be techniques available for improving mixture properties.
The objective of this paper is to present data from various studies that show the effect of aggregate grading on performance of asphalt mixtures. Test methods to evaluate these mixture properties are discussed.
A well-graded, crushed aggregate should be used to provide the highest-quality asphalt concrete. Uncrushed aggregates such as natural sands and uncrushed gravels produce mixtures with lower stability and decreased durability, whereas a well-graded aggregate fits together more tightly during compaction, resulting in a lower required asphalt content and improved stability and durability.
The maximum aggregate size is important to control stability, skid resistance, and compactibility of the mixture. A larger maximum size aggregate produces a higher stability and usually requires less asphalt content. The larger size aggregate also provides for improved skid resistance. Compaction of thin layers is difficult when the maximum aggregate size is too small. The compacted lift thickness should be at least twice the maximum aggregate size.
The amount of mineral filler in a mixture greatly affects the overall mix quality. Since the filler tends to fill the voids in the mineral aggregates, an increase in filler results in a corresponding decrease in optimum asphalt content. Laboratory test results also indicate that a mixture design performed for an aggregate with higher filler content will result in a significantly higher stability than that for lower filler content. The type of filler used also affects the mixture properties.
The quality of the aggregate must be controlled to insure a quality asphalt concrete. Some properties that must be considered are maximum aggregate size, amount of crushed particles, and amount and quality of filler.
Measuring the Susceptibility of Emulsion Based Seal Coats to Debonding
Authors: Selim AA , Heidari NA 
Published: December 2008

Asphalt mixes, hot and cold, can experience bond loss due to moisture damage, a phenomenon called “debonding” or “stripping.” Debonding in hot mixes has been given more attention by researchers than debonding in cold mixes and seal coats, and there has been no documented methodology to quantify bond loss in seal coats. This report contains a description of a newly developed laboratory test experiment called Seal Coat Debonding Test (SDT) to examine the extent of seal coat susceptibility to moisture damage.
When the test was performed on several emulsion based seal-coat specimens, with asphalt emulsion binder, the nature of the outcome strongly suggested dividing seal coats into three categories according to their degree of vulnerability (DV) to moisture damage. Highly vulnerable seal coats are those that experience a loss of aggregate of more than 20% (based on the weight of the base bitumen and the totally intact aggregate). Moderately vulnerable seal coats lose more than 10% and up to 20%, and low vulnerable seal coats lose up to 10%.
The test is relatively easy to conduct and is considered unique in the sense that no similar tests are currently in use to quantify the amount of bond loss in seal coats. The test is applicable only to seal coats using asphalt emulsion as a binder.
Using the Classification of Corrosivity of Atmospheres to Extend the Service Life of Materials, Structures, and Products
Authors: Vrobel L , Knotkova D 
Published: December 2008

The resistance of products to atmospheric degradation is an important quality consideration. In Czechoslovakia, corrosion protection is considered to be an integral element of quality. The corrosion protection system is verified after each production step. The quality of the corrosion protection system is also confirmed by authorized state and departmental testing laboratories. Commissions of large industries concerned with atmospheric effects provide consultation and expert advice, especially in the application of international, national, and departmental standards and regulation.
The assurance of product corrosion resistance is an integral part of the quality control process. A system of coordinated standards covering general principles regulates construction, design, selection of materials, and protection systems. Emphasis is placed on the standardization of quality testing methods. Department and industry standards are now being developed. The physical and chemical principles of corrosion are incorporated in the approach used in these standards.
Every product is exposed to the atmosphere, either during manufacture or during its service life. The atmospheric environment varies from place to place and moment to moment. To select corrosion protection measures rationally for construction materials, it is necessary to know how the various atmospheric factors affect materials and the protective systems that are used with them. The generalization of this knowledge regarding the kinetics of the degradation of materials and protective systems, with information on the influence of the atmospheric factors, permits a practical classification system for atmospheric corrosivity to be developed. The essence of this classification system has been incorporated in national and international standards.
Active international cooperation among twelve member nations has allowed the International Standards Organization Technical Committee 156, Working Group 4 to produce four draft standards. This work summarizes many years of independent effort by the members.
The technique of classification of the corrosivity of the atmosphere is useful in making maps showing the corrosivity distribution for regions. It is also helpful in the detailed mapping of localities with variations in pollution levels. This approach is also used to select optimum corrosion protection measures and to develop testing procedures for products exposed to the atmosphere.