bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Laser Mass Spectrometry in Trace Analysis
Authors: Boesl Ulrich , Heger Hans‐Jörg , Zimmermann Ralf , Nagel Holger , Püffel Peter 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Laser mass spectrometry (laser‐MS) in molecular trace analysis involves two analytical tools: Ultraviolet (UV)‐spectroscopy in the gas phase and time‐of‐flight mass selection. Both tools are combined by resonance‐enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI). This type of mass spectrometry is therefore called resonant laser‐MS in the following text. The special features of resonant laser‐MS are high selectivity, rapidity, multicomponent capacity, and adaptability for application to many different problems. Beneath the fundamental principle of this analytical technique (i.e. REMPI and time‐of‐flight mass selection) several options are described in this article, such as medium or high resolution of mass selection and UV‐spectroscopy. These options allow more or less sophisticated instrumentation and optimized adaptation to specific analytical problems. The reader will be introduced to the principles of resonant laser‐MS and then to its history and the state‐of‐the‐art of its application. This organization should help the reader to recognize the importance of the early experiments and of modern tendencies for application of laser‐MS in trace analysis. The large experimental and instrumental variety and the tables of numerous researchers and applications presented in section 3 may demonstrate the flexibility and growing acceptance of resonant laser‐MS. The examples presented, which illustrate the usefulness of resonant laser‐MS in practice, include on‐line trace analysis of emissions from combustion processes, e.g. from combustion engines or municipal incinerators. The article ends with a discussion of possible calibration processes, detection limits, and a summary of specific features.
Ultraviolet/Visible Light Detection and Ranging Applications in Air Monitoring
Authors: Wolf J.‐P. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractRecent progress in light detection and ranging (LIDAR) and differential absorption light detection and ranging (DIAL) technology has allowed three‐dimensional (3‐D) mappings of concentrations of air pollutants to be obtained at the highest sensitivity (parts per billion) and over large distances (several kilometers). It is now possible to monitor on‐line spatial distributions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, ozone, benzene, toluene, and aerosols. With the advent of new tunable all‐solid‐state laser systems, such as vibronic lasers and optical parametric oscillators (OPOs), LIDAR systems have furthermore reached the highest industrial standards in terms of reliability and ease of operation. An overview of results and capabilities of “all‐solid‐state” LIDAR/DIAL systems is presented. The examples of application include detailed urban studies performed in large cities (e.g. Berlin, Leipzig, Lyon, Stuttgart, Geneva, Athens, Seville), with special attention to the first direct access to smog formation processes and tropospheric ozone generation. Industrial applications are also numerous, such as site monitoring, identification of diffuse emissions, and evaluation of the impact of new emitters through plume dispersion studies. The use of LIDAR systems to validate numerical models is also discussed. The last section is dedicated to the calibration of the systems, intercomparison with standard analyzers, and legal aspects in terms of certification and new standards.
Luminescence in Environmental Analysis
Authors: Campiglia Andres D. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAn overview of the applications of photoluminescence techniques for the analysis of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) in environmental samples is presented. The basic experimental procedures of several techniques, such as room‐temperature fluorimetry, low‐temperature phosphorimetry (LTP), micelle‐stabilized room‐temperature phosphorimetry (MSRTP), sensitized room‐temperature phosphorimetry (RTP), solid‐surface room‐temperature phosphorimetry (SSRTP), and Shpol'skii spectrometry at 77 K are provided. Analytical figures of merit, such as linear dynamic ranges (LDRs) of calibration curves, limits of detection, and relative standard deviations (RSDs), are compared. Basic spectrofluorimeters for direct laboratory analysis of organic pollutants and instrumental systems utilized for chromatographic detection are discussed. Emphasis to portable devices using laser excitation is given to illustrate the usefulness of photoluminescence techniques for field and remote analysis of contaminated sites. Specific examples of emerging technology developed in the author's laboratory are presented to illustrate recent advances in photoluminescence analysis of environmental samples.
Biological Samples in Environmental Analysis: Preparation and Cleanup
Authors: Barker Steven A. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe most difficult samples to analyze are those derived from biological sources. The analysis of biological samples requires the ability to extract and isolate a wide range of environmental pollutants from an even wider range of matrices, from simple bacteria to tissues and fluids from humans, from fungi to the complex tissues and structures of the plants and products that compose the food chain. These matrices comprise a variety of cells, connective tissues and fibers, fluids and related materials that introduce literally thousands of different organic and inorganic compounds to every analysis effort. In order to recognize and assess the nature and severity of pollution and its impact on humans as well as the flora and fauna that constitute our environment, highly efficient and selective methods for the extraction and cleanup of such samples must be developed. New developments in analytical science have been brought to bear on this problem, speeding the extraction and analysis process while making the resulting analyses more sensitive and selective. The present article examines the historical approach to the extraction and cleanup of biological samples for the analysis of pollutants, and reviews recent advances in technology and methodology that have proven applicable to this field.
Capillary Electrophoresis Coupled to Inductively Coupled Plasma‐Mass Spectrometry for Elemental Speciation Analysis
Authors: Wang Xiaoru , Lee Frank Sen‐Chun 
Published: September 2006

AbstractSpeciation analysis is a term commonly used to describe the analytical processes of identifying and measuring the different chemical forms of trace elements in the sample. Starting from the mid‐1980s, analytical techniques for elemental speciation analysis have been advancing at an accelerated pace owing to the rapid advancement in analytical instrumentation. Such advancement is especially evident in the development of hyphenated techniques, which involve the on‐line coupling of a species‐specific separation device with an elemental‐specific detection system. They are now well accepted as the methods of choice for speciation analysis because of their speed, sensitivity, specificity and resolution. Capillary electrophoresis/inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (CE/ICPMS) is one of the newest members of this family of hyphenated techniques which has found increasing applications in speciation analysis in recent years. Until today, chromatography has been the dominant separation technique in hyphenated techniques and the subject has been extensively reviewed. However, literature information on capillary electrophoresis (CE)‐based hyphenated techniques is much less available. In this chapter, the current status of CE/ICPMS will be reviewed with emphasis being placed on the interface design, analytical performance and applications of the different versions of the technique in speciation analysis.
Detection and Quantification of Environmental Pollutants
Authors: Gibbons Robert D. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
With increasing concern over chemicals that are potential health hazards at low levels, determination of limits of detection and quantification have undergone considerable scrutiny. Most traditional detection limit (DL) estimators suffer from extensive statistical and/or conceptual limitations. In this article, traditional detection and quantification limit estimators are described and critically evaluated. Methods are categorized into decision limits, DLs and quantification limits. The methods are further categorized into single concentration design versus calibration design methodologies. While the single concentration design methods are useful for fixing ideas and clarifying definitions they are shown to be extremely limited in practice since dependence of variability on concentration can be neither estimated nor incorporated. Calibration‐based detection and quantification limit estimators are described, compared and contrasted. Discussion of nonconstant variance, multiple future detection decisions and simultaneous control of Type I and II errors is provided. The various methods are illustrated using real data and experimental design issues for DL studies discussed.
Dioxin‐Like Compounds, Screening Assays
Authors: Bunce Nigel J. , Petrulis John R. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractA dioxin‐like compound (DLC) is a halogenated aromatic compound that has toxicological properties similar to those of the reference toxicant 2,3,7,8‐tetrachlorodibenzo‐p‐dioxin (TCDD). The DLCs include other halogenated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins and dibenzofurans (especially those that are chlorinated in the 2‐,3‐,7‐, and 8‐positions), and coplanar polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). They associate with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) protein, and share some biological end‐points with TCDD, notably the induction of Phase 1 monooxygenase enzymes. Because DLCs normally occur as complex mixtures in environmental and biological samples, it is common to refer to the TCDD equivalent concentration [toxic equivalence (TEQ)], which is obtained by summing for each congener its actual amount or concentration by an empirical toxic equivalency factor (TEF). Conventional analysis of DLCs by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) is cumbersome and expensive, and much attention has been given to developing bioassays that will yield a measure of the TEQ in a single determination. Many such bioassays are mechanism‐based, meaning that the assay end‐point is one of the steps along the pathway of the mechanism of action.This article begins with an overview of bioassay methods in general, pointing out similarities and differences between chemical assays and bioassays, before describing particular assays that have been developed for DLCs. Among mechanism‐based assays, AhR binding assays are well established, and are useful because they include the dioxin‐like activity of both productive and unproductive compounds. In assays based on subsequent stages of the mechanism of action, unproductive substances can antagonize the responses of productive compounds, a phenomenon that is explicable in terms of target molecule antagonism, in which the AhR protein is the target molecule.Immunoassays for DLCs have recently received much attention; although their spectrum of cross‐reactivity does not always correlate well with TEFs, there has been important recent progress in terms of the sensitivity and detection limit (DL) of these assays. Finally, early life stage bioassays are becoming increasingly important as research has revealed the toxicological effects of DLCs during development.
Dyes, Environmental Analysis of
Authors: Riu J. , Barceló D. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAn overview of current analytical methodologies for the determination of dyes in environmental samples is presented. Conventional analytical methods involving liquid chromatography (LC) and mass spectrometry (MS) with thermospray (TSP) interface are reviewed as well as the newly developed methods using atmospheric pressure ionization (API) interfaces. The combination of capillary electrophoresis (CE) with MS as a new alternative for the analysis and confirmation of polar compounds (and particularly the sulfonated azo dyes) in environmental samples is also discussed. Finally, the extraction and preconcentration of dyes from water samples involving various solid‐phase extraction (SPE) cartridges are commented upon.
Flow‐Injection Techniques in Environmental Analysis
Authors: Burguera J.L. , Burguera M. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAn overview is given on the most important applications of flow‐injection (FI) systems developed for environmental materials, highlighting their main basic components and modes. Also, the article systematically describes the different FI manifolds coupled to spectrometric or electrochemical (EQ) detectors used for the determination of analyte species to offer diverse solutions in the analysis of various samples.
Inorganic Analysis in Environmental Samples by Capillary Electrophoresis
Authors: Kim Yangsun 
Published: September 2006

AbstractCapillary electrophoresis (CE) is a very useful technique which involves the separation of charged species (molecules) on the basis of their movement under the influence of an applied electric field in a capillary format. CE has been developed into rapid, highly effective techniques with extremely high separation power (105–107theoretical plates) and high mass sensitivity (femtomole to zeptomole amounts of substances in nanoliter to picoliter sample volumes) with high potential for separation in the analysis of environmental sample. CE has been compared with ion chromatography (IC) in the inorganic analysis of environmental samples since inorganic ions are usually separated by IC with suppressed conductivity detection. The advantages of CE compared to IC are speed, resolution, and the lack of a need for gradient elution. Operating costs are considerably lower, since ion‐exchange columns are usually expensive. In application, however, limitations imposed by the lack of detection sensitivity complicate the technique's use and impede its wide acceptance. However, as instrumental development continues (especially in detection mode and other techniques for manipulating sensitivity), this limitation will most likely be overcome and a diversity of inorganic species in real samples has already been proved to be amenable to the analysis by CE, and more can be expected in the years ahead.In this article, to understand how CE can be applied to separation and detection of inorganic ions of environmental sample, the basic principles underlying this technique and the operating parameters of CE for inorganic analysis of environmental samples are presented. For trace analysis of environmental samples, methods for manipulating the sensitivity and selectivity control for metal ions are discussed. Techniques such as the coupling of CE with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) are also discussed. Specific applications in real world samples which have complex matrices as well as artificial samples or reference materials are offered to demonstrate the potential of CE in the analysis of environmental pollutants.
Ion‐Selective Electrodes in Environmental Analysis
Authors: Forster Robert J. , Keyes Tia E. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

An ion‐selective electrode (ISE) is an electroanalytical sensor that produces a potential whose magnitude is dictated by the activity of a small number of ions. The signal is generated by selective partitioning of a charged analyte across the sample–electrode interface. These sensors allow a wide range of environmental pollutants to be detected and quantified rapidly, sensitively and selectively.1 The
ideal
ISE can be inserted into the sample and will display the result of the chemical analysis within a few seconds with high precision and selectivity. Often no sampling, dilution or reagent addition is required, and changes in the analyte concentration or activity can be displayed in real time. Beyond the classical glass pH electrode invented in the early 1900s, the field now includes electrodes with several selective membranes for both sensing analytes and eliminating interferences, as well as ion‐selective field‐effect transistors (ISFETs). These new sensing approaches have greatly extended the range of environmentally relevant molecules that can be measured, and sensors exist for environmental pollutants as diverse as atmospheric carbon dioxide and radionucleotides in highly acidic solutions.
Mercury Analysis in Environmental Samples by Cold Vapor Techniques
Authors: Anderson Kim A. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The accurate, precise, and automated determination of mercury in biological and environmental samples is complex, not only because of the various oxidation states of mercury (i.e. 0, I and II), but also because of biotic and abiotic methylation and the volatility of several forms of mercury(I and II). Mercury is unique among the metals because of its large vapor pressure at ambient conditions. Mercuric ions in solution can be reduced by tin(II), or sodium borohydride to produce volatile elemental mercury, referred to as the cold vapor process. The mercury is swept out of solution with a carrier gas (in the gas of sodium borohydride, the byproduct is hydrogen) into the cell (or torch) where the atomic absorption (or fluorescence, or emission) is measured. The cold vapor technique removes the mercury from the sample matrix, concentrates the mercury in the analytical sample into a small plug of carrier gas, and provides for a relatively long residence time. Detection limits vary depending on the instrument but are in the submicrogram to nanogram per liter range for atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), atomic fluorescence spectrometry (AFS), and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICPAES).
Neutron Activation in Environmental Analysis
Authors: Randle Keith 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAfter a brief historical survey of the role of neutron activation analysis (NAA) in environmental analysis there follows a section on the main types of NAA and their application to environmental problems and a table of ideal sensitivities is given. The rest of the article deals with NAA as it is applied to the main divisions of the environment. Each of these sections includes a short summary of the sampling requirements suitable for NAA. Section 3 deals with its application to biological samples and includes a brief discussion on standard reference materials (SRMs) in NAA. Applications to various types of biological material are discussed, ending with a survey of biomonitoring using NAA. The next section (the longest) is the analysis of water by NAA. This is mainly based on the preconcentration and postirradiation procedures currently used for the major types of water (seawater, surface water and underground water). A table of element concentrations in seawater and surface water illustrates the low limits of detection required to determine many trace elements by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). Applications are discussed in the main body of the text. There then follows a section on the use of NAA in air particulate analysis for trace elements. The importance of PM10s (particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 µm) to human health and the reasons for concentrating on the analysis of these particles by NAA is discussed. Having discussed the main areas of NAA used there follows an application section. Large‐scale biomonitoring procedures are outlined, particularly those involving plant materials. The final section on major environmental divisions covers the use of NAA in analysis of soils and sediments together with the analysis of coal. This latter topic also includes on‐line analysis of coal using isotope sources. Finally, there is a discussion of speciation and the function of NAA in environmental speciation, particularly atmospheric and aqueous speciation analysis.
Nitroaromatics, Environmental Analysis of
Authors: Schmidt Torsten C. , Steinbach Klaus , Bütehorn Ulf 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Nitroaromatic compounds (NACs) are important anthropogenic chemicals, which may enter all areas of the environment in significant amounts. Once there, they may be transformed, mainly via redox reactions. Most NACs and their transformation products are rather toxic, both in humans and ecosystems, and they are especially known for their carcinogenic potential. Thus, input and detrimental effects of NACs make environmental surveillance necessary, which in turn requires selective, sensitive, unbiased and robust methods suitable for the analysis of complex mixtures. These requirements are mainly fulfilled by the combination of an enrichment step with chromatographic separation and use of an appropriate detector. Official methods today use liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) or solid‐phase extraction (SPE), followed by high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet (UV) detection, or gas chromatography (GC) with electron capture detection (ECD). These methods are widely established and have been thoroughly tested in interlaboratory comparisons. However, new methods for extraction, separation and detection are emerging, which are superior in terms of the required characteristics, and thus may replace the existing methods in the future. Both standard methods and new developments for the environmental analysis of NACs are discussed in this article. Regarding the references given, priority was given to the most recent developments, and thus about 70% of the cited literature is less than five years old.
Optical Emission Inductively Coupled Plasma in Environmental Analysis
Authors: Tatro Mark E. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The ability of the ICP/AES (inductively coupled plasma/atomic emission spectroscopy) system to perform multielement trace metal analysis of environmental samples provided commercial laboratories with the needed incentive to enter into the business of trace metal analysis. Previously, trace metals were typically analyzed using colorimetric techniques, which were both cumbersome and subject to interferences, or flame atomic absorption techniques, which although almost interference free, were labor intensive owing to their one element at a time analytical mode. Even the furnace atomic absorption technique, for years the standard bearer of low‐level trace metal analysis, is giving way to axial viewed ICP/AES techniques.
Taking the USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) SW‐846 solid waste analysis manual as an example, this article reviews the methods used for the preparation of samples and the ICP/AES analysis of the prepared samples for trace metals in environmental matrices. The review includes a detailed overview of the quality control (QC) requirements for environmental ICP/AES analysis.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls Analysis in Environmental Samples
Authors: van Bavel Bert , Tysklind Mats , Lindström Gunilla 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The analysis of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in a wide variety of environmental samples is discussed, starting with the more traditional methodology and moving on to more recent developments that are expected to continue in the twenty‐first century. Several detection techniques, including gas chromatography (GC) coupled with electron capture detection (ECD) and mass spectrometry (MS), are described in the first part of this article. The use of MS as a detection technique is discussed in detail, from both a qualitative and a quantitative point of view. To a large extent the detection technique used determines the sample pretreatment and clean‐up, and in later paragraphs column clean‐up on adsorbents is discussed, including fat removal, alumina column chromatography and planar separation on carbon. A new methodology for the analysis of PCBs in environmental samples is also described. Both speed of analysis using gas chromatography/time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry (GC/TOFMS) and environmentally friendly analysis using supercritical CO
2
are discussed in detail. In the last section several aspects of quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) are discussed using an international intercalibration study as an example.