PALAEOECOLOGY OF THE GRAPTOLITHINA, AN EXTINCT CLASS OF THE PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA
Authors: RICKARDS R. B. 
Published: January 2008

Summary1. Whatever heirarchical system of classifying graptolites is adopted, perhaps even raising them to the rank of phylum, the hemichordates including Rhabdopleura and Cephalodiscus remain their closest relatives.2. Benthonic graptolites preceded and outlasted the planktonic graptolites which exhibited spectacular morphological changes related to a change to a holoplanktonic mode of life and a probable hermaphroditism.3. The resorption of the narrow‐end of the larval skeleton (prosicular cauda) enabled the construction by an outer layer of secreting tissue (extrathecal tissue) of a hollow nema, the dark hollow rod which supported gas‐filled tissue and which in turn conferred buoyancy on the colony.4. The nema provided access to the exterior of the colony for extrathecal tissue which began to strengthen the outside of the prosicular and metasicular parts of the larval skeleton with laminated cortical deposits before the first non‐sicular individual of the colony was budded.5. Attachment of the larval stage in those graptolites having a basal disc or ‘roots’ was by the first‐formed extrathecal tissue through a resorbed cauda.6. Initial attachment of the larval stage in certain encrusting graptolites such as Idiotubus may have been by a larval individual lacking any scleroprotein periderm as a skeletal sheath.7. After initial attachment the extrathecal tissue continued to secrete additional layers of cortical tissue mostly for the purposes of strengthening the colony.8. Feeding in graptolites was by ciliated lophophore often positioned so as to take maximum advantage of currents flowing from the dorsal to the ventral side of the colony, for example in Dictyonema and Monograptus.9. The main function of the nema, particularly of those nemata bearing vanes, was as a support for vacuolated tissue which imparted a holoplanktonic mode of life to planktonic (sensu Zato) graptolites.10. Attachment of colonies (rhabdosomes) as groups of colonies (synrhabdosomes) was by the extrathecal tissue issuing from the tips of the nemata: such associations were probably sexual rather than for reasons of buoyancy.11. Attachment of planktonic graptolites to floating algal fronds is an unnecessary hypothesis. Although an undoubted occurrence of graptolites in rocks containing large quantities of carbonaceous matter is beyond dispute, the plant or animal nature of this material has never been established. A symbiotic relationship of planktonic graptolites with a marine, formless alga, perhaps involving the extrathecal tissue, remains a possibility.12. Although different species may have lived at different depths, the full vertical range of the holoplanktonic graptolites was probably small. The evidence advanced for depth zonation is considered inadequate.13. Planktonic graptolites were essentially tropical to temperate in distribution with the bulk of the species and individuals in the former environment.14. Automobility of graptolite rhabdosomes was an unlikely mechanism and does not readily account for the morphology and distribution of the graptolites.15. Most planktonic graptolites were suspended beneath a nema coated in extrathecal, vacuolated (gas‐filled) tissue: changes of position in the water were by passive response to ocean currents.16. The nature of the graptolite zooid is considered unsolved, although it may have been essentially like that of the extant Rhabdopleura in having paired lophophores.17. It is possible that a modified pre‐oral lobe was capable of secreting both fusellar (inner) and cortical (outer) layers of the periderm.18. The extrathecal tissue itself would in that case have been derived both from the nemal tube and the thecal individuals.