bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cleavage and Gastrulation in Avian Embryos
Authors: Stern Claudio D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Avian embryos differ from those of other vertebrates in several respects – among them, they have a large mass of yolk, the cells initially divide meroblastically, and the embryo has great ability to regulate until very late stages of development. After about 20 000 cells have been generated, gastrulation begins. This process establishes the three axes of the future embryo (head–tail, dorsoventral and left–right), and many cell fates become fixed.
Regeneration Model Systems: Invertebrate Epimorphic
Authors: Baguñà Jaume 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
To different extents, some invertebrates retain the ability to replace lost parts after asexual reproduction, predation or experimental manipulation. When new parts are formed from a mass of undifferentiated cells (the blastema), accumulated below the wound, this process is known as epimorphic regeneration.
Regeneration of the Urodele Limb
Authors: Stocum David L 
Published: September 2006

AbstractUrodele limbs regenerate via a blastema of progenitor cells derived from differentiated limb cells by a process of dedifferentiation. The blastema grows by mitosis of the progenitor cells under the influence of factors supplied by the wound epidermis and nerves, and is patterned into the new limb structures by molecular interactions between blastema cells.
Regeneration of the Vertebrate Lens and Other Eye Structures
Authors: Tsonis Panagiotis A 
Published: September 2006

AbstractSome vertebrates, especially amphibians, can regenerate the lens after lentectomy. Other structures, such as retina, can also be regenerated. The regeneration process is initiated by the pigment epithelial cells which can transdifferentiate to lens or retina. While a gene responsible for such events is not known, evidence has mounted implicating Hox genes and fibroblast growth factors as key regulators.
Regeneration of Liver
Authors: Fausto Nelson 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
One of the most fascinating features of the liver is that it has the capacity to regulate its own growth and mass. The hepatocyte, the main cellular component of the liver, is a metabolically active cell that does not actively replicate in the normal liver. Yet hepatocytes readily proliferate in response to a deficit in tissue mass or cells. Such conditions occur after surgical removal of portions of the liver (partial hepatectomy) or hepatocyte death caused by chemical injury or viruses. The growth response triggered by these conditions is known as liver regeneration.
Regeneration of Nervous Tissue
Authors: Gilbert Ryan J , Bellamkonda Ravi V 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Deficits of the nervous system can be classified into two categories: ‘biochemical’, where replacement of a neurotransmitter like dopamine to a large measure corrects most Parkinsonian motor symptoms, and ‘networking’ deficits, where the connections between two sets of neurons or neurons and muscles are interrupted due to trauma or tumour resection. Various strategies are being investigated in an attempt to repair such deficits through regeneration of the nervous tissue.
Regeneration: Principles
Authors: Dinsmore Charles E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Biological regeneration, a fundamental capacity of all living things, includes processes ranging from the constitutive turnover of cellular components to the extraordinary ability of bisected hydra to become two structurally complete individuals or of salamanders to replace amputated limbs and tails. While historical debate over the nature of regeneration relied largely on its superficial similarity to embryonic development, advances in molecular biology and developmental genetics have now demonstrated a striking concordance between development and regeneration that reaches across phyla.
Agglutination Techniques for Detecting Antigen–Antibody Reactions
Authors: Price Christopher P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The agglutination reaction reflects multiple reactions that take place between macromolecules to form a complex, which may involve antigen–antibody interaction and which, through colloidal instability, may lead to precipitation. The formation of this complex leads to an increase in light scattering, which can be used to quantify one of the species participating in the reaction.
Antibody Synthesis in Vitro
Authors: Martínez Paz , Iborra Antoni 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Several strategies are used to provide immortalized monoclonal antibody‐secreting B cells, and antibodies by recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) technology. Monoclonal antibodies are good specific reagents to recognize any chemical structure. High concentrations of monoclonal antibodies can be obtained and used in diagnostics and human therapy.
B
Lymphocytes
Authors: Bondada Subbarao , Chelvarajan Ralph L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
B (bone marrow‐derived) lymphocytes are antibody‐producing cells in the body. Antibody production is initiated upon recognition of antigen via a specific immunoglobulin receptor, and reception of growth and differentiation signals. B lymphocytes are also important for activation of helper T lymphocytes and are integral for the memory component of the immune response.
Immune Response: Regulation
Authors: Lukic Miodrag L , Lukic Aleksandra M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Early events in an immune response may determine the outcome of immunogenic stimulus, and molecules produced as part of an immune response ‐ such as cytokines and antibodies ‐ can feed back into, suppress or promote the response. Both under‐ and overreaction to antigens may be deleterious, so the immune system requires control mechanisms at different levels so as to provide an optimal immune response at all times.
Immunoelectrophoresis
Authors: Kaplan Irina V , Levinson Stanley S 
Published: September 2006

AbstractImmunoelectrophoresis a two‐stage process: electrophoresis is conducted in the first stage and immunoprecipitation using antibodies against specific proteins in the second stage. Resolution is improved by staining the proteins. The technique is widely used to identify monoclonal immunoglobulins (M‐components) in serum and urine.
Hypersensitivity: Immune Complex Mediated (Type III)
Authors: Eggleton Paul 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
An immune response in the form of antibody production against a foreign substance is often mounted to remove any detrimental antigen from the host. In type III hypersensitivity, overproduction of immunoglobulins IgG and IgM to a particular antigen can lead to the formation of excessive amounts of immune complexes. This in turn may trigger classical complement activation, leading to overproduction of other inflammatory mediators and activation of phagocytes culminating in tissue damage.
Lens Induction
Authors: Kondoh Hisato 
Published: September 2006

AbstractLens cells differentiate from embryonic ectoderm by inductive influence of the retina primordium: this has been a paradigm of embryonic tissue induction. The application of modern techniques for manipulating embryonic tissues and genes, and the recent discovery of transcriptional regulators involved in lens development have thrown light on the molecular events governing the process of lens induction.
Nucleosomes: Structure and Function
Authors: Luger Karolin 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The structure of the nucleosome core particle, the basic repeating unit in eukaryotic chromatin, allows us to view the role of histones in regulating transcription, and in assembling specialized chromatin domains in a structural context. The organization of eukaryotic DNA into chromatin has fundamental implications for our understanding of all cellular processes that use DNA as a substrate.
Artificial Chromosomes
Authors: Roosen Gert , Velten Florian W , Vos† Jean‐Michel H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Artificial chromosomes are DNA molecules assembled
in vitro
from defined constituents, which guarantee stable maintenance of large DNA fragments with the properties of natural chromosomes. Artificial chromosomes are useful for genome sequencing programmes, for functional characterization of entire genomic regions and for the transduction of large DNA segments into human and nonhuman mammalian cells.
DNA
Methylation
Authors: Hornby David P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

DNA methylation occurs in most living organisms and is the enzyme‐mediated transfer of a methyl group from
S
‐adenosyl‐
l
‐methionine to specific cytosine or adenine bases within the genome of that organism. The biological consequences of DNA methylation are thought to be diverse, ranging from resistance to bacteriophage infection in microorganisms to the programming of gene expression in mammals.
Genetic Networks
Authors: Coffman James A , Davidson Eric H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Gene expression is regulated by sequence‐specific protein–DNA interactions that occur within the
cis
‐regulatory domains of genes. Regulatory genes that encode DNA‐binding proteins both control, and are controlled by, the expression of other such regulatory genes. A set of genes whose activity is thus linked by specific
cis
‐
trans
regulatory interactions constitutes a genetic network.
Immunoprecipitation Techniques
Authors: Scheidtmann Karl‐Heinz 
Published: September 2006

AbstractImmunoprecipitations are based on two types of interaction: between antigen and antibody, and between antibody and an immunoadsorbent. The antigen–antibody complex will be bound to an insoluble matrix that can be pelleted and removed from the bulk protein. Immunoprecipitation allows rapid and efficient purification of proteins in a native and biochemically active form.
Chromatin Diminution
Authors: Tobler Heinz , Müller Fritz 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Chromatin diminution is defined as chromosomal fragmentation, followed by the elimination of part of the chromosome during mitosis. The process was first observed in early cleavage divisions of the
Parascaris equorum
embryo by Boveri in 1887, and later on was also found to occur in some other parasitic nematodes, copepods and ciliates.
Lymphocytes: Antigen‐Induced Gene Activation
Authors: Madrenas Joaquín 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Lymphocytes are generally activated upon antigen recognition by their clone‐specific surface receptors. Lymphocyte activation includes multiple signalling cascades that converge in the cell nucleus to cause significant changes in the pattern of gene expression. These changes determine the cell phenotype and ultimately, the type of immune response.
Immunodeficient Animals
Authors: Berglöf Anna , Sandstedt Karin , Smith CI Edvard 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The creation of targeted mutations in the mouse and other animals has considerable utility in many areas of research in mammalian biology, and animals with well‐defined immune defects provide an excellent model for study of the immune system. Gene targeted knockout mice are widely used in exploring the mechanisms underlying the development and function of the immune system.
Antigen Recognition by Lymphocytes
Authors: Gachlin Gabriel , Michelin Olivier , Luescher Immanuel F , Cambiaggi Anna 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMature B and T lymphocytes, as well as natural killer (NK) cells, express on their surfaces receptors that recognize antigen and elicit effector functions. B and T cell receptors are encoded by genes formed by rearrangement, but receptors utilized by NK cells are not.
Immunodeficiency
Authors: Roberts Robert L , Stiehm E Richard 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Immunodeficiency is a condition caused by one or more immune system defects and is characterized clinically by increased susceptibility to infections with consequent severe, acute, recurrent or chronic disease. An immunodeficiency disorder should be considered in anyone with infections that are unusually frequent, severe and resistant; without a symptom‐free interval; from an unusual organism; or with unexpected or severe complications. Immunodeficiencies may be either primary or secondary.
Immunodeficiency: Secondary
Authors: Gupta Sudhir , Fernandes Gabriel 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Immune deficiencies that develop in previously immunologically intact individuals are called secondary immunodeficiencies; they are a result of diverse external factors (infections, surgery and trauma, malnutrition, drugs) and a number of human diseases, including malignancy, nephrotic syndrome and protein‐losing enteropathy. Immunodeficiencies render the host markedly susceptible to viral and bacterial infections.
Immunosuppressive Drugs
Authors: Ringe Burckhardt , Braun Felix , Christians Uwe 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Immunosuppressive drugs are used in the prevention or treatment of acute and chronic rejection of bone marrow and organ transplants. New immunosuppressants have created a large spectrum of drugs with different mechanisms of action, which allows the use of combinations of drugs to maintain effective immunosuppression with acceptable side effects.
Transplantation of Haematopoietic Stem Cells
Authors: Chen Christine , Keating Armand 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Haematopoietic stem cell transplantation involves the infusion of blood progenitor cells (stem cells) into patients with damaged bone marrow in order to restore normal marrow function. Stem cells may be obtained from a healthy donor (allogeneic) or from the patients themselves (autologous).
Xenotransplantation
Authors: Lanza Robert P , Cooper David KC 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The transplantation of organs and tissues across a species boundary is called xenotransplantation. Although the ability to transplant animal organs into humans would provide a solution to the problem of donor organ supply, the subject has generated widescale controversy, not only over the ethics surrounding the use of animals, but over the possibility that animal‐borne pathogens similar to the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) virus could spread into the human population at large.
Cytoskeleton
Authors: Insall Robert , Machesky Laura 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The cytoskeleton is a fibrous meshwork of three major components – actin microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments. These are assembled from soluble precursors, under precise control by many different cellular processes. Other proteins interlink filaments or travel along with them. The cytoskeleton is found in all eukaryotic cells, and is required both for the maintenance of cell structure and for the organization of many aspects of cell movement.
Polymerization Dynamics of Cytoskeletal Filaments
Authors: Maciver Sutherland K 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Polymerization dynamics is the description of the equilibrium between polymeric and monomeric states. The proteins of the cytoskeleton are able to polymerize and depolymerize through continuous cycles of addition or subtraction of monomer units, and the cytoskeleton is not a static entity.
Membrane Dynamics
Authors: Tamm Lukas K , Kiessling Volker , Wagner Michael L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Biological membranes are fluid dynamic closed structures that separate the inside from the outside of cells and compartments within cells. Proteins are inserted into random or more organized regions of a bimolecular ordered fluid film of lipids, where they display different degrees of motion within the plane of the membrane, but almost no (flip‐flop) motion across the lipid bilayer.
Immunology: Comparative Immunology of Mammals
Authors: Entrican Gary 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe mammalian immune system is a complex, coordinated and finely controlled series of interactions between cells and molecules which has evolved to protect the host against disease. Mammals consist of a diverse group of animals in which the immune system has been subjected to a variety of selective pressures. This is reflected in differences in the organization and function of their immune systems.
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
Authors: Lüttge Ulrich 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) is a CO
2
acquisition, CO
2
transient storage and CO
2
concentrating mechanism based on organic acid synthesis. In this variant of photosynthesis CO
2
can be fixed nocturnally in the dark and is used during the day for assimilation in the light.
Xylem Structure and Function
Authors: Myburg Alexander A , Sederoff Ronald R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Vascular plants have evolved a highly specialized tissue, called xylem, which provides mechanical support and transports water, mineral nutrients and phytohormonal signals in the plant. Although it is the most abundant biological tissue on earth, much remains to be learned about the structure, function, development and evolution of xylem and of the genes that regulate the processes.
Plant Defences Against Herbivore and Insect Attack
Authors: Schardl Christopher L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Plants deploy a number of defences against herbivore and insect attack. A primary defence is the production of toxins to poison the attackers. Other strategies include the development of thorns and tough unpalatable tissue to deter herbivores, and the recruitment of parasitoids and predators that attack herbivores.
Plant Storage Products (Carbohydrates, Oils and Proteins)
Authors: Bewley J Derek 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The majority of foods consumed by humans and their domesticated animals used as food sources are ultimately obtained from plants, especially seeds. The storage products in seeds are predominately carbohydrates, oils and proteins, which are synthesized and stored in specialized tissues during seed development, and are utilized following germination to support early growth of the seedling.
DNA: Natural Single‐stranded
Authors: Ranu Rajinder S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Single‐stranded circular or linear viral genomes have been used as model systems to investigate the mechanisms of DNA replication and gene expression and for the development of highly versatile cloning vectors. Flexible single‐stranded DNA can form hairpin/secondary structures by base pairing between regions of intramolecular sequence complementarity. Such structures are readily detected and appear to play important roles in virus‐associated functions
in vivo
.
Cell Cycle: Regulation by Cyclins
Authors: Kitazono Ana A , Gerald Jonathan N Fitz , Kron Stephen J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The cell cycle is defined as the periodic occurrence of events that are coordinately driven by the cyclin‐dependent kinases (CDKs). Cyclins are structurally related proteins whose levels fluctuate throughout the cell cycle. These CDK activators also impart distinct substrate specificity to CDKs for the temporal regulation of cell division.
Citric Acid Cycle
Authors: LaNoue Kathryn F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The citric acid cycle is a metabolic pathway common to aerobic cells by which carbohydrates, fats and amino acids are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. Enzymes catalyse the condensation of two‐ and four‐carbon compounds to citric acid, and then enzymatic oxidations and decarboxylations regenerate the four‐carbon starting compound plus CO
2
and H
2
O. The energy available from the downhill flow of electrons to oxygen is used indirectly for the synthesis of ATP, the energy currency of the cell.
Electron Carriers: Proteins and Cofactors in Oxidative Phosphorylation
Authors: Roehm Klaus‐Heinrich 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Biological electron transfer is mediated by a heterogeneous group of redox cofactors. Most of these compounds are firmly bound by proteins, others migrate freely within membranes, and some are soluble. The orderly flow of electrons through chains of such cofactors is fundamental to the generation of metabolic energy.
Mitochondria: Origin
Authors: Thorsness Peter E , Hanekamp Theodor 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMitochondria are double‐membrane cellular organelles containing their own genetic system and are found in nearly every eukaryotic cell. The endosymbiotic hypothesis postulates that a proto‐mitochondrion, an ancestor of present‐day bacteria, colonized a eukaryotic cell and established a symbiotic relationship to the mutual benefit of both organisms.
Nitrogenase Complex
Authors: Ludden Paul W 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe nitrogenase complex carries out the fixation of nitrogen by reducing molecular dinitrogen (N2) to ammonium () and also reduces acetylene to ethylene. The two component proteins are dinitrogenase and dinitrogenase reductase. Although different metals can form the metal clusters contained in nitrogenase proteins, all nitrogenases have similar properties. The nitrogenase enzyme system is widely distributed among the Bacteria and the Archaea, with protein sequences highly conserved across the kingdoms.
Membrane Lipid Biosynthesis
Authors: Vance Jean E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Biological membranes consist of an enormously complicated array of many species of lipids, delineating interior from exterior and internal cellular compartments, and also generating second messenger compounds. A wide variety of enzymes are involved in the biosynthesis of these membrane lipids. Some human diseases arise from defects in enzymes that break down the lipids and rarely from defects in their biosynthesis.
Thymidylate Synthesis
Authors: Blakley Raymond L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Thymidylate is synthesized from deoxyuridylate and methylenetetrahydrofolate by thymidylate synthase, but dihydrofolate reductase and serine hydroxymethyltransferase are required to regenerate methylene tetrahydrofolate. Inhibitors of the synthase and the reductase arrest cell replication and are used in the treatment of cancer.
Inherited Diseases of Intermediary Metabolism: Molecular Basis
Authors: Grabowski Gregory A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Inherited abnormalities in the complex pathways of carbohydrate, amino and organic acids and lipids lead to the inborn errors of metabolism. A variety of genetic aberrations lead to single or multiple protein/enzyme defects at the translational, post‐translational and organelle targeting levels that lead to the disease biochemistry and clinical manifestations.
Histamine Biosynthesis and Function
Authors: Homaidan Fadia R , Chakroun Iman , El‐Sabban Marwan E 
Published: September 2006

AbstractHistamine, a chemical messenger, was originally identified mainly in mast cells, but was later found in basophils, platelets, enterochromaffin‐like cells, endothelial cells, and neurons. It is implicated in numerous physiological and pathophysiological processes including allergic reactions, vasodilatation and vasoconstriction, gastric acid secretion and neurotransmission.
Toxin Action: Molecular Mechanisms
Authors: Cassel Dan , Menez Andre , Gordon Dalia 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Toxins are compounds of different nature, including cytotoxic proteins, polypeptides of variable lengths, alkaloids and others. They are produced by different organisms and are poisonous to animals. Toxins act by affecting functions that are essential to the survival of the cell or to its communication with its environment. Because the action of many toxins is highly specific for a particular cellular target, toxins have been valuable in elucidating the mechanisms that maintain and control essential cellular functions.
Thrombin
Authors: Narayanan AS , Thiagarajan P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Thrombin is a serine protease that has narrower substrate specificity and cleaves fewer peptide bonds than pancreatic serine proteases, with which it shares a common evolutionary ancestor. With its procoagulant and anticoagulant functions it plays a central role in thrombosis and haemostasis and it is an agonist for a number of cellular responses during inflammation and wound repair.