bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Nucleotide Degradation
Authors: Bierau Jörgen , van Kuilenburg André BP , van Gennip Albert H 
Published: September 2006

AbstractNucleotide degradation is an integrated process in all human cells that is intimately linked with the pathways of nucleotide synthesis and salvage. The clinical conditions associated with defects of enzymes catalysing nucleotide degradation provide a valuable insight into the importance of this network.
Cellulose: Biogenesis and Biodegradation
Authors: Stone Bruce 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cellulose is synthesized by plasma membrane‐bound cellulose synthase complexes found in some bacteria, slime moulds, some alveolates, chromists, in red and green algae, embryophytes and tunicates. Cellulose is degraded by many heterotrophic bacteria and fungi to soluble saccharides for use in growth and energy production. Bacterial, fungal and nematode plant pathogens use cellulases to gain access to the contents of plant cells by digesting their walls, and in embryophytes, cellulases have a role in cell wall development and differentiation.
Cardiovascular Disease and Congenital Heart Defects
Authors: Wang Qing , Chen Qiuyun 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Heart disease (cardiovascular disease) is the leading cause of death in developed countries. Genetic factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of heart disease. The revolutionary advances in molecular genetics have provided new insights into the responsible genes and pathogenic mechanisms of heart disease, including congenital heart defects, arrhythmias, cardiomyopathies, heart failure and coronary artery disease.
Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography
Authors: Jennissen Herbert P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Hydrophobic interaction chromatography involves the separation of protein molecules in their native and biologically active state owing to the differential interaction of these molecules with hydrophobic sites on the surface of a solid support. In the separation process, hydrophobic patches on the protein interact with hydrophobic molecules (e.g. alkyl residues) immobilized on the hydrophilic solid‐phase surface (agarose).
Thymidylate Synthesis
Authors: Kisliuk Roy 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThymidylate, an essential component of DNA, is synthesized from deoxyuridylate and methylenetetrahydrofolate by thymidylate synthase, but dihydrofolate reductase and serine hydroxymethyltransferase are required to regenerate methylenetetrahydrofolate. Inhibitors of the synthase and the reductase arrest cell replication and are used in the treatment of cancer.
Transfer RNA Synthetase Editing of Amino Acids
Authors: Jakubowski Hieronim 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Intrinsic binding energies of amino acids to aminoacyl‐tRNA synthetases are often inadequate to give the required accuracy of translation. This has necessitated the evolution of a second determinant of specificity, proofreading or editing mechanisms that remove errors in amino acid selection and prevent access of nonprotein amino acids to the genetic code. Editing of homocysteine and ornithine is linked to human disease.
Protein Import into Endoplasmic Reticulum: Methods
Authors: Morrow Michael W , Brodsky Jeffrey L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Nascent secretory proteins and integral membrane proteins must translocate into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The regulation of translocation remains ill‐defined. Posttranslational translocation into the yeast ER can be measured using ER‐derived microsomes or reconstituted proteoliposomes and the mating pheromone precursor prepro‐alpha factor as the translocation substrate.
Acute Myelogenous Leukaemia
Authors: Lichtman Marshall A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Acute myelogenous leukaemia is the result of a malignant transformation of a primitive cell in the bone marrow. The neoplastic transformation imparts a growth and/or survival advantage to the cell. Leukaemic cells fill the haematopoietic cords of marrow. The functional result of this alteration is to impair blood cell production that normally occurs in the marrow, leading to a profound decrease in normal red cells (anaemia), white cells (leucopenia) and platelets or thrombocytes (thrombocytopenia) in the blood (Lichtman and Liesveld, 2000). Untreated, the disease results in death in weeks.
Complement
Authors: Holland M Claire H , Lambris John D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The mammalian complement system consists of a complex group of more than 35 soluble proteins and receptors that play an important role in innate and acquired host defence mechanisms against infection, and participate in various immunoregulatory processes. The functions mediated by complement activation products include phagocytosis, cytolysis, inflammation, solubilization of immune complexes, clearance of apoptotic cells and promotion of humoral immune responses.
Complement: Classical Pathway
Authors: Arlaud Gérard J , Colomb Maurice G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The classical pathway of complement is a major recognition system in innate immunity that is found in mammals and other animal species. It triggers various effector mechanisms via several multimolecular proteases – C1, the MBL–MASP‐2 and the ficolin–MASP‐2 complexes – to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms and other antigens from blood and tissues.
Germinal Centres
Authors: Thielen Caroline , Heinen Ernst 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Germinal centres are lymphoid structures appearing after an antigenic stimulation inside lymph follicles. During this germinal centre reaction, B cells not only undergo clonal amplifications but also affinity maturation and class switching of their immunoglobulins. These events, occurring under the control of T cells and in the peculiar environments created by the follicular dendritic cells, lead B cells to mature into B memory cells or into precursors of plasma cells.
Major Histocompatibility Complex: Human
Authors: Penn Dustin J , Ilmonen Petteri 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a large genetic region that contains the most polymorphic loci known in humans and other vertebrates. MHC genes are the most intensively studied genes because they influence so many important traits, including resistance to infectious diseases, autoimmunity, compatibility of tissue transplants, spontaneous abortion, odour and mating preferences.
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC): Mouse
Authors: Melvold Roger W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) of the mouse, the
H2
(or
Histocompatibility‐2
; formerly abbreviated as
H‐2
) complex, is located on chromosome 17. It contains genes critical to the functioning of the immune system, the products of which are intimately involved in the earliest steps in the initiation of immune responses. There is great variation among these genes, a trait that is unusual and probably critical to the immune system.
Immunological Adhesion and Homing Molecules
Authors: Lucila Scimone M , von Andrian Ulrich H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Leucocytes must interact with other cells and extracellular matrix molecules to migrate from the bloodstream to lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues, to detect and respond to antigen and to exert immune functions. Adhesion and homing molecules on the surface of leucocytes and interacting cells provide mechanical stability and contribute to the specificity of such interactions.
Monoclonal Antibodies
Authors: Zola Heddy 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies with a unique specificity, generally made by cloning cells containing a particular antibody gene to produce a population of identical cells derived from a single cell, which all produce the same antibody. This should be contrasted with polyclonal antibodies found in the serum of immunized animals, which consist of a very diverse mixture of antibodies against many different molecules.
Immune Haemolytic Anaemia
Authors: Packman Charles H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The immune haemolytic anaemias comprise a set of diseases characterized by shortened red blood cell survival (haemolysis) mediated by the action of antibodies and serum complement. The haemolysis is evidenced by a raised reticulocyte count in the absence of blood loss. Activity of the immune system is diagnosed by the presence of antibody or fragments of complement components (mainly C3 and C4) on the red blood cell surfaces.
Spleen: Consequences of Lack of Function
Authors: Lewis Mitchell , Swirsky David 
Published: September 2006

AbstractLoss of splenic function may be absolute or partial; it may be primary (e.g. splenectomy) or secondary to a range of medical disorders. The haematological effects and clinical complications depend on the extent to which various functions are compromised. The most serious complication, requiring lifelong control, is overwhelming postsplenectomy infection (OPSI).
Enzyme‐linked Immunosorbent Assay
Authors: Paulie Staffan , Perlmann Hedvig , Perlmann Peter 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Enzyme‐linked imunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a highly sensitive immunoassay utilizing enzyme‐conjugated antibodies, with antigen or antibodies bound to a solid support. The assay measures changes in enzyme activities proportional to the antigen or antibody concentrations involved in the underlying immune reactions.
Cell Cycle: Regulation by Cyclins
Authors: Kitazono Ana A , Fitz Gerald Jonathan N , Kron Stephen J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The cell cycle is defined as the periodic occurrence of events that result in chromosome duplication (DNA replication in S phase) and separation (mitosis). These events are coordinately driven by the cyclin‐dependent kinases (CDKs). Cyclins are structurally related proteins whose levels fluctuate throughout the cell cycle. These CDK activators also impart distinct substrate specificity to CDKs for the temporal regulation of cell division.
Ageing and the Immune System
Authors: Aspinall Richard 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The immune system is our own personal biological warfare machine that protects our body from infections by learning the difference between our own body tissues and the body components of invaders. Unfortunately, like all machines it is subject to normal wear and tear and gradually winds down with age; hence, an understanding of the most common causes of the deterioration in function could lead to an opportunity to reverse these processes and prolong the period of protection that the immune system provides.
Planetary Protection
Authors: Rummel John D , Billings Linda , Stabekis Pericles 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Planetary protection is the practice of protecting solar system bodies (planets, moons, asteroids and comets) from Earth life and protecting the Earth from life that may be brought back from other solar system bodies. Planetary protection requirements for solar system exploration missions are established in consideration of the nature, goals and destination of a mission.
B Lymphocytes
Authors: Bondada Subbarao , Chelvarajan Ralph L , Gururajan Murali 
Published: September 2006

AbstractBone marrow‐derived (B) lymphocytes are antibody‐producing cells in the body. Antibody production is initiated upon recognition of antigen via a specific immunoglobulin receptor, and reception of growth and differentiation signals. B lymphocytes are also important for activation of helper T lymphocytes and are integral for the memory component of the immune response.
Arachidonic Acid Signalling in the Nervous System
Authors: Bazan Nicolas G 
Published: September 2006

AbstractArachidonic acid integrates phospholipid molecules of cell membranes. When arachidonic acid is released it becomes itself a messenger or is the precursor of a wide variety of arachidonic acid‐derived messengers. These bioactive lipids modulate the function of ion channels, receptors, neurotransmitter release, synaptic plasticity, glia–neuron relationships and programmes of neuronal gene expression. Therefore, arachidonic acid signalling participates in cell function and in certain pathologic conditions of the nervous system. The availability of arachidonic acid is regulated by the biosynthesis of specific phospholipids molecular species, their arachidonate remodelling, and the regulation of the release of arachidonic acid from membrane reservoirs and the subsequent conversion steps (e.g. cyclo‐oxygenation, lipooxygenation).
Axonal Transport and the Neuronal Cytoskeleton
Authors: Baas PW , Karabay A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The neuronal cytoskeleton is a system of highly organized polymers that provide architectural support for axons and dendrites, and also provide railways for the transport of various classes of cytoplasmic constituents. Molecular motor proteins use the energy derived from adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis for the transport of organelles along the cytoskeletal polymers and for the transport of the polymers themselves. Axons can traverse exceeding long distances in the body, and hence require sophisticated mechanisms of axonal transport in both the anterograde and the retrograde direction.
Calcium Channel Blocking Agents
Authors: Striessnig Jörg , Glossmann Hartmut 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Voltage‐dependent Ca
2+
signalling in electrically excitable cells is controlled by the activity of different types of voltage‐gated Ca
2+
channels. Selective channel blockers are important not only for treating cardiovascular diseases but also as pharmacological and biochemical tools for defining different channel types, determining their molecular structure, cloning channel subunits and refining their physiological and pathophysiological roles.
Chloride Channels
Authors: Akabas Myles H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Chloride channels are integral membrane proteins that regulate the movement of chloride ions across cellular membranes. They perform a vital role in physiological processes such as cell volume regulation, epithelial transport, the regulation of nerve and muscle cell membrane excitability and in determining the pH within cytoplasmic membrane‐bound organelles. Several genetic diseases are caused by mutations within chloride channel genes.
The Retinoid Cycle and Retinal Diseases
Authors: Palczewski Krzysztof , Baehr Wolfgang 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The ‘retinoid cycle’ is a complex recycling system that replenishes the 11‐
cis
‐retinal chromophore of rod and cone visual pigments after its isomerization to all‐
trans
‐retinal by light. Recycling takes place in retinal rod and cone photoreceptor outer segments and the retinal pigment epithelium. Correct functioning of the retinoid cycle is of fundamental importance in vertebrate vision.
Invertebrate Neuropeptides
Authors: Nässel Dick R , Taghert Paul H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Invertebrate neuropeptides are found in neurosecretory cells, interneurons and motor neurons, as well as in endocrine cells of the intestine and in glandular cells of nonnervous tissue. Neuropeptides can act as neurohormones released into the circulation and/or as local neurohormones released in a paracrine fashion within the nervous system or at muscles or glands.
Oculomotor System
Authors: Delgado‐García José M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The oculomotor system is composed of six extraocular muscles attached to the orbit and to the eyeball, extraocular motor neurons located in three different brainstem motor nuclei, and premotor centres and circuits involved in the generation and control of the different types of eye movement. Its precise functional design and robust biomechanics have allowed this motor system to survive, almost unchanged, across different trends in vertebrate evolution.
Memory in Fruit Flies and Nematodes
Authors: Holmes Celia M , Tanchuk Tracy L , Galloway Jennifer A , Peters Kevin R , Rankin Catharine H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

A change in the behaviour of an organism that results from the individual's exposure to stimuli/events in the environment.
Drosophila melanogaster
and
Caenorhabditis elegans
have been the focus of much research in the areas of learning and memory.
Structural Genomics
Authors: Norvell John , Li Jiayin , Saltsman Kirstie , Berg Jeremy 
Published: September 2006

AbstractStructural genomics is a new field that aims at the large‐scale determination of thousands of carefully selected protein structures. This endeavour will lead to a broad inventory of the protein structures found in nature, many of which will be of biomedical interest. Recent advances in experimental and computational technology, together with the wealth of protein sequence information provided by genome sequencing efforts, have made this formidable task possible.
Callose and Related Glucans
Authors: Stone Bruce 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Callose is a water‐insoluble, linear (1→3)‐β‐
d
‐glucan found among embryophytes. It occurs in specialized cell walls of reproductive tissues, as a transient component of the cell plate in dividing cells and as deposits on plasma membranes following wounding or in physiological or pathological stress. Related glucans are found as bacterial capsules, as storage polysaccharides in euglenoid protozoa and chromistans (brown algae, yellow‐green algae, diatoms, water moulds and haptophytes), and as wall components and surface mucilages of yeasts and fungi.
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Wordsworth Paul , Holden Wendy 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis is a common inflammatory disorder primarily affecting synovial joints but also other organs. It is characterized by immune‐driven chronic inflammation, relapses and remissions. It is strongly associated with the presence of rheumatoid factor in the blood and has a significant genetic predisposition, notably from certain immune response genes. Dramatic advances in therapies mean that progressive disability may no longer be inevitable.
Cnidaria (Coelenterates)
Authors: Shostak Stanley 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Cnidaria (Gr.,
cnidae
, nettle) is a phylum of mostly marine Metazoa distinguished by cnidocysts, subcellular capsules containing an inverted tubule capable of everting and, in some cases, discharging venom. Sexual reproduction results in solid planula embryos that develop into columnar polyps. Asexual reproduction results in clones of polyps, polypoidal colonies or disk‐ to bell‐shaped sexual medusas (jellyfish).
Myriapoda (Including Centipedes and Millipedes)
Authors: Wright Jonathan C 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe Myriapoda comprise four classes of terrestrial arthropods: Chilopoda or centipedes, Diplopoda or millipedes, Symphyla and Pauropoda. Myriapods are generally found in soil and litter and have a worldwide distribution. About 13 000 species are known.
Rhynie Chert
Authors: Trewin Nigel H 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe Rhynie chert (Scotland) was deposited by hot springs and contains exceptionally well‐preserved Early Devonian (c. 410 Ma) fossil plants and arthropods. The biota comprises the oldest well‐preserved terrestrial ecosystem on Earth, and the primitive terrestrial plants form the cornerstone of palaeobotany.
The End Triassic Mass Extinction
Authors: Wignall Paul B 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe end of the Triassic period, roughly Ma, was marked by one of the biggest mass extinction events in the history of life. Estimates of magnitude vary, but recent compilations suggest that it may have been one of the greatest extinction events of the fossil record. It has been estimated that nearly 70 terrestrial families and 60 marine families disappeared at the end of the Triassic, an extinction that corresponds to 23 and 18% extinction, respectively. The origins of this extinction remain enigmatic, tentative evidence for meteorite impact awaits widespread confirmation, while contemporaneous volcanism was intense but the nature of its damaging environmental impact is unclear.
Speciation: Chromosomal Mechanisms
Authors: Nevo Eviatar 
Published: September 2006

AbstractChromosomal speciation is one of the major modes of the origin of new species through splitting of preexisting species. New species may originate by gene speciation, and also by the establishment of postmating reproductive isolation through structural chromosome rearrangements. The latter may induce low‐hybrid fitness, generated by macromutations, and even by micromutations, i.e. molecular changes causing meiotic disturbances (e.g. GC incompatibilities), though the latter awaits empirical support.
Extinction: Late Devonian Mass Extinction
Authors: McGhee George R 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe Late Devonian mass extinction, which occurred 376 million years ago, is one of the ‘Big Five’ mass extinctions in Earth history. Suggested causes of the mass extinction include oceanic anoxia and global cooling. Two catastrophic models of global cooling are the present focus of research into the ultimate cause of the mass extinction: the volcanic winter hypothesis versus the impact winter hypothesis.
Herpesviruses (Human)
Authors: Whitley Richard J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Human herpesvirus are a family of eight deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) viruses that commonly inflict individuals. They consist of
Herpes simplex virus type 1
(HSV‐1),
Herpes simplex virus type 2
(HSV‐2),
Varicella‐zoster virus
(VZV),
Cytomegalovirus
(CMV),
Epstein
–
Barr virus
(EBV),
Human herpesvirus 6
(HHV‐6),
Human herpesvirus 7
(HHV‐7) and
Kaposi sarcoma‐associated herpesvirus
(KSHV or HHV‐8).
Xenopus
Embryo: β‐catenin and Dorsal–Ventral Axis Formation
Authors: Moon Randall T 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

During embryonic development of the amphibian,
Xenopus laevis
, the dorsal side of the embryo forms approximately opposite the sperm entry point, and the anterior and posterior axes are linked to this through the process of gastrulation. The mechanisms responsible for specification of the dorsal axis include a post‐fertilization cortical rotation that promotes a dorsal accumulation of β‐catenin, and the activation of a cascade of regulatory genes by the complexes of β‐catenin and HMG box transcription factors that start the process of gastrulation.
Signal Transduction Pathways in Development: the JAK/STAT Pathway
Authors: Naka Tetsuji , Ohkawara Tomoharu 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Janus Kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and achivator of transcription (STAT) pathway is activated not only by various cytokines such as interferon and interleukin, but also by many growth factors. This pathway plays a crucial role in the signal transduction of these factors.
Caenorhabditis elegans
Vulval Induction
Authors: Sternberg Paul W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Study of
Caenorhabditis elegans
vulval development has improved our understanding of inductive signalling and pattern formation at the single cell level, and has led to the definition of signalling cascades. Studies of signal transduction during vulval development have led to the discovery of what is considered a universal signalling pathway from growth factor receptor to RAS to MAP kinase to the nucleus, and the discovery of the LIN‐12/Notch family of receptors that mediate lateral signalling.
Ribosomal Proteins: Role in Ribosomal Functions
Authors: Wilson Daniel N , Nierhaus Knud H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The assignment of specific ribosomal functions to individual ribosomal proteins is difficult due to the enormous cooperativity of the ribosome; however, important roles for distinct ribosomal proteins are becoming evident. Although ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) has the major claim to certain aspects of ribosome function, such as decoding and peptidyl‐transferase activity, the contribution of ribosomal proteins is nevertheless essential for the assembly and optimal functioning of the ribosome, this is particularly true in the context of interactions at both the binding site for translation factors and the tunnel exit for both chaperones and complexes associated with protein transport through membranes.