bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Decline of the Agrarian Economy in Palestine under Roman Rule
Authors: Gil Moshe 
Published: September 2006

AbstractFive main problems constitute the background for the decline of Palestine's agrarian economy under the Romans. A considerable part of the land was held by the Roman state, a situation that became more extensive than can be documented under previous regimes. Taxation, as described in talmudic sources, pressed heavily on the cultivators. Usury, a matter contrary to sacrosanct ancient prescriptions, was burdening the agrarian population by stratagems and cover-ups. Expropriation became frequent and there were instances of flight of both owners and sharecroppers. Finally, marriage and inheritance laws and customs brought about a far-reaching parceling of estates. It is shown that the decline was caused not only by Roman oppression, but also by internal factors, which together caused urbanization on the one hand, and emigration on the other. Cinq problèmes principaux constituent l'arrière-plan pour le déclin de l'économie agraire de la Palestine sous les Romains. Une partie considérable de la terre a été tenue par l'état romain, une situation qui est devenue plus étendue que peut être documentée sous des régimes précédents. L'imposition, comme décrite dans des sources talmudiques, oppressait fortement sur les cultivateurs. L'usure, qui contredit les prescriptions antiques sacro-saintes, accablait la population agraire par des stratagèmes et dissimulations. L'expropriation est devenue fréquente et il y avait des exemples de fuite des propriétaires et des métayers. Finalement, le mariage et les lois et coutumes de l'héritage ont produit un morcellement excessif des domaines. Y est montré que le déclin a été produit non seulement par l'oppression romaine, mais également par des facteurs internes, qui ensemble ont causé l'urbanisation d'une part, et l'émigration de l'autre.
Orographic Enhancement of Precipitation over Low Mountain Ranges. Part II: Simulations of Heavy Precipitation Events over Southwest Germany
Authors: Kunz Michael , Kottmeier Christoph 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A diagnostic precipitation model that combines linear theory of hydrostatic flow with parameterized microphysics is applied to several stratiform heavy precipitation events over the low mountain ranges of southwestern Germany. Model-simulated rainfall is in good agreement with observations in both magnitude and location, yielding correlation coefficients against observational data between 0.74 and 0.90. Two events that caused local flooding over and near the Black Forest mountains, on 11–13 December 1997 and on 28–29 October 1998, are discussed in detail. Results show that, in addition to orographic features, wind speed U, moist static stability Nm, and melting level are important parameters to describe the amount and spatial distribution of orographic precipitation. The effect of hydrometeor drifting significantly reduces the precipitation peaks near the crests, and the inclusion of evaporation decreases precipitation mainly in descent regions downstream of the mountains. Using the upslope approach instead of linear theory, the precipitation intensities increase substantially and primarily over and downstream of the mountain peaks, whereas the maxima are shifted slightly downstream. The best simulation results relative to the observations were obtained on a 2.5-km grid, whereas areal rainfall is underestimated by about 10% on a 5-km grid and by about 35% on a 10-km grid.
Virtual Towers Using Coherent Doppler Lidar during the Joint Urban 2003 Dispersion Experiment
Authors: Calhoun R. , Heap R. , Princevac M. , Newsom R. , Fernando H. , Ligon D. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
During the Joint Urban 2003 (JU2003) atmospheric field experiment in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, of July 2003, lidar teams from Arizona State University and the Army Research Laboratory collaborated to perform intersecting range–height indicator scans. Because a single lidar measures radial winds, that is, the dot product of the wind vector with a unit vector pointing along the lidar beam, the data from two lidars viewing from different directions can be combined to produce horizontal velocity vectors. Analysis programs were written to retrieve horizontal velocity vectors for a series of eight vertical profiles to the southwest (approximately upwind) of the downtown urban core. This technique has the following unique characteristics that make it well suited for urban meteorology studies: 1) continuous vertical profiles from far above the building heights to down into the street canyons can be measured and 2) the profiles can extend to very near the ground without a loss of accuracy (assuming clear lines of site). The period of time analyzed spans from 1400 to 1730 UTC (0900–1230 local time) on 9 July 2003. Both shear and convective heating are important during the development of the boundary layer over this period of time. Differences in 10- and 20-min mean profiles show the effect of the variation of position approaching the urban core; for example, several hundred meters above the ground, velocity magnitudes for profiles separated by less than a kilometer may differ by over 1 m s−1. The effect of the increased roughness associated with the central business district can be seen as a deceleration of the velocity and a turning of the wind direction as the flow approaches the core, up to approximately 10° for some profiles. This effect is evident below 400–500 m both in the wind directions and magnitudes. Recommendations are given for how this type of data can be used in a comparison with model data.
Bayesian Retrieval of Complete Posterior PDFs of Oceanic Rain Rate from Microwave Observations
Authors: Chiu J. Christine , Petty Grant W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A new Bayesian algorithm for retrieving surface rain rate from Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI) over the ocean is presented, along with validations against estimates from the TRMM Precipitation Radar (PR). The Bayesian approach offers a rigorous basis for optimally combining multichannel observations with prior knowledge. While other rain-rate algorithms have been published that are based at least partly on Bayesian reasoning, this is believed to be the first self-contained algorithm that fully exploits Bayes’s theorem to yield not just a single rain rate, but rather a continuous posterior probability distribution of rain rate. To advance the understanding of theoretical benefits of the Bayesian approach, sensitivity analyses have been conducted based on two synthetic datasets for which the “true” conditional and prior distribution are known. Results demonstrate that even when the prior and conditional likelihoods are specified perfectly, biased retrievals may occur at high rain rates. This bias is not the result of a defect of the Bayesian formalism, but rather represents the expected outcome when the physical constraint imposed by the radiometric observations is weak owing to saturation effects. It is also suggested that both the choice of the estimators and the prior information are crucial to the retrieval. In addition, the performance of the Bayesian algorithm herein is found to be comparable to that of other benchmark algorithms in real-world applications, while having the additional advantage of providing a complete continuous posterior probability distribution of surface rain rate.
Temporal and Spatial Characteristics of Snowstorms in the Contiguous United States
Authors: Changnon Stanley A. , Changnon David , Karl Thomas R. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A climatological analysis of snowstorms across the contiguous United States, based on data from 1222 weather stations with data during 1901–2001, defined the spatial and temporal features. The average annual incidence of events creating 15.2 cm or more in 1 or 2 days, which are termed as snowstorms, exhibits great spatial variability. The pattern is latitudinal across most of the eastern half of the United States, averaging 0.1 storm (1 storm per 10 years) in the Deep South, increasing to 2 storms along the Canadian border. This pattern is interrupted by higher averages downwind of the Great Lakes and in the Appalachian Mountains. In the western third of the United States where snow falls, lower-elevation sites average 0.1–2 storms per year, but averages are much higher in the Cascade Range and Rocky Mountains, where 5–30 storms occur per year. Most areas of the United States have had years without snowstorms, but the annual minima are 1 or more storms in high-elevation areas of the West and Northeast. The pattern of annual maxima of storms is similar to the average pattern. The temporal distribution of snowstorms exhibited wide fluctuations during 1901–2000, with downward 100-yr trends in the lower Midwest, South, and West Coast. Upward trends occurred in the upper Midwest, East, and Northeast, and the national trend for 1901–2000 was upward, corresponding to trends in strong cyclonic activity. The peak periods of storm activity in the United States occurred during 1911–20 and 1971–80, and the lowest frequency was in 1931–40. Snowstorms first occur in September in the Rockies, in October in the high plains, in November across most of the United States, and in December in the Deep South. The month with the season’s last storms is December in the South and then shifts northward, with April the last month of snowstorms across most of the United States. Storms occur as late as May and June in the Rockies and Cascades. Snowstorms are most frequent in December downwind of the Great Lakes, with the peak of activity in January for most other areas of the United States.
Drought Analysis Based on a Marked Cluster Poisson Model
Authors: Cebrián Ana C. , Abaurrea Jesús 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis paper presents an operational definition of drought events based on an “excess over threshold” approach applied on rainfall series and develops a stochastic model for describing droughts defined in that way. The model consists of a Poisson cluster process to represent drought occurrence and a marked process composed of three series of random variables (duration, deficit, and maximum intensity) to describe drought severity; it is theoretically justified, and adequate procedures to check its validity are suggested and applied on five Spanish rainfall series. Useful parameters for the design and planning of water resource systems, together with their confidence intervals, are estimated from the model.
A Comparison of Snow Telemetry and Snow Course Measurements in the Colorado River Basin
Authors: Dressler K. A. , Fassnacht S. R. , Bales R. C. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Temporal and spatial differences in snow-water equivalent (SWE) at 240 snow telemetry (SNOTEL) and at 500 snow course sites and a subset of 93 collocated sites were evaluated by examining the correlation of site values over the snow season, interpolating point measurements to basin volumes using hypsometry and a maximum snow extent mask, and variogram analysis. The lowest correlation at a point (r = 0.79) and largest interpolated volume differences (as much as 150 mm of SWE over the Gunnison basin) occurred during wet years (e.g., 1993). Interpolation SWE values based on SNOTEL versus snow course sites were not consistently higher or lower relative to each other. Interpolation rmse was comparable for both datasets, increasing later in the snow season. Snow courses correlate over larger distances and have less short-scale variability than SNOTEL sites, making them more regionally representative. Using both datasets in hydrologic models will provide a range of predicted streamflow, which is potentially useful for water resources management.
A Comparison of TRMM Microwave Techniques for Detecting the Diurnal Rainfall Cycle
Authors: Sanderson Victoria L. , Kidd Chris , McGregor Glenn R. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This paper uses rainfall estimates retrieved from active and passive microwave data to investigate how spatially and temporally dependent algorithm biases affect the monitoring of the diurnal rainfall cycle. Microwave estimates used in this study are from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) and include the precipitation radar (PR) near-surface (2A25), Goddard Profiling (GPROF) (2A12), and PR–TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI) (2B31) rain rates from the version 5 (v5) 3G68 product. A rainfall maximum is observed early evening over land, while oceans generally show a minimum in rainfall during the morning. Comparisons of annual and seasonal mean hourly rain rates and harmonics at both global and regional scales show significant differences between the algorithms. Relative and absolute biases over land vary according to the time of day. Clearly, these retrieval biases need accounting for, either in the physics of the algorithm or through the provision of accurate error estimates, to avoid erroneous climatic signals and the discrediting of satellite rainfall estimations.
GLACE: The Global Land–Atmosphere Coupling Experiment. Part II: Analysis
Authors: Guo Zhichang , Dirmeyer Paul A. , Koster Randal D. , Sud Y. C. , Bonan Gordon , Oleson Keith W. , Chan Edmond , Verseghy Diana , Cox Peter , Gordon C. T. , McGregor J. L. , Kanae Shinjiro , Kowalczyk Eva , Lawrence David , Liu Ping , Mocko David , Lu Cheng-Hsuan , Mitchell Ken , Malyshev Sergey , McAvaney Bryant , Oki Taikan , Yamada Tomohito , Pitman Andrew , Taylor Christopher M. , Vasic Ratko , Xue Yongkang 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The 12 weather and climate models participating in the Global Land–Atmosphere Coupling Experiment (GLACE) show both a wide variation in the strength of land–atmosphere coupling and some intriguing commonalities. In this paper, the causes of variations in coupling strength—both the geographic variations within a given model and the model-to-model differences—are addressed. The ability of soil moisture to affect precipitation is examined in two stages, namely, the ability of the soil moisture to affect evaporation, and the ability of evaporation to affect precipitation. Most of the differences between the models and within a given model are found to be associated with the first stage—an evaporation rate that varies strongly and consistently with soil moisture tends to lead to a higher coupling strength. The first-stage differences reflect identifiable differences in model parameterization and model climate. Intermodel differences in the evaporation–precipitation connection, however, also play a key role.
Improving Computation of Sensible Heat Flux over a Water Surface Using the Variational Method
Authors: Cao Zuohao , Ma Jianmin , Rouse Wayne R. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In this study, the authors have performed the variational computations for surface sensible heat fluxes over a large northern lake using observed wind, temperature gradient, and moisture gradient. In contrast with the conventional (Monin–Obukhov similarity theory) MOST-based flux-gradient method, the variational approach sufficiently utilizes observational meteorological conditions over the lake, where the conventional flux-gradient method performs poorly. Verifications using direct eddy-correlation measurements over Great Slave Lake, the fifth largest lake in North America in terms of surface area, during the open water period of 1999 demonstrate that the variational method yields good agreements between the computed and the measured sensible heat fluxes. It is also demonstrated that the variational method is more accurate than the flux-gradient method in computations of sensible heat flux across the air–water interface.
Relative Roles of Large-Scale Orography and Land Surface Processes in the Global Hydroclimate. Part I: Impacts on Monsoon Systems and the Tropics
Authors: Yasunari Tetsuzo , Saito Kazuyuki , Takata Kumiko 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A series of numerical simulations by an atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) was conducted to evaluate the relative roles of Tibetan Plateau (TP) and continental-scale land surface processes on the Asian monsoon and hydroclimates in other regions in the Tropics. Four boundary conditions were used to define experiments: a flat and bare-rock (nonvegetated) surface (NMR), a realistic TP with bare-rock surface (MR), MR conditions but with a water-holding soil layer (with 20 cm of field capacity) (MS), and TP with a vegetated surface with specified albedo and roughness of the current vegetation and the soil layer (MVS).
Systematic increases of precipitation (P) over the Asian monsoon region and other land areas in the Tropics were noticed from NMR, MR, MS, to MVS runs. Precipitation over the warm tropical western Pacific, in contrast, decreased from NMR to MVS runs although the same SST climatology was prescribed in all the experiments. The effect of TP orography produces wet (dry) climate regions to the west (east) of TP as shown in other GCM studies. In the Asian monsoon region both land surface effect (LSE) and TP effect (TE) contribute nearly equally to increase P, but in the West African monsoon region, TE contributes to decrease P while LSE plays a major role to increase P. LSE also enhances the subtropical anticyclone over the North Pacific through enhanced land–ocean thermal contrast.
In most of the monsoon regions and Tropics, the albedo (and roughness) effect of vegetation substantially increases available radiation, which in turn increases both evaporation (E) and atmospheric moisture convergence (C), and, as a result, significantly increases P. This positive feedback between E and C is likely to be a characteristic nature when and where vegetation albedo effect is significant under sufficient radiative energy, suggesting a prerequisite for Charney’s original hypothesis.
Relative Roles of Large-Scale Orography and Land Surface Processes in the Global Hydroclimate. Part II: Impacts on Hydroclimate over Eurasia
Authors: Saito Kazuyuki , Yasunari Tetsuzo , Takata Kumiko 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A series of simplistic simulations from an AGCM coupled to a simple land surface scheme and water vapor tracers was performed to explore the relative roles of basic factors in land surface conditions, with regard to the seasonal evolution of the hydroclimate over Eurasia. Large-scale orography in Asia and vegetation (further decomposed to soil and vegetation skin) were evaluated, with orography represented in the model by surface altitude, soil represented by water-holding capacity, and vegetation skin represented by surface albedo and roughness.
The percentage of global annual precipitation over land (occupying 25.6% of the total surface) was 14.8%, 15.0%, and 21.7% for the mountainless “bare rock” (i.e., vegetationless) surface, and the bare-rock and vegetated surface, respectively. The result for evaporation was 8.9%, 9.0%, and 16.2%, respectively, showing higher sensitivity to the land surface changes than precipitation. The orography and vegetation (i.e., soil and vegetation skin) showed different impacts on Eurasian hydroclimate on the seasonal and regional scales. Thermodynamical forcings to the atmosphere increased over the continent with the inclusion of both. Large-scale orography in Asia exerted east–west contrast in the surface energy exchange in summer in eastern Eurasia. An increase in extratropical winter precipitation with mountains was also noticed because of the atmospheric vapor transport changes. Impact of soil and vegetation skin was clearly found in the warm season in the extratropics; soil impacts extratropical summer precipitation due to enhanced recycling of water and the resultant increased water supply.
RainFARM: Rainfall Downscaling by a Filtered Autoregressive Model
Authors: Rebora Nicola , Ferraris Luca , von Hardenberg Jost , Provenzale Antonello 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A method is introduced for stochastic rainfall downscaling that can be easily applied to the precipitation forecasts provided by meteorological models. Our approach, called the Rainfall Filtered Autoregressive Model (RainFARM), is based on the nonlinear transformation of a Gaussian random field, and it conserves the information present in the rainfall fields at larger scales. The procedure is tested on two radar-measured intense rainfall events, one at midlatitude and the other in the Tropics, and it is shown that the synthetic fields generated by RainFARM have small-scale statistical properties that are consistent with those of the measured precipitation fields. The application of the disaggregation procedure to an example meteorological forecast illustrates how the method can be implemented in operational practice.
Intense Rainfall Events Affecting the La Plata Basin
Authors: Silva Viviane B. S. , Berbery Ernesto H. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The circulation features associated with intense precipitation events over the La Plata Basin (LPB) during the austral summers of 2001/02 and 2002/03 are investigated using the Eta Model runs generated at the University of Maryland. Based on the main mode of variability over LPB, two regions were selected: (i) the region of Brazil that is at the core of the South American summer monsoon system (SAMS) and (ii) the central region of LPB in southeastern South America (SESA). First, a comparison between the 24-h total precipitation in the Eta Model and the 24-h observed precipitation was made. Results show that the Eta Model captures well the temporal variability of precipitation events in both regions, although a positive bias is noticed over SAMS. Likewise, the model reproduces the distribution of precipitation rate over SESA, but not over SAMS. Nevertheless, the distribution of the moisture flux convergence intensity, which represents the dynamical forcing, is closer in shape to the observed precipitation distribution, suggesting that the model can be a useful tool in identifying the forcing for heavy precipitation events over both regions.
Composites of atmospheric and surface variables were constructed for intense precipitation events during austral summer over both regions. Intense rainfall over the central La Plata Basin (SESA) is linked to an amplified upper-tropospheric midlatitude wave pattern in which rainfall occurs just east of an enhanced cyclonic circulation. Accompanying this circulation pattern, an enhanced low-level jet (LLJ) transports warm, moist air from the Amazon toward the region, contributing to an increase in the thermal contrast over SESA. The combined patterns of thermal and dynamical variables suggest that large-scale systems, like frontal systems, are important in producing intense rainfall events. The SAMS region events have a similar upper-level structure as in SESA, but they are longer lived. In this case, the moisture fluxes are determined by an eastward shift of the LLJ, but also directly from the Amazon Basin to the north. As expected, precipitation events produce large increases of simulated runoff. The largest impact is on the SESA region, affecting the streamflow of the Paraná, Paraguay, and Uruguay, the three main rivers of the LPB.