bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Presidents of Costa Rica
Authors: Busey James L. 
Published: July 2006

Writers have long claimed that Costa Rica has achieved standards of popular, constitutional government unusual for Latin America. A few recent commentators have attempted to modify the unstinted praise which others have been prone to lavish upon Costa Rican political institutions and processes.To evaluate properly the assumption that Costa Rica is somehow more “democratic” than her neighbors, there must be examination of a number of elements of Costa Rican political life—that is, press and public expression, individual rights, political parties, roles of judicial and legislative bodies, role of the military, and the like. Some studies have touched upon a few of these elements. Scholarship has yet to cover all of them. The present paper will confine itself to a further aspect of Costa Rican political life—that is, the presidential history of the country. By what means and under what circumstances have presidents secured and left office? How many have been long-term dictators? What have been the backgrounds and characteristics of leading Costa Rican presidents? How many have come from the military profession, and how many from civilian life?
The Episcopal Succession in Spanish America 1800-1850
Authors: Schwaller Robert F. 
Published: July 2006

Because of the role of the Catholic Church in the history of Spanish America, no thorough or genuine appreciation of the independence era is possible without an understanding of the situation of the episcopacy which is at the center of religious life and growth.Since the time of Columbus, relations between Church and State in Spanish America became so identified that by 1800 we can speak of one entity, a State-Church, rather than two distinct entities as we find in the separation of Church and State in North America. This point cannot be over emphasized, and it should be understood that it was not the Church which dominated the State, but rather the State which dominated the Church. It was the State, ultimately the king of Spain, which determined when and where a monastery was to be erected. It was the State which sent over missionaries to the New World. It was the State which even decided upon the erection of a new diocese and the nomination of a new bishop.
The Quiet Experiment in American Diplomacy: An Interpretative Essay on United States Aid to the Bolivian Revolution
Authors: Sanders G. Earl 
Published: July 2006

In a personal letter dated October 1, 1953, to the President of the United States, Víctor Paz Estenssoro, President of the Republic of Bolivia, urgently appealed for both food and economic assistance for his nation. “Our availabilities in foreign currency,” Paz wrote, “have diminished so considerably through the fall in the price of tin and other minerals that we find ourselves in the insurmountable difficulty of not being able to provide food and other essential articles for the people, since in order to import them we need foreign currency.”Never particularly stable, even by Latin American standards, the fragile fabric of the nation had been rent by the revolutionary change of April 1952 which brought the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario from underground and from exile to power. The MNR, led by Paz himself, had instituted rapid, radical modifications in the political, economic, and social structure of the country. These changes, however, exacted their toll. The most serious consequences were a decline in productivity of both minerals and foods. The nation, which had long depended on food imports, could not feed itself, and its foreign exchange earnings were insufficient to permit purchase of foodstuffs from abroad.
Anglo-American Diplomacy and the British West Indies (1783-1789)
Authors: Toth Charles W. 
Published: July 2006

On the eve of the American Revolution colonial trade with the islands of the British West Indies had reached considerable proportions. Close to 40% of the ships leaving the ports of New York and Boston alone sailed directly to the English possessions in the Caribbean, and an estimated 500 sloops and schooners were involved in both direct and indirect commerce. The year 1767 saw a total of 2000 vessels cleared through American ports for the West Indies.The landowners in the West Indies were highly dependent upon the American colonies for supplies of foodstuffs (including livestock) and lumber. Therefore agricultural America had an outlet for its primary products, while the West Indian planter had a steady market for his sugar economy. In effect the trade with the BWI had become, on the eve of the Declaration of Independence, a cornerstone of American commerce. The importance of this trade can, and has, been documented. But no better than by the remark of Paul Revere shortly after the famous midnight ride. Traveling through the major commercial areas of New England, Revere reported “a sentiment in favor of Congress, so constituted, in order to place a restriction on the trade of the West Indies.” Actually the colonies were not about to injure this trade. After Boston harbor was shut down, John Adams remarked that its commerce was “an essential link in a vast chain, which has made New England what it is, the southern provinces what they are, the West India islands what they are.”
President Taft and the Puerto Rican Appropriation Crisis of 1909
Authors: Clark Truman R. 
Published: July 2006

William Howard Taft was a central participant at the birth of American imperialism. He won praises for his work with the Philippine Islands, first as head of the commission created to restore the Islands to a peaceful state, then as the first civil governor. He gave up this office to become Secretary of War under President Theodore Roosevelt in 1905. In his position in the Cabinet Taft had direct or indirect oversight over most of America's scattered empire.By March, 1909, when Taft succeeded Roosevelt in the Presidency, the constitution of the American empire had largely been formulated, even if strictly speaking, it had not been formalized. Civil governments had been set up in Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippine Islands. The “insular cases” of 1901 had defined the limits of claims of the dependent peoples upon the Constitution of the United States; the new possessions were neither foreign nor domestic, and thus even though the Constitution did not follow the flag, tariffs might. The only armed resistance to American control—in the Philippines—had long since ended. It was then to the surprise and dismay of President Taft that tiny Puerto Rico immediately presented a hostile challenge to his new administration, the constitutional rebellion known as the appropriation crisis of 1909.
The Consolidation of 1804 in Guatemala
Authors: Cabat Geoffrey A. 
Published: July 2006

The Consolidation (secularization of the pious funds of church organizations) of 1804 cannot be viewed as an isolated historical phenomenon but rather must be examined in the light of a long hallowed tradition of enmity on the part of the Spanish crown to the church's economic power, and, more immediate to the 1804 decree, as part of the Bourbon policy of regalism. Legislation aimed at controlling the sale of the holdings of the church has many precedents in Spanish legal history. In 1523 the Cortes of Valladolid asked the king, Don Carlos and his mother, the queen, Doña Juana,que las haciendas y patrimonios a bienes raíces no se enajen a iglesias y monasterios e ninguno non se los pueda vender, pues según lo que compran las iglesias y los monasterios, y las donaciones mandas que se les hacen, en pocos años pudiese ser suya la mas hacienda del reino.
The Arms of the Ypiranga: The German Side
Authors: Baecker Thomas 
Published: July 2006

In the years prior to the outbreak of the First World War, the Hamburg-American-Lines (HAPAG) steamer Ypiranga gained a special reputation in the Western hemisphere. It was known for transporting several Mexican Presidents into exile, and it became especially famous for its 26th voyage, a trip from Hamburg to Veracruz in the spring of 1914.Its hold filled with weapons for the Mexican President Huerta, the steamer approached the entrance to the Veracruz harbor on April 21. At that time, its captain had not the slightest idea that on Woodrow Wilson's order American troops had landed to take control of the harbor in order to prevent the weapons his ship carried from reaching the Mexican President.
Jesuit Missions in Baja California
Authors: Weber Francis J. 
Published: July 2006

Whatever history may record about his personal life, there is no denying that Pope Alexander VI was among the most efficient and far-sighted of the Church’s long list of vicars. Perhaps nowhere is this fact more obvious than in the pontiff’s concern and zeal for the missions. In a decree addressed to Ferdinand and Isabella, issued at Rome on May 4, 1493, the pope stated, in part:We order you in virtue of holy obedience (for as you promise, so we do not doubt you will do, in your noble dedication and royal magnanimity) that you dispatch to the designated mainlands and islands virtuous and God-fearing men endowed with training, experience, and skill, to instruct the natives and inhabitants before mentioned and to imbue them with the same Christian faith and sound morals, using all speed in the premises.With this and subsequent papal mandates, the Spanish monarchs inaugurated the Christianization and colonization of the New World.
Jose Maria Gutierrez Estrada: Monarchist Pamphleteer
Authors: Sanders Frank J. 
Published: July 2006

The whole world is talking of a pamphlet written by Señor Gutierrez Estrada, which has just appeared and seems likely to cause a greater sensation in Mexico than the discovery of the gunpowder plot in England.Frances Calderón de la BarcaThus Did the wife of the first Spanish Minister to Mexico describe, in October, 1840, the reception given a letter written by José María Gutiérrez Estrada and published in pamphlet form together with an essay which amplified and clarified his position. The letter, addressed to President Anastasio Bustamante, carried the date August 25, 1840, whereas the pamphlet did not appear until October 18, 1840. The letter pointed to the necessity for a convention to seek a remedy for Mexico’s problems. The remedy advocated by Gutiérrez Estrada in the essay which amplified his position, and which caused such a sensation— was a constitutional monarchy.
Jackson de Figueiredo, Catholic Thinker: A Psychobiographical Study
Authors: Williams Margaret Todaro 
Published: July 2006

A History of Catholicism in Brazil could well be divided into the pre- and post-Jacksonian eras. Jackson de Figueiredo, fiery Catholic journalist of the 1920's who serves as the point of reference, performed the feat of almost single-handedly wrenching the Brazilian Church from the position of static equilibrium in which it long lay suspended. This statis had its roots in the restrictive regalism of the Portuguese and Brazilian Empires and in the Republican disestablishment which followed in 1890.Caught up since 1890 with organizational and financial problems of survival, the Brazilian Church had drawn ever closer to Rome. Under the auspices of the papacy, the hierarchy recruited foreign clergy to staff its underorganized church and encouraged new orders to set up branches in Brazil. In 1905 Pope Leo XIII appointed Archbishop Joaquim Arcoverde of Rio the first Cardinal of Brazil and of Latin America. He created new dioceses in Brazil and appointed Rome-trained bishops to fill them. The utilization of Rome's financial and personnel resources in the postdisestablishment period considerably shored up the Church qua organization in Brazil.
The Iron Works of Ybycui: Paraguayan Industrial Development in the Mid-Nineteenth Century
Authors: Whigham Thomas Lyle 
Published: July 2006

Paraguay, by the mid-nineteenth century, was alone among the South American nations in its policy of internal development and economic autonomy. Exemplifying this were the many independent efforts at modernizing the country and its economy, including the building of a railway, telegraph system, and perhaps most importantly, an iron foundry. Although many foreign advisers were hired for these projects, ultimate control and direction rested in the hands of the Paraguayans themselves.Elsewhere throughout the continent a new British-dominated neocolonial order had taken firm root. Britain's diplomatic ventures at this time centered on the formation of alliances with such American metropolises as Lima and Buenos Aires. These compacts were built upon mutual interests in reconstructing the splintered Viceroyalties into viable political units under basically British hegemony. “The nail is driven,” wrote Foreign Secretary Canning in 1824, “Spanish America is free, and if we do not mismanage our affairs sadly, she is English.”
Foreigners in the Intendencia of Paraguay
Authors: Cooney Jerry W. 
Published: July 2006

The Spanish American Empire in its last half century of existence experienced an economic resurgence in oceanic shipping and inter-change with Europe. That prosperity, prompted by the reforms of the enlightened Bourbon monarch, Charles III, produced an unexpected result. Non-Spanish immigrants appeared in ever increasing numbers in Spain's American colonies. That immigration, almost always illegal, had always occurred in the colonial era in spite of the many barriers erected to exclude foreigners. Now, searching for economic opportunities, these immigrants participated in the economic revitalization of Spanish America.For the most part these newcomers posed no threat to the state; and often by virtue of their commercial expertise or skilled labor, were a boon to Spanish American economic life. Unofficially, imperial officials were well aware of this. The major concern, regardless of official statements, was that immigrants profess the Catholic faith. Many of the newcomers soon acquired families in the New World, pursued their own ends, and quietly melded into Spanish American society. Certainly that proved to be the case in the Rio de la Plata. In this vast region, until the creation of the Viceroyalty in 1776, Spanish authority had been loose and the small foreign presence was generally tolerated or just ignored.
One novel and one recurrent mutation in the PROS1 gene cause type I protein S deficiency in patients with pulmonary embolism associated with deep vein thrombosis
Authors: Mizukami Kazuhiro , Nakabayashi Toru , Naitoh Sumiyoshi , Takeda Mika , Tarumi Takashi , Mizoguchi Itaru , Ieko Masahiro , Koike Takao 
Published: July 2006

AbstractWe investigated the molecular basis of type I protein S (PS) deficiency in two unrelated Japanese families, in which both probands developed pulmonary embolism associated with deep vein thrombosis. Nucleotide sequencing of amplified DNA revealed distinct point mutations in the PROS1 gene of the probands, which were designated protein S Sapporo 1 and protein S Sapporo 2. Additional mutations in the PROS1 gene were excluded by DNA sequencing of all exons and intron/exon boundaries. In the 25‐year‐old Japanese male patient who carried protein S Sapporo 1, we identified a heterozygous A‐to‐T change in the invariant ag dinucleotide of the acceptor splice site of intron f of the PROS1 gene. This mutation is a novel splice site mutation that impairs normal mRNA splicing, leading to exon 7 skipping, which was confirmed by platelet mRNA analysis. Translation of this mutant transcript would result in a truncated protein that lacks the entire epidermal growth factor‐like domain 3 of the PS molecule. In a 31‐year‐old Japanese male and his younger brother who each carried protein S Sapporo 2, we detected a previously described heterozygous T‐to‐C transition at nucleotide position 1147 in exon 10 of the PROS1 gene, which predicts an amino acid substitution of tryptophan by arginine at residue 342 in the laminin G1 domain of the PS molecule. Both mutations would cause misfolding of the PS protein, resulting in the impairment of secretion, which is consistent with the type I PS deficiency phenotype. Am. J. Hematol., 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Tin(II) aminoalkoxides and heterobimetallic derivatives: the structures of Sn6(O)4(dmae)4, Sn6(O)4(OEt)4 and [Sn(dmae)2Cd(acac)2]2
Authors: Hollingsworth Nathan , Horley Graeme A. , Mazhar Muhammed , Mahon Mary F. , Molloy Kieran C. , Haycock Peter W. , Myers Christopher P. , Critchlow Gary W. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractTin(II) methoxide reacts with N,N′‐dimethylaminoethanol (dmaeH) to yield Sn(dmae)2 (1) along with small amounts of the hydrolysis product Sn6(O)4(dmae)4 (2). The geometrically more regular iso‐structural cage Sn6(O)4(OEt)4 (3) was obtained as the only tractable product isolated from reaction of 2 and Sb(OEt)3, while 1 reacted with CdX2 (X = acac, I) to afford Sn(dmae)2Cd(acac)2 (4) and Sn(dmae)2CdI2 (5). The X‐ray structures of 2, 3 and 4 are reported. Decomposition of 4 under aerosol‐assisted chemical vapour deposition conditions leads to amorphous tin oxide films with no detectable cadmium (i.e. ca < 2% cadmium), rather than a stoichiometric Sn:Cd oxide. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Expression of allograft inflammatory factor 1 in tissues from patients with systemic sclerosis and in vitro differential expression of its isoforms in response to transforming growth factor β
Authors: Galdo Francesco Del , Maul Gerd G. , Jiménez Sergio A. , Artlett Carol M. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractObjectiveAllograft inflammatory factor 1 (AIF‐1), a protein initially identified in chronically rejected rat cardiac allografts, is involved in the immune response and proliferative vasculopathy that occurs during allograft rejection. Three well‐characterized isoforms of AIF‐1 result from alternative messenger RNA (mRNA) splicing. We previously identified a strong association of systemic sclerosis (SSc) with a polymorphism in AIF‐1 isoform 2. The purpose of this study was to investigate AIF‐1 expression in affected tissues from patients with SSc and to examine the regulation of its isoforms by transforming growth factor β (TGFβ).MethodsAIF‐1 in the skin and lung tissues of patients with SSc was analyzed by immunochemistry. AIF‐1 isoform expression in response to TGFβ and interferon‐γ stimulation was examined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR).ResultsAIF‐1 protein was present in affected vessels of the lung and skin lesions of patients with SSc. Quantitative PCR showed an average of 14‐fold higher mRNA levels in affected SSc skin than in normal skin. Double‐label immunofluorescence staining demonstrated that T cells, macrophages, and endothelial cells in affected tissues expressed AIF‐1. Stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with TGFβ caused a specific and significant increase in the expression of AIF‐1 isoform 2 transcripts (P < 0.005), which was due to stabilization of AIF‐1 isoform 2 mRNA.ConclusionThese data suggest that AIF‐1 plays an important role in the pathogenesis of SSc owing to its increased expression in affected tissues and to the specific stimulation of AIF‐1 isoform 2 by TGFβ.
Gout and the risk of acute myocardial infarction
Authors: Krishnan Eswar , Baker Joshua F. , Furst Daniel E. , Schumacher H. Ralph 
Published: July 2006

AbstractObjectiveTo determine if hyperuricemia and gouty arthritis are independent risk factors for acute myocardial infarction (MI) and, if so, whether they are independent of renal function, diuretic use, metabolic syndrome, and other established risk factors.MethodsWe performed multivariable logistic and instrumental variable probit regressions on data from the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT).ResultsOverall, there were 12,866 men in the MRFIT who were followed up for a mean of 6.5 years. There were 118 events of acute MI in the group with gout (10.5%) and 990 events in the group without gout (8.43%; P = 0.018). Hyperuricemia was an independent risk factor for acute MI in the multivariable regression models, with an odds ratio (OR) of 1.11 (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.08–1.15, P < 0.001). In multivariable regressions in which the above risk factors were used as covariates, gout was found to be associated with a higher risk of acute MI (OR 1.26 [95% CI 1.14–1.40], P < 0.001). Subgroup analyses showed that a relationship between gout and the risk of acute MI was present among nonusers of alcohol, diuretics, or aspirin and among those who did not have metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus, or obesity. In separate analyses, a relationship between gout and the risk of acute MI was evident among those with and without those hyperuricemia.ConclusionThe independent risk relationship between hyperuricemia and acute MI is confirmed. Gouty arthritis is associated with an excess risk of acute MI, and this is not explained by its well‐known links with renal function, metabolic syndrome, diuretic use, and traditional cardiovascular risk factors.
Computer‐aided virtual reconstruction of Italian ancient clocks
Authors: Pennestrì E. , Pezzuti E. , Valentini P.P. , Vita L. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractItaly has plenty of cultural heritages. The masterpieces are often placed in locations which are difficult to reach, moreover many artifacts, coming from man's creativity, have very complex functioning. The authors of this paper describe their experience in using the computer graphics capabilities in order to reproduce four ancient clocks functioning coming from different Italian regions. The study is based not only on the 3D‐shapes reconstruction but also on the simulation of their complex mechanisms in order to mimic their functioning. The realism of the reconstruction allows to use the graphical products in exhibits, museums and also for maintenance programs. The rendering techniques together with an accurate camera path, allow to get into the clock mechanisms and to appreciate all the features (and even secrets) that a simple glance cannot reveal. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Induction of Apoptosis in HeLa Cells by 3β‐Hydroxyurs‐12‐en‐27‐oic Acid
Authors: Zheng Quan‐Fang , Sun Hong‐Xiang , He Qiao‐Jun , Ye Yi‐Ping 
Published: July 2006

Abstract3β‐Hydroxyurs‐12‐en‐27‐oic acid (1), a pentacyclic triterpenoid isolated from the rhizomes of Astilbe chinensis, was structurally very similar to ursolic acid, with the only difference being the interchange of the COOH and Me group at C(14) and C(17). Ursane‐type triterpene with a COOH group at C(14) is present in a limited number of natural resources. Compound 1 was found to exhibit more distinctive cytotoxicity toward human cervical squamous carcinoma (HeLa) cells than ursolic acid, suggesting that the position of the COOH group significantly affects the cytotoxicity of ursane‐type pentacyclic triterpenes with a COOH group. To elucidate the underlying biological mechanism responsible for the cytotoxicity of 1, we investigated its growth‐inhibitory and apoptosis‐inducing effect on HeLa cells. Compound 1 induced a marked concentration‐ and time‐dependent inhibition of cell proliferation with an IC50 value of 6.80±0.88 μg/ml following 48 h incubation. The drug‐treated HeLa cells displayed typical morphological apoptotic characteristics and formation of DNA ladders in agarose‐gel electrophoresis. Flow cytometric analysis showed that the cell cycle was arrested in G0/G1 phase by 1, and the apoptotic rate of HeLa cells treated for 48 h with 20 μg/ml of 1 was 21.08±2.14%. Also, 1 increased and decreased the expression of Bax and Bcl‐2 proteins, respectively, and lowered the mitochondrial transmembrane potential (Δψm). The peptidic capase‐3 inhibitor DEVD‐CHO (NH2‐Asp‐Glu‐Val‐Asp‐CHO, at 2 μM) could increase the viability of HeLa cells previously treated with 1. These results indicate that 1 induces efficient cell apoptosis through down‐regulating Bcl‐2 expression, up‐regulating Bax expression, lowering Δψm, and by activating the caspase‐3 pathway.