The clinical and genetic spectrum of inherited glycosylphosphatidylinositol deficiency disorders
Authors: Sidpra Jai , Sudhakar Sniya , Biswas Asthik , Massey Flavia , Turchetti Valentina , Lau Tracy , Cook Edward , Alvi Javeria Raza , Elbendary Hasnaa M , Jewell Jerry L , Riva Antonella , Orsini Alessandro , Vignoli Aglaia , Federico Zara , Rosenblum Jessica , Schoonjans An-Sofie , de Wachter Matthias , Delgado Alvarez Ignacio , Felipe-Rucián Ana , Haridy Nourelhoda A , Haider Shahzad , Zaman Mashaya , Banu Selina , Anwaar Najwa , Rahman Fatima , Maqbool Shazia , Yadav Rashmi , Salpietro Vincenzo , Maroofian Reza , Patel Rajan , Radhakrishnan Rupa , Prabhu Sanjay P , Lichtenbelt Klaske , Stewart Helen , Murakami Yoshiko , Löbel Ulrike , D’Arco Felice , Wakeling Emma , Jones Wendy , Hay Eleanor , Bhate Sanjay , Jacques Thomas S , Mirsky David M , Whitehead Matthew T , Zaki Maha S , Sultan Tipu , Striano Pasquale , Jansen Anna C , Lequin Maarten , de Vries Linda S , Severino Mariasavina , Edmondson Andrew C , Menzies Lara , Campeau Philippe M , Houlden Henry , McTague Amy , Efthymiou Stephanie , Mankad Kshitij 
Published: March 2024

Abstract
Inherited glycosylphosphatidylinositol deficiency disorders (IGDs) are a group of rare multisystem disorders arising from pathogenic variants in glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor pathway (GPI-AP) genes. Despite associating 24 of at least 31 GPI-AP genes with human neurogenetic disease, prior reports are limited to single genes without consideration of the GPI-AP as a whole and with limited natural history data.
In this multinational retrospective observational study, we systematically analyse the molecular spectrum, phenotypic characteristics and natural history of 83 individuals from 75 unique families with IGDs, including 70 newly reported individuals; the largest single cohort to date.
Core clinical features were developmental delay or intellectual disability (DD/ID, 90%), seizures (83%), hypotonia (72%) and motor symptoms (64%). Prognostic and biologically significant neuroimaging features included cerebral atrophy (75%), cerebellar atrophy (60%), callosal anomalies (57%) and symmetric restricted diffusion of the central tegmental tracts (60%). Sixty-one individuals had multisystem involvement including gastrointestinal (66%), cardiac (19%) and renal (14%) anomalies. Though dysmorphic features were appreciated in 82%, no single dysmorphic feature had a prevalence &gt;30%, indicating substantial phenotypic heterogeneity. Follow-up data were available for all individuals, 15 of whom were deceased at the time of writing. Median age at seizure onset was 6 months. Individuals with variants in synthesis stage genes of the GPI-AP exhibited a significantly shorter time to seizure onset than individuals with variants in transamidase and remodelling stage genes of the GPI-AP (P = 0.046). Forty individuals had intractable epilepsy. The majority of individuals experienced delayed or absent speech (95%), motor delay with non-ambulance (64%), and severe-to-profound DD/ID (59%). Individuals with a developmental epileptic encephalopathy (51%) were at greater risk of intractable epilepsy (P = 0.003), non-ambulance (P = 0.035), ongoing enteral feeds (P &lt; 0.001) and cortical visual impairment (P = 0.007). Serial neuroimaging showed progressive cerebral volume loss in 87.5% and progressive cerebellar atrophy in 70.8%, indicating a neurodegenerative process. Genetic analyses identified 93 unique variants (106 total), including 22 novel variants. Exploratory analyses of genotype-phenotype correlations using unsupervised hierarchical clustering identified novel genotypic predictors of clinical phenotype and long-term outcome with meaningful implications for management.
In summary, we expand both the mild and severe phenotypic extremities of the IGDs, provide insights into their neurological basis, and vitally, enable meaningful genetic counselling for affected individuals and their families.