bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Work Schedule, Needle Use, and Needlestick Injuries Among Registered Nurses
Authors: Trinkoff Alison M. , Le Rong , Geiger-Brown Jeanne , Lipscomb Jane 
Published: February 2007

Objective.To examine the association between working conditions and needlestick injury among registered nurses. We also describe needle use and needlestick injuries according to nursing position, workplace, and specialty.Design.Three-wave longitudinal survey conducted between November 2002 and April 2004.Setting and Participants.A probability sample of 2,624 actively licensed registered nurses from 2 states in the United States. Follow-up rates for waves 2 and 3 were 85% and 86%, respectively. Respondents who had worked as a nurse during the past year (n= 2,273) prior to wave 1 were included in this analysis.Results.Of the nurses, 15.6% reported a history of needlestick injury in the year before wave 1, and the cumulative incidence by wave 3 was 16.3%. The estimated number of needles used per day was significantly related to the odds of sustaining a needlestick injury. Hours worked per day, weekends worked per month, working other than day shifts, and working 13 or more hours per day at least once a week were each significantly associated with needlestick injuries. A factor combining these variables was significantly associated with needlestick injuries even after adjustment for job demands, although this association was somewhat explained by physical job demands.Conclusions.Despite advances in protecting workers from needlestick injuries, extended work schedules and their concomitant physical demands are still contributing to the occurrence of injuries and illnesses to nurses. Such working conditions, if modified, could lead to further reductions in needlestick injuries.
Clostridium difficile in the Intensive Care Unit: Epidemiology, Costs, and Colonization Pressure
Authors: Lawrence Steven J. , Puzniak Laura A. , Shadel Brooke N. , Gillespie Kathleen N. , Kollef Marin H. , Mundy Linda M. 
Published: February 2007

Objective.To evaluate the epidemiology, outcomes, and importance of Clostridium difficile colonization pressure (CCP) as a risk factor for C. difficile–associated disease (CDAD) acquisition in intensive care unit (ICU) patients.Design.Secondary analysis of data from a 30-month retrospective cohort study.Setting.A 19-bed medical ICU in a midwestern tertiary care referral center.Patients.Consecutive sample of adult patients with a length of stay of 24 hours or more between July 1, 1997, and December 31, 1999.Results.Seventy-six (4%) of 1,872 patients were identified with CDAD; 40 (53%) acquired CDAD in the ICU, for an incidence of 3.2 cases per 1,000 patient-days. Antimicrobial therapy, enteral feeding, mechanical ventilation, vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) colonization or infection, and CCP (5.5 vs 2.0 CDAD case-days of exposure for patients with acquired CDAD vs no CDAD; P = .001) were associated with CDAD acquisition in the univariate analysis. Only VRE colonization or infection (45% of patients with acquired CDAD vs 16% of patients without CDAD; adjusted odds ratio, 2.76 [95% confidence interval, 1.36-5.59]) and a CCP of more than 30 case-days of exposure (20% with acquired CDAD vs 2% with no CDAD; adjusted odds ratio, 3.77 [95% confidence interval, 1.14-12.49]) remained statistically significant in the multivariable analysis. Lengths of stay (6.1 vs 3.0 days; P < .001 by univariate analysis) and ICU costs ($11,353 vs $6,028; P < .001 by univariate analysis) were higher for patients with any CDAD than for patients with no CDAD.Conclusions.In this nonoutbreak setting, the CCP was an independent risk factor for acquisition of CDAD in the ICU at the upper range of exposure duration. Having CDAD in the ICU was a marker of excess healthcare use.
The Sacrificial Process of Ancient Israel
Authors: Klawans Jonathan 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines the biblical sacrificial process, including purity rites, as recorded especially in the priestly tradition and the Holiness Code. It argues against placing the priestly traditions in a linear chronological relationship, as done by Julius Wellhausen and Yehezkel Kaufmann. It proposes a new symbolic understanding of both purity and sacrifice. Sacrifice can be understood as an act of imitatio Dei, with the goal of attracting the Divine Presence into the tabernacle.
Rethinking the Prophetic Critique
Authors: Klawans Jonathan 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter reconsiders the biblical prophets’ attitude toward sacrifice, rejecting the radical contrast between priest and prophet as articulated by Max Weber, Wellhausen, and Kaufmann. It reviews various prophetic texts, including especially Amos, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. It suggests that the prophets’ symbolic actions are analogous to rituals, and argues that the prophets’ ostensible rejection of sacrifice is based in part on their belief that many sacrifices were being offered by those whose property was unduly earned, being proceeds from the exploitation of the poor.
The Last Supper, the Temple Incident, and the “Spiritualization” of Sacrifice in the New Testament
Authors: Klawans Jonathan 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter reexamines New Testament traditions concerning the Last Supper and Jesus’ overturning the tables in the Jerusalem temple. It argues that the last supper can be understood as a symbolic act seeking to emulate the temple, affirming its efficacy and meaning. The temple incident is understood as a development of earlier prophetic notions concerning the rejection of stolen sacrifices. In his concern for the poor — and in line with his communitarian social message — Jesus overturned the tables in the temple because he rejected the idea that the poor should be charged at all for their sacrifices. The differing rabbinic perspective on this question is also explored. The chapter concludes with brief survey of anti-temple polemics found in Acts, Hebrews, and Revelation.
What RoboMary Knows
Authors: Dennett Daniel 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter further develops a line of argument Daniel Dennett presented in his 1991 book, Consciousness Explained, where he argued that we should reject the intuition that Mary gains knowledge when she leaves the room. In his view, this intuition derives from a failure to appreciate the implications of knowing all the physical facts. Dennet gives a more detailed account of his case. Specifically, he (1) criticizes attempts to defend the intuition; (2) devises variations on the Mary case to illustrate how a deduction from physical information of what it's like to see in color might actually proceed; and (3) defends his arguments against objections. He affirmatively answers the question: could a proper understanding of phenomenal concepts/knowledge show that there is or is not an epistemic gap? He argues that a proper understanding of phenomenal concepts and phenomenal knowledge helps to show that there is no epistemic gap.
The Knowledge Argument, Diaphanousness, Representationalism
Authors: Jackson Frank 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter develops a representationalist view about perceptual experience and defends its application to the knowledge argument. This view is based partly on the idea that perceptual experience is diaphanous — in other words, that accessing the nature of the experience itself is nothing other than accessing the properties of its object. It is argued that although the diaphanousness thesis alone does not entail representationalism, the thesis supports an inference from a weaker to a stronger version of representationalism. On the weak version, perceptual experience is essentially representational. On the strong version, how an experience represents things as being exhausts its experiential nature. Strong representationalism undermines the claim that Mary learns new truths when she leaves the room.
Does Representationalism Undermine the Knowledge Argument?
Authors: Alter Torin 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThe knowledge argument aims to refute physicalism — the view that the world is entirely physical. The argument first establishes the existence of facts (or truths or information) about consciousness that are not a priori deducible from the complete physical truth, and then infers the falsity of physicalism from this lack of deducibility. Frank Jackson gave the argument its classic formulation, but has since rejected the argument claiming that it relies on a false conception of sensory experience, which should be replaced with representationalism (also known as intentionalism) — the view that phenomenal states are just representational states. This chapter argues that Jackson's representationalist response to the knowledge argument fails. Physicalists face a representationalist version of the knowledge argument that inherits the force of the original. Reformulating the challenge in representationalist terms does little to help physicalists answer it.
Grasping Phenomenal Properties
Authors: Nida‐Rümelin Martine 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter presents an argument for property dualism. The argument employs a distinction between having a concept of a property and grasping a property via a concept. If you grasp a property P via a concept C, then C is a concept of P. But the reverse does not hold: you may have a concept of a property without grasping that property via any concept. If you grasp a property, then your cognitive relation to that property is more intimate than if you just have some concept or other of that property. To grasp a property is to understand what having that property essentially consists in. To have a concept of a property is to have a concept one can use to attribute the property to something. If you have the concept of water, then you can use it to attribute the property of being water to liquids. You then have a concept of the property of being water. But you may have the concept of water without knowing that being composed of H2O is essential for being water — without knowing what having the property of being water consists in. In that case, your concept would not enable you to grasp the property. An account of grasping properties is proposed.
Moral Science
Authors: Binmore Ken 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter presents an overview of the book. It argues that the metaphysical approach to ethics is a failure and that the time has come to take a scientific view of morality. A social contract is taken to be the set of common understandings that allow the citizens of a society to coordinate. Such social contracts are seen as the product of biological and cultural evolution. To survive, a social contract must therefore be an equilibrium in the repeated game of life played by a society. Since the folk theorem of repeated game theory says that there are large numbers of such equilibria, fairness norms then become explicable as an equilibrium selection device that selects one of the many efficient equilibria of a society's game of life. It is suggested that the deep structure of such fairness norms is captured by John Rawls' notion of the original position, and is therefore universal in the human species. On the other hand, the standard of interpersonal comparison needed as an input to the original position is culturally determined.
Introduction
Authors: Simpson Tom , Carruthers Peter , Laurence Stephen , Stich Stephen 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis introductory chapter reviews some of the debates in philosophy, psychology, anthropology, evolutionary theory, and other cognitive sciences that provide a background for the topics with which this volume is concerned. Topics covered include the history of nativism, the poverty of the stimulus argument, the uniform and structure pattern followed by human cognitive development, evolution biology, and cognitive modularity. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Distinctively Human Thinking
Authors: Carruthers Peter 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter addresses the main challenge facing massively modular theories of the architecture of the human mind. This is to account for the distinctively flexible, non-domain-specific character of much human thinking. It shows how the appearance of a modular language faculty within an evolving modular architecture might have led to these distinctive features of human thinking with only minor further additions and non-domain-specific adaptations.
Toward a Reasonable Nativism
Authors: Simpson Tom 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter sketches the outlines of what a reasonable form of nativism might look like. The neuroconstructivists' challenge indicates that some misunderstanding continues to exist among certain self-titled nonnativists over what it is that practicing nativists actually claim, together with a mistaken belief that current neurodevelopmental data is not or cannot be compatible with the nativist program. Both these issues are addressed by first providing further explication of the claims of practicing nativists, and then showing how these claims provide the basis for a reasonable nativism that is fully cognizant of and consistent with empirical data from all the developmental sciences, neuroconstructivism included.
Two Insights about Naming in the Preschool Child
Authors: Gelman Susan A. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines associationist models of cognitive development, focusing on the development of naming in young children — the process by which young children learn of construct the meanings of words and concepts. It presents two early-emerging insights that children possess about the nature of naming. These insights are: (1) essentialism: certain words map onto nonobvious, underlying causal features (e.g., dogs are alike in internal and subtle respects, even if they look quite different on the surface), and (2) genericity: certain expressions map onto generic kinds (e.g., dogs as an abstract category) as opposed to particular instances (e.g., one or more specific dogs). The chapter discusses empirical studies with preschool children to support the contention that essentialism and genericity emerge early in development and that neither insight is directly taught. It also explores the question of whether these insights can be derived wholly from a direct reading of cues that are ‘out there’in the world, and concludes that they cannot. The implications of these findings for innateness are then considered. It is argued that both essentialism and genericity provide cues regarding plausible candidates for innate conceptual knowledge in children.
Parent‐Offspring Conflict and the Development of Social Understanding
Authors: Povinelli Daniel J. , Prince Christopher G. , Preuss Todd M. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter begins with a brief review of the theory of parent-offspring conflict and considers the role of this conflict in the cognitive development of human infants. It then discusses the evolution of theory of mind — which is taken to have its origins in human evolution — and considers how this human cognitive specialization might have interacted with existing parent-offspring dynamics. How the epigenetic systems of infants might have responded is shown by elaborating upon existing cognitive and behavioural systems, or by canalizing later developing ones earlier into development, in order to recruit higher degrees of parental investment. The merits of this framework is assessed in the context of the development of behaviours considered by some researchers to be indicative of a certain degree of social understanding, namely, gaze-following, pointing, social smiling, and neonatal imitation. The chapter concludes by showing how this proposal makes several longstanding theoretical and methodological difficulties for the field of cognitive development even more vexing.
The Plausibility of Adaptations for Homicide
Authors: Duntley Joshua D. , Buss David M. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter presents a new theory of homicide — homicide adaptation theory — which proposes that humans evolved adaptations to facilitate killing. The new theory is contrasted with two competing conceptions of why people kill: the by-product hypothesis and the evolved goal hypothesis. The concept of ‘innateness’ in relation to the conception of evolved homicide adaptations presented in this chapter is discussed.
Cognitive Neuroscience and the Structure of the Moral Mind
Authors: Greene Joshua 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter discusses neurocognitive work relevant to moral psychology and the proposition that innate factors make important contributions to moral judgment. It reviews various sources of evidence for an innate moral faculty, before presenting brain-imaging data in support of the same conclusion. It is argued that our moral thought is the product of an interaction between some ‘gut-reaction’ moral emotions and our capacity for abstract reflection.
Al-KindĪ
Authors: Adamson Peter 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This monograph is a comprehensive study of the thought of al-Kindī, the first self-described philosopher in Islam, and the first to write original treatises in Arabic. Al-Kindī’s writings are closely engaged with Greek philosophical and scientific texts, whose translation into Arabic he oversaw. Some of the philosophical views for which al-Kindī is known are reactions to Greek thinkers. For instance, he used ideas from Philoponus in arguing against the eternity of the world, and his discussion of divine attributes is based on Neoplatonic texts. However, the book also places al-Kindī’s thought within the context of 9th century Islamic culture, especially contemporary theological developments. The book covers every aspect of al-Kindī’s extant philosophical corpus, including not only his philosophical theology but also his theory of soul, his epistemology, and his ethics. Two chapters are devoted to al-Kindī’s works on the natural sciences (in particular pharmacology, optics, music, and cosmology). The book concludes by discussing how al-Kindī used Greek cosmological ideas in his account of divine providence.
Metaphysics
Authors: Adamson Peter 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter deals with al-Kindī’s metaphysics, which in this context means theology and the idea that being is an emanation or creation from God. Depending on the Neoplatonists, especially Proclus, al-Kindī proves God’s existence by arguing for the need for a “true One”, whose absolute simplicity rules out a multiplicity of divine attributes.
Causal Models
Authors: Sloman Steven 
Published: February 2007

AbstractHuman beings are active agents who can think. To understand how thought serves action requires understanding how people conceive of the relation between cause and effect, between action and outcome. This book presents the question, in cognitive terms: how do people construct and reason with the causal models we use to represent our world? A revolution is occurring in how statisticians, philosophers, and computer scientists answer this question. Those fields have ushered in new insights about causal models by thinking about how to represent causal structure mathematically, in a framework that uses graphs and probability theory to develop what are called causal Bayesian networks. The framework starts with the idea that the purpose of causal structure is to understand and predict the effects of intervention. How does intervening on one thing affect other things? This is not a question merely about probability (or logic), but about action. The framework offers a new understanding of mind: thought is about the effects of intervention and cognition is thus intimately tied to actions that take place either in the actual physical world or in imagination, in counterfactual worlds. This book offers a conceptual introduction to the key mathematical ideas, presenting them in a non-technical way, focusing on the intuitions rather than the theorems. It tries to show why the ideas are important to understanding how people explain things and why thinking not only about the world as it is but the world as it could be is so central to human action. The book reviews the role of causality, causal models, and intervention in the basic human cognitive functions: decision making, reasoning, judgment, categorization, inductive inference, language, and learning. In short, the book offers a discussion about how people think, talk, learn, and explain things in causal terms, in terms of action and manipulation.
Decision Making via Causal Consequences
Authors: Sloman Steven 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter discusses how we make decisions. Topics covered include the gambling metaphor, Newcomb's paradox, and people's concern about causal structure. It is argued that in general, both normative thinking and naïve thinking about decisions always depend on a causal model of the decision situation. However, that causal model does not always dictate what people decide. Sometimes people make decisions that reflect how they want the world to be, rather than according to their understanding of how the world actually works. This fact about people is itself a causal mechanism governing one way in which people influence their environments. Behaving as one wants the world to be can make it more likely that the world will actually turn out that way.
Causal Learning
Authors: Sloman Steven 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter offers a selection of theories of causal learning. Some of the theories come out of psychology, while others come out of rational analyses of causal learning. All tend to focus on how people use correlations — information about which events go together — to figure out what is causing what. A number of other, supporting pieces of information about what causes what — a number of other cues to causal structure — that people are responsive to are described. The costs and benefits of allowing learners to actively intervene on the system they are learning are discussed.
Faith and Law in a Multicultural World
Authors: Berman Harold J. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis essay explores some dimensions of the developing body of world law and its source in the emerging world society of states, corporations, and international non-governmental organizations (INGOs). It is the thesis of this essay that the universal belief in law constitutes an important element of the fundamental belief system — in that sense, the religion — of the emerging world society. At the heart of all the major religions is the same faith in peace and sociability, that is at the heart of all the major legal systems. A universal faith in law shares with religious faith not only a body of moral principles, but also the element of faith itself.
Moving to Markets in Environmental Regulation
Authors: Freeman Jody , Kolstad Charles D. 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
Over the last decade, market-based incentives have become the regulatory tool of choice when trying to solve difficult environmental problems. Evidence of their dominance can be seen in recent proposals for addressing global warming (through an emissions trading scheme in the Kyoto Protocol) and for amending the Clean Air Act (to add a new emissions trading systems for smog precursors and mercury — the Bush administration's “Clear Skies” program). They are widely viewed as more efficient than traditional command and control regulation. This collection of essays takes a critical look at this question, and evaluates whether the promises of market-based regulation have been fulfilled. Contributors put forth the ideas that few regulatory instruments are actually purely market-based, or purely prescriptive, and that both approaches can be systematically undermined by insufficiently careful design and by failures of monitoring and enforcement. All in all, the essays recommend future research that no longer pits one kind of approach against the other, but instead examines their interaction and compatibility. This book should appeal to academics in environmental economics and law, along with policymakers in government agencies and advocates in non-governmental organizations.