bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Head‐Out Plethysmography in Safety Pharmacology Assessment
Authors: Renninger Jonathan P. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractThe importance of the ability to accurately evaluate respiratory function in animals has been underscored by the classification of the respiratory system as a vital organ system by regulatory agencies in the United States, the European Union, and Japan. A comprehensive assessment of respiratory function should include an evaluation of ventilatory function, including rate and volume measurements, overall pulmonary ventilation (i.e., minute volume), and lung function, including resistance to lung airflow. A volume‐displacement, head‐out, plethysmograph chamber is widely considered the most accurate method for measuring respiratory flows and volumes in small animals because it allows direct assessment of both volume and rate as well as resistance to lung airflow, a predictor of airway constriction or obstruction. Direct assessment of airway resistance is important because mild to moderate increases are generally not detected as changes in ventilatory patterns. This unit describes a method for evaluating ventilatory and lung function in conscious rats.
Synthesis of Amino Acid Phosphoramidate Monoesters via H‐Phosphonate Intermediates
Authors: Choy Cindy J. , Drontle Dan P. , Wagner Carston R. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractDiphenyl phosphite and bis(N,N‐diisopropylamino)chlorophosphine are used as phosphitylating reagents to generate H‐phosphonate monoesters. These H‐phosphonate intermediates are subsequently oxidized with iodine to generate the 5′‐nucleoside amino acid phosphoramidates.
Animal Identification
Authors: Donovan John , Brown Patricia 
Published: July 2006

AbstractProper identification of animals is crucial in research, whether the animals are being used as experimental subjects, for breeding purposes, or as a source for tissues, cells, or fluids. This unit provides specific protocols for the ear punch (notch) and ear tag methods for mouse, rat and hamster; tattoos for mouse, rat and rabbit; and the correct use of a subcutaneous transponder system for all of the above species.
Rubidium and Rubidium Compounds
Authors: Wagner Frank S. 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
The article provides an overview of the properties, preparation, and chemistry of the element rubidium. Physical properties of rubidium are provided. The chemistry of the element is discussed in terms of its preparation, basic inorganic chemistry, chelating complexes, and metal–fulleride compounds. Packaging and current shipping information is included. Suppliers of rubidium metal and compounds are listed, along with pricing. Owing to the chemical reactivity of rubidium, safe handling and storage procedures for the metal are discussed. Available toxicological data are given for a number of common rubidium compounds. Although rubidium and its compounds have limited commercial application, some uses are reviewed. References to review articles, monographs, and books on rubidium and the alkali metals are also provided.
Supramolecular Chemistry
Authors: Cragg Peter J. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractSupramolecular chemistry has its origins in the supermolecule, a term used by Nobel Laureate Jean‐Marie Lehn from the early 1970s when referring to a well‐defined chemical species comprising several components. The realization that supermolecules could in turn form larger molecular assemblies led to the shift in emphasis from super‐ to supramolecular in the literature to more accurately describe the complexity of systems involved. Supramolecular chemistry has since advanced to include complexes between molecules with complementary binding sites (molecular recognition), multicomponent complexes (supramolecular assemblies), the programmed interactions between large molecular assemblies (molecular tectonics), and even the directed assembly of three‐dimensional solids (crystal engineering). This article sets out the concepts and aims of supramolecular chemistry, illustrates some of the early development in the field, considers the synthesis and structures of individual supramolecular synthons as well as supramolecular assemblies, and concludes with an assessment of current and anticipated applications in materials science, medicine, the interface with biology, molecular computing, nanomaterials, and nanomachines.
Exploring Phenotypic Data at the Rat Genome Database
Authors: N. Twigger Simon , S. Smith Jennifer , Zuniga‐Meyer Angela , Bromberg Susan K. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractThe laboratory rat, Rattus norvegicus, is an important model of human health and disease, and experimental findings in the rat have direct relevance to human‐based research. The Rat Genome Database (RGD, http://rgd.mcw.edu) is a model‐organism database that provides access to wide variety of curated rat data such as genes and their homologs, quantitative trait loci, phenotypes, comparative mapping, and genome analysis. We present an overview of the database followed by specific examples that can be used to gain experience in employing RGD to explore the wealth of functional data available for the rat. We show how to make associations with the genome and use comparative tools to link the rat with human and mouse in order to integrate results from these three species of critical biomedical importance.
Studies Investigating Prognostic Factors: Conduct and Evaluation
Authors: Altman Douglas G. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractMost types of human cancer are heterogeneous with regard to clinical features, natural course, histologic, and molecular characteristics. Better diagnostic classification systems would improve the ability to select an appropriate treatment and facilitate the development of more effective regimens. For example, accurate classification of small breast tumors with regard to metastatic potential would permit many patients to avoid systemic therapy.The medical literature is filled with reports of prognostic factor discoveries. There are numerous inconsistencies among reports, and for many types of cancer the literature can at best be called confusing. In contrast to clinical trials, there are no standards for prognostic factor studies, and hence it is easy to publish methodologically poor studies in reputable journals. Nearly all prognostic factor studies are “exploratory studies” rather than “confirmatory studies.” Because of problems of multiple significance testing, most conclusions of exploratory analyses will not be correct. The phenomenon of “publication bias” assures that the most positive and erroneous of these studies will be published in reputable journals and receive attention.Technological developments are likely to make the confusion in the literature of prognostic factor studies much worse. Genomics is providing huge numbers of DNA polymorphisms that can be used as prognostic factors in future studies. DNA microarrays currently permit the expression profiling of tens of thousands of genes for each tumor sample, and these expression levels are potential prognostic factors. It is therefore important for clinical investigators and clinicians to have a better understanding of the flaws of many prognostic factor studies and to establish standards for the type of evidence about a prognostic factor that we should have before accepting the factor in clinical practice. These are the objectives of this chapter.
Gastric Cancer
Authors: van Krieken J.H.J.M. , van de Velde Cornelis J.H. 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
The incidence of gastric cancer is decreasing worldwide, but the prognosis is still generally poor. Insight in pathogenesis (the role of Helicobacter Pylori and Epstein‐Barr virus) and molecular genetics (p53 en RAS mutations) has increased in recent years. Important new data exist on treatment: the role of local surgical treatment, extended lymphadenectomy, and chemotherapy. Outcome is clearly dependent on many factors, but complete surgical excision is still central in the treatment. This chapter deals with clinical, pathological, and genetic factors that are related to survival, especially those that can influence clinical management. An important caveat has been formulated recently: criteria to diagnose cancer of the stomach vary, clearly leading to differences in patient populations in studies. In particular, this might partially explain the higher incidence and better prognosis of gastric cancer in Japan. But then, when staged similarly using the same prognostic factors, there was no difference between the prognosis for German and Japanese patients. Where prior gastric surgery is concerned (gastric stump carcinoma) prognosis is very poor, but dependant on stage. Histology and DNA index in these cases are the same as for other upper‐third stomach cancer cases. In a retrospective study on 2654 patients from Japan, it was found that from the early 1960s to the early 1980s the percentage of proximally located tumors increased from 17% to 27% and signet‐ring‐cell carcinoma increased from 2% to 22%. Although proximally located tumors behaved more aggressive, survival was more associated with stage than with primary site in the stomach.
Extrahepatic Biliary Tract and the Ampulla of Vater Cancers
Authors: Wittekind Christian 
Published: July 2006

AbstractThis chapter reviews the most useful prognostic factors that are available for carcinomas arising in the gallbladder, extrahepatic bile ducts, or the ampulla of Vater. In considering these prognostic indicators, the complex anatomy of the extrahepatic biliary system and its relation to adjacent structures becomes critical. For this reason, the prognostic factors are described separately for the gallbladder, extrahepatic bile ducts, and ampulla. For all three sites, however, the single most important factor having the greatest effect on survival is the extent of tumor at the time of diagnosis. In preparing this chapter, data were reviewed from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program of the National Cancer Institute for the years 1973–1995. In the SEER Program, the extent of disease can be classified as “localized,” regional, and “distant” or by the standard TNM classification. A “localized” tumor is confined to the organ of origin without nodal involvement; “regional,” denotes regional lymph‐node involvement or direct extension to adjacent organs; and “distant” indicates that distant metastases have been found. The prognostic factors are presented as tumor‐related, host‐related, and environment‐related.
Pancreas Cancer
Authors: Ghaneh Paula , Neoptolemos John P. 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Pancreatic cancer remains an important cause of death in many nations. In most patients pancreatic adenocarcinoma is diagnosed at a stage of disease that is not curable by surgery and can only be little affected by multimodality treatment options (chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy). Surgery is the only curative approach, but success with resection is low and the prognosis remains extremely poor, for example, patients with completely resected tumors have a 5‐year survival rate of 15–28%. The overall 5‐year survival remains extremely low despite a slight improvement during the last few years: figures of 1–3% for all, and 5–25% for resected patients are reported.
More than 90–95% of carcinomas of the pancreas are exocrine tumors. Over 90% of these tumors, as referred to in the World Health Organization (WHO) classification, are ductal adenocarcinomas, including rare types, such as mucinous noncystic, adenosquamous, anaplastic, and osteoblast‐like giant‐cell carcinoma. The mucinous cystadenocarcinoma (about 1% of all cases or 5% of resected cases) had a relatively good prognosis and a 5‐year survival rate of 54.3% in a Japanese study. Also, the uncommon intraductal papillary mucinous adenocarcinoma has a better prognosis than the common ductal adenocarcinoma. These two tumor types, as well as the carcinoma in situ, are excluded in the following review of prognostic factors.
The most important prognostic factor is the possibility of curative resection. The outcome of patients who undergo resection is definitely superior to those not undergoing resection. In the literature the resection rates for exocrine pancreatic carcinoma range from 2.6% to 30%. In contrast to patients without resection, who practically never show a long‐term survival rate, in specialized centers resected patients show a 5‐year survival rate of 20–25%. The median survival time for resected patients is 10–20 months. Therefore, the prognostic factors for those patients who have not been resected will be discussed separately in the section on treatment‐related prognostic factors.
Due to the small number of resected patients and the poor prognosis, the importance of several prognostic factors still remains unclear, because most studies are based on univariate analysis. Only a few studies with more than 100 resected patients analyzed by multivariate analysis have been published.
In the following analysis of prognostic factors, the relevant international literature will be considered. Problems in reviewing the actual literature are that often carcinomas of the head of the pancreas are not separated from those of the ampulla of Vater and the distal bile duct, which have a better prognosis. Furthermore, in 1997 the new International Union Against Cancer Tumors, Nodules, Metastases (UICC TNM) classification (5th ed.) was published this manual relates better to prognosis than does the old classification (4th ed.). Also, in the interpretation of prognostic factors, the reduction of perioperative mortality to less than 5% also has to be considered.
Osteosarcoma
Authors: Bauer Henrik C. 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Primary bone tumors are rare with an incidence of 2 to 3 per million, and of these, high‐grade osteosarcoma is the most common, representing 35% of all bone sarcomas. The typical patient diagnosed with osteosarcoma is male, between the ages of 10 and 20 years, and complains of pain for one to three months. The tumor is most commonly at the metaphysis of a long bone, with a predilection to the knee region. Dramatic improvements in disease‐free (DFS) and overall survival (OS) were demonstrated with the advent of doxorubicin and methotrexate chemotherapy regimes. The current standard of treatment for the patient with osteosarcoma is chemotherapy and resection of the primary tumor, most commonly preserving the limb. Despite the advances in radiological imaging, chemotherapy and surgery, 40 to 50% of patients will develop distant metastases and die of their disease.
This chapter discusses the prognostic factors of disease outcome for osteosarcoma patients, specifically disease‐ or tumor‐related factors, host‐related factors, and environment‐ or treatment‐related factors.
Soft Tissue Sarcomas
Authors: O'Sullivan Brian , Catton Charles N. 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Significant advances have been made over the past decade in the understanding of clinicopathologic prognostic factors for soft tissue sarcoma. Foremost among these advances is an improved ability to recognize the subset of patients at high risk for recurrent disease and tumor‐related death based on clinicopathologic data available at the time of initial presentation. Recent advances have also helped to elucidate specific molecular factors that have independent prognostic significance. This review summarizes the available data on traditional clinicopathologic, medical, and molecular prognostic factors for adult soft tissue sarcoma. Expected outcomes will be provided, drawing in particular from the results of a large series of patients managed at one center. Although there are many potential outcomes that could be assessed, the discussion will focus almost entirely on the traditional oncology outcomes of local control, metastatic risk, and survival. Other important outcomes, such as limb preservation; function, and quality of life will not be emphasized because of space limitations.

The factors will be discussed in a framework that focuses on the
tumor‐related
,
host‐related
(or patient associated), and
environment‐related
background for these factors. The review will conclude with a summary tabulation identifying strata of the importance of factors to everyday clinical practice using the principles outlined in Chapter 2. These include
essential
factors (needed for treatment decision‐making),
additional
factors (of benefit for describing a cohort of patients), and
new and promising
factors that may of benefit in the future to exploit new treatment or diagnostic strategies.
Penile Cancer
Authors: Horenblas Simon , Crook Juanita M. 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Squamous‐cell carcinoma (SCC) of the penis is a rare malignancy, accounting for less than 1% of urological cancers in males in Western countries. From all cancers affecting the penis more than 95% consists of SCC. Rare disorders like melanoma and soft tissue disease will not be considered in this summary. Most information regarding clinical course and prognostic factors has been based on relatively few series and case histories; there are no known prospective clinical trials in the field of penile cancer. Therefore bias, on the basis of referral pattern and institutional treatment preferences, cannot be ruled out. Moreover, there are only a few publications analyzing clinical data with multivariate prognostic factor analysis. For classification purposes, at least six classification systems of SCC of the penis have been proposed. Because the TNM system of the International Union Against Cancer (UICC) is considered the most universal used classification, the others will not be considered here.
Uveal Melanoma
Authors: Shields Jerry A. , Shields Carol L. 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
The eye structures are composed of a variety of tissue types derived from ectodermal and mesodermal germinal layers. Therefore, several kinds of benign and malignant tumors arise in and around the ocular structures. The two most common primary intraocular malignancies are melanoma of the uveal tract (iris, ciliary body, and choroid) and retinoblastoma. Uveal melanoma is usually seen in adults and retinoblastoma usually manifests in children less than 5 years of age. Although both arise primarily from the intraocular structures, each of these tumors is a distinct clinical entity with unique clinical features and systemic prognosis. In this chapter, prognostic factors that influence the survival in uveal melanoma and retinoblastoma are discussed.
Incorporating Molecular Oncology into Prognosis
Authors: Liu Geoffrey G. , Zhou Wei , Wang Zhaoxi , McLeod Howard L. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractIn this chapter, we examine recent advances in major categories of molecular prognostic factors, address problems with integrating them into clinical practice, and describe possible remedies to the current situation. Molecular prognostic factors can be categorized based on their involvement in specific biological pathways. Molecular prognostic factors research comprises the triadic intersection of outcome research, biomarker research, and molecular biology. We will also focus on how the technological advances in the postgenomics era can be integrated into clinical practice. Molecular cancer prognostic factors interface with clinical practice in a wide variety of ways, through the use of molecular variables to identify high‐risk individuals, to detect disease in its early stages, to discover novel drugs (by identifying targets and pathways), to individualize therapy (pharmacogenomics), and to monitor patients. Effects of methylation on cancer prognosis and staging are being explored currently. Gene copy number may be one area that is ripe for integration into staging schema in the coming years. DNA repair may play dual roles in cancer prognosis. We are on the brink of the integration of molecular prognostic factors into practice. Bioinformatics will form one cornerstone of this process, as huge amounts of molecular information become available per sample. Regulatory approval is needed in order to use molecular prognostic factors in the clinical setting, a necessary and parallel step to incorporation into prognostic systems. The use of microarray technology opens new perspectives and brings the simultaneous identification of numerous DNA alterations at a grip, while microarrays or proteomic technologies help us to read the molecular signature (thousands of genes and proteins) of an individual patient's tumor. This is the promise of the future that eagerly awaits us.
The living product – using the creative nature of metaphors in the search for sustainable marketing
Authors: Mitchell Ingrid Kajzer , Saren Michael 
Published: July 2006

AbstractThe challenge facing marketing (and business) is letting go of old assumptions and embarking on a journey of unprecedented uncertainty towards a more sustainable marketplace. Current marketing approaches are called into question in this paper and it is argued that they fail to represent adequately – and far less to confront – our relationships with products and the natural environment. This paper challenges marketing in this respect, investigating the consequences of putting marketing into an ecological context. By using the generative and creative power of metaphors we attempt to draw the sustainability debate away from the language of the mechanistic world; where matter is regarded as inert, mute, passive and exploitable. By using the ‘living product’ metaphor as a tool for change we explore the potential for a reorientation towards organizational–environmental configurations that are dynamic and flexible and provide space for dealing with uncertainty. These concepts are then illustrated in a number of practical examples, providing an insight into the potential of marketing in our search towards a more sustainable marketplace. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.
Corporate sustainability accounting: a nightmare or a dream coming true?
Authors: Schaltegger Stefan , Burritt Roger L. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractCorporate sustainability accounting reflects the need to draw managers into debates and actions about corporate sustainability. Four different views of the term can be discerned: a voguish buzzword; a broad umbrella term; a single monetary measure and a pragmatic decision support tool. It is argued that two paths towards the further development of sustainability accounting seem to be available – top down and stakeholder driven. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.
An ecological modernist interpretation of sustainability: the case of Interface Inc.
Authors: Stubbs Wendy , Cocklin Chris 
Published: July 2006

AbstractThis article seeks to extend understanding of how sustainability is operationalized in firms by considering the example of Interface Inc. In particular, we assess the sustainability policy and strategies of Interface Inc. within the frame recourse of an ecological modernization (EM) perspective of sustainability. One question of particular interest is whether organizations are able to implement an EM‐aligned worldview through their own internal capabilities or whether changes to the wider socio‐economic system are required. The analysis of Interface's experiences suggests that, at this stage, an organization cannot fully adhere to an EM perspective of sustainability; its success is also dependent on changes to the wider socio‐economic system in which the firm operates. The critical factors in implementing sustainability that emerged from the Interface case study are discussed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.