Teaching and Learning Guide for: Interpreting Magic and Divination in the Ancient Near East and Magic and Divination in Ancient Israel
Authors: Jeffers Ann 
Published: August 2008

Author's IntroductionThe current interest in magic, as well as the debates concerning its definition and function, calls for a new conceptual framework to view magic and definition. Both articles examine the problems raised by traditional definitions of magic and divination and re‐evaluate the ways in which the Western world, especially since the nineteenth century, has viewed ‘magic’ as part of a series of dichotomies: religion vs. magic, science vs. magic. While the first article highlights the ideology behind theories of magic, the second focuses on ancient Israel. A key question is that despite officially condemning all magicians and divinatory practitioners, the Old Testament/Hebrew scriptures is replete with references to magic and divination. A new definition situating magic as an ‘emic’ category is proposed: magic and divination are part of a complex system of religious intermediation where all the components of the cosmos interrelate. In this regard, ancient Israel shares the same worldview as its ancient Near Eastern neighbours and in particular a belief in cosmic forces originating and controlled by the dominant deity or deities. While the rational underpinning of such practices is examined (and questions about control and gender touched upon), it is also argued that a proper understanding of magic and divination in ancient Israel can only be viewed as an integral part of its cosmology.Author Recommends1. Luck, G. Arcana Mundi. Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman World, 2nd edn (John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, 2006)This is a sourcebook of translated Greek and Latin texts on the subject of magic and the occult. It has six sections (magic, miracles daemonology, divination, astrology and alchemy), each beginning with an excellent introduction for classroom use, and a valuable bibliography. Indispensable for a study of primary texts.2. Graf, F. Magic in the Ancient World. Translated by Franklin Philip (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA and London, 1997)Graf explores the important types of magic in Greco‐Roman antiquity, describing rites and explaining the theory behind them. He also focuses on the magician: his training and initiation, social status, and presumed connections with the divine world. Graf analyses underlying conceptions and illustrates his analysis with practical cases. He concludes with an evaluation of the relation of magic to religion. Magic in the Ancient World offers an unusual look at ancient Greek and Roman thought and a new understanding of popular recourse to love spells, curses, etc.3. Mirecki, P. and Meyer, M. Magic and Ritual in the Ancient World (Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands, 2002)An important collection of essays exploring expressions of magic and ritual power in the ancient world. The chronological span is broad (from the late bronze age to the Islamic period) and the geographical setting focus is on the Mediterranean world. The article includes theoretical and textual analysis on texts originating from the Ancient Near East, Judaism, Greek and Roman antiquity, early Christianity and Islam. All the essays look at magic from an ‘emic’ point of view.4. Ciraolo. L. and J. Seidel (eds.), Magic and Divination in the Ancient World (Ancient Magic and Divination II) (Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands, 2002)The explicit mandate of this collection is ‘to explore aspects of the interrelationship between magic and divination from earliest times’ and offers a valuable contribution to the understanding of magic and divination (see in particular the two discussions on divinatory practices and also the two articles on necromancy) from ancient Egyptian coffin texts to Rabbinic exegesis. The articles provide useful discussions of the rationale and range of mantic practices.5. Noegel, S. Walker, J., and Wheeler, B. (eds.), Prayer, Magic, and the Stars in the Ancient and Late Antique World. Magic in History Series. Edited by Scott Noegel, Joel Walker, and Brannon Wheeler (Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA, 2003)This interdisciplinary collection of essays originates from the ‘Prayers, Magic, and the Stars’ symposium held at the University of Washington in March 2000 and addresses the topic of magic and the stars in a variety of ancient and late antique contexts. The articles explore the ways ancient people communicate with cosmic forces. Topics include celestial divination in early Mesopotamia, the civic festivals of classical Athens, and Christian magical papyri from Coptic Egypt. A process of continuity and integration and transformation of astral beliefs and practices is established with various religious groups (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) from Late Antiquity.6. Stratton, K. B. Naming the Witch. Magic, Ideology, and Stereotype in the Ancient World (Columbia University Press, New York, NY, 2007)Stratton investigates the cultural and ideological motivations behind early imaginings of the magician, and the witch in the ancient world. In her view, representations and accusations of sorcery mirror the complex struggle of ancient societies to define authority, legitimacy and otherness. She analyses characterisation of witches and magicians in the literature of four related periods and cultures: classical Athens, early imperial Rome, pre‐Constantine Christianity, and rabbinic Judaism. She compares patterns in their representations of magic and analyses the relationship between these stereotypes and the social factors that shaped them. An important point of the book is that the author's comparative approach helps to break down barriers between the classical world and Judaism. The second point is the interest of the author to take seriously gender analysis.7. Klutz, T. (ed.), Magic in the Biblical World: From the Rod of Aaron to the Ring of Solomon (JSNTSup, 245) (T&T Clark, New York, NY, 2004)In this collection, various scholars evaluate magic from a biblical perspective. This compilation is divided into three sections: ‘Magic’ in the Jewish Scriptures and at Qumran, ‘Magic’ in the New Testament and its Greco‐Roman milieu, and ‘Magic’ in Disreputable Books from Late Antiquity. The introduction, an article entitled ‘Reinterpreting “Magic”: An Introduction’ reflects on the relationship between magic and religion. There are three articles on the Old Testament, one on Qumran, while the rest of the authors look at the situation in the first century and later, with articles on Acts, Paul, the Pastorals, Philostratus, Acts of Thomas and late Jewish literature.The book presents a well‐balanced approach that incorporates a variety of perspectives and theories within the biblical setting.Online Materials1. http://traumwerk.stanford.edu/archaeolog/2007/09/reading_livers_through_reading_1.htmlThis website has a collection of pictures of livers used in hepastocopy (divination by observing the liver of a sheep). This is a widely attested practise in ancient Mesopotamia and also possibly in Ancient Israel.2. http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/babylon/babybibl_fixedstars.htmThis site explores some of the astrological beliefs in Mesopotamia.3. http://www.schoyencollection.com/magical_files/ms2053‐196.jpgThis website shows images of magic bowls.4. http://bibleproject.blogspot.com/2004/01/prophecy‐as‐divination.htmlThis website deals with prophecy, dreams and divination in Mesopotamia and Ancient Israel.5. http://www.isidore‐of‐seville.com/astdiv/3.htmlA good website, looking at divination, including astrology, dream interpretation, etc. This website has a number of useful links to scholarly articles.6. http://www.lib.umich.edu/pap/exhibits/magic/An exhibition presenting a collection of magical objects from the Mediterranean world in late antiquity.Sample SyllabusThe following outline could form the basis for a module on ‘magic in the ancient world’. I would suggest spending at least two sessions per topic. It would also be possible to use the following as part of a syllabus, for example, ‘Magic and Religion in Ancient Israel’ or ‘Magic and Divination in the Bible’ or ‘A history of Magic in Europe’. I would also suggest that each section of the syllabus could include various types of practitioners of magic, magical words (e.g. love charms, curses and prayers), magical objects (e.g. amulets, incantations bowls), supernatural creatures and contact with the supernatural (e.g. miracles, healing and divination).Magic in the Ancient World1. Introduction and Overview: defining magic and divinationGraf, F., 1997, Magic in the Ancient World. Translated by Franklin Philip. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA and London, pp. 1–19.Jeffers, A., 2007, ‘Interpreting Magic and Divination in the Ancient Near East’, Religion Compass, vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 684–694.Lee, D. 1997, ‘Religious Perspectives in Anthropology’, in A. Lehmann and J. Myers (eds.), Magic, Witchcraft, and Religion, 4th ed. Mayfield, Mountain View, CA, pp. 10–16.Lehmann, Arthur C., and Myers, James E. (eds.), 1997, Magic, Witchcraft, and Religion, 4th edn. Mayfield, Mountain View, CA.Luck, Georg, 1985, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD/London, UK, pp. 3–5.Malinowski, B., 1997, ‘Rational Mastery by Man of His Surroundings’, in A. Lehmann and J. Myers (eds.), Magic, Witchcraft, and Religion, 4th ed. Mayfield, Mountain View, CA, pp. 270–275.Neusner, J., 1989, ‘Introduction’, and ‘Science and Magic, Miracle and Magic in Formative Judaism: The System and the Difference’, in J. Neusner, ES Frerichs and PVM Flesher (eds.), Religion, Science and Magic in Concert and in Conflict. Oxford University Press, New York, NY/Oxford, UK, pp. 3–7, 61–81.Penner, H., 1989, ‘Rationality, Ritual, and Science’, in J. Neusner ES Frerichs and PVM Flesher (eds.), Religion, Science and Magic in Concert and in Conflict. Oxford University Press, New York, NY/Oxford, UK, pp. 11–26.Stratton, K. B., 2007, Naming the Witch. Magic, Ideology, and Stereotype in the Ancient World, Columbia University Press, New York, NY, Chapter 1.2. Problems and Issues: magic and religion; magic and scienceJeffers, A., 2007, ‘Interpreting Magic and Divination in the Ancient Near East’, Religion Compass, vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 684–694.Neusner, J., 1989, ‘Science and Magic, Miracle and Magic in Formative Judaism: The System and the Difference’, in J. Neusner, ES Frerichs and PVM Flesher (eds.), Religion, Science and Magic in Concert and in Conflict. New York, NY/Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press, pp. 61–81.Penner, H., 1989,‘Rationality, Ritual, and Science’, in J. Neusner, ES Frerichs and PVM Flesher (eds.), Religion, Science and Magic in Concert and in Conflict. New York, NY/Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press, pp. 11–26.Sharot, S., 1989, ‘Magic, Religion, Science, and Secularization’, in J. Neusner, ES Frerichs and PVM Flesher (eds.), Religion, Science and Magic in Concert and in Conflict. New York, NY/Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press, pp. 262–284.3. Magic and divination in the religious world of Ancient Mesopotamia, Ugarit and EgyptAbusch, T., 1989, ‘The Demonic Image of the Witch in Standard Babylonian Literature: The Reworking of Popular Conceptions by Learned Exorcists’, in J. Neusner , ES Frerichs and PVM Flesher (eds.), Religion, Science and Magic in Concert and in Conflict. New York, NY/Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press, pp. 27–60.Jeffers, A., 2007, ‘Interpreting Magic and Divination in the Ancient Near East’, Religion Compass, vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 684–694.Ritner, R. K., 1993, The Mechanics of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice; Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, 54, Oriental Institute, Chicago, IL.4. Magic and divination in Ancient IsraelCryer, F., 1994, Divination in Ancient Israel and its Near Eastern Environment: A Socio‐Historical Investigation, JSOTSup, 142, JSOT Press, Sheffield, UK.Jeffers, A., 2007, ‘Magic and Divination in Ancient Israel’, Religion Compass, vol. 1, no. 6, doi: 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00043.x.5. Witchcraft in the Greek worldDickie, M. W., 2001, Magic and Magicians in the Greco‐Roman World (Routledge, London, UK/New York, NY, 2001).Faraone, Christopher A., and Obbink, Dirk (eds.), 1991, Magika Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and Religion, Oxford University Press, New York, NY/Oxford, UK.Gager, J. G., 1992, Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.Graf, F., 1997, Magic in the Ancient World. Translated by Franklin Philip, (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA/London, UK.Lehmann, Arthur C., and James E. Myers (eds.), 1997, Magic, Witchcraft, and Religion, 4th edn. Mountain View, CA, Mayfield.Luck, Georg., 1985, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD and London, UK, pp. 61–64, 66–71.Stratton, K. B., 2007, Naming the Witch. Magic, Ideology, and Stereotype in the Ancient World, Columbia University Press, New York, NY, Chapter 2.6. Love, Sex & Violence: Magic and divination in the Roman Empire and the RepublicSee Witchcraft in the Greek world.Graf, F., 1991, ‘Prayer in Magical and Religious Ritual’, in Christopher A. Farone and Dirk Obbink (eds.), Magika Hiera. Ancient Greek Magic and Religion. Oxford University Press, New York, NY/Oxford, UK, pp. 188–213.Luck, Georg., 1985, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD/London, UK, pp. 73–89, 113–117, 195–204, 212–217, 222–225.Winkler, J., 1991, ‘The Constraints of Eros’, in Christopher A. Farone and Dirk Obbink (eds.), Magika Hiera. Ancient Greek Magic and Religion. Oxford University Press, New York, NY/Oxford, UK, pp. 214–243.Stratton, K. B. 2007, Naming the Witch: Magic, Ideology, and Stereotype in the Ancient World, Columbia University Press, New York, NY, Chapter 3.7. Magic in early Christianity and rabbinic JudaismKlutz, T. (ed.), 2004, Magic in the Biblical World: From the Rod of Aaron to the Ring of Solomon, JSNTSup, 245 , T&T Clark, New York, NY.Labahn, M. and Lietaert Peerbolte, B. J. (eds.), 2008, A Kind of Magic. Understanding Magic in the New Testament and Its Religious Environment, Library of New Testament Studies 306 T&T Clark, London, UK.Meyer, M. W. and Smith, R., 1999, Ancient Christian Magic Coptic Texts of Ritual Power, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.Morgan M. A. (trans.), 1983, Sepher Ha‐Razim: The Book of the Mysteries, Scholars Press, Chico, CA.Naveh, Joseph, and Shaul Shaked, 1985, Amulets and Magic Bowls: Aramaic Incantations of Late Antiquity, Magnes Press, Jerusalem, Israel.Stratton, K. B., 2007, Naming the Witch. Magic, Ideology, and Stereotype in the Ancient World, Columbia University Press, New York, NY, Chapters 4 & 5.8. Conclusions: re‐evaluating magic in the ancient worldJeffers, A., 2007, ‘Interpreting Magic and Divination in the Ancient Near East’, Religion Compass, vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 684–694.Focus Questions

Compare and contrast science and magic, and religion and magic. Does Frazer's evolutionary model needs reassessing and why?
Define the anthropological methods ‘etic’ and ‘emic’. Which one do you consider adequate for studying magic in ancient society and why?
Magic and divination in Ancient Israel are often attributed to ‘foreign’ influences. How would you account for those?
What function are women perceived to play in ancient ‘magical’ literature and what role would gender bias play, if any?
What differences were there between the courses of action followed by the Greeks and Romans in combatting the practice of magic?
What is the social function of magicians? Can they simply be seen as the ‘enemies’ of society?
What are the similarities between Christian miracle traditions and magical practices? Is Jesus a magician?

Seminar ActivityBased on the knowledge they have acquired over the course of the semester, students will come prepared for a number of debates: Debate 1. It would be possible to organize a debate around the following lines. Some students will extol the virtues of science and some the virtues of magic. Debate 2. Students should come to the debate prepared to argue one of the following:Which of the following options is not a means by which we can categorize the relationship between magic and religion?

Magic becomes religion.
Religion attempts to reconcile personal powers after magic has failed.
Religion and magic have common roots.
Magic is a degenerate form of religion.
Religion is a separate entity, not to be confused to magic.

Debate 3. Do you think we see our own religious activities in the same light as the Greeks and Romans saw their religious activities? Is magic (or religion) universal?