bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Dendritic Spines
Authors: Bourne Jennifer N , Harris Kristen M 
Published: October 2007

AbstractDendritic spines are important sites of excitatory synaptic transmission and changes in the strength of these synapses are likely to underlie important higher brain functions such as learning and memory. Spines form biochemical compartments for isolating reactions that occur at one synapse from those at other synapses thereby providing a possible way to ensure the specificity of connections between neurons in the brain.
Brain Imaging: Localization of Brain Functions
Authors: Odludaş Yalçin , Posner Michael I 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Neuroimaging provides a method to locate areas of the brain activity when organisms perceive or respond to sensory events or carry out a wide variety of tasks. The methods have made it possible to examine where in the brain cognitive and emotional systems are located, thus providing new approaches to understanding normal and pathological human information processing.
NMDA
Receptors
Authors: Cull‐Candy Stuart G 
Published: October 2007

Abstract

N
‐methyl‐
D
‐aspartate (NMDA) receptors are activated during excitatory neurotransmission at most synapses in the central nervous system. Their unique properties allow them to play key roles in synaptic transmission and plasticity; the functional importance of some NMDAR subtypes is becoming clearer.
Bacterial Intracellular Membranes
Authors: Stolz John F 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
This article describes the occurrence, structure, arrangement and function of bacterial intracytoplasmic membranes (ICMS) including magnetosomes of magnetotactic bacteria, the thylakoids of cyanobacteria and chloroxybacteria, the ICMS of purple bacteria and chemoautotrophic bacteria and the chlorosomes of green bacteria.
Thermophiles
Authors: Ferrera Isabel , Reysenbach Anna‐Louise 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Thermophiles are organisms that grow best at temperatures above 45°C, and are found in all three domains of life: Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya. These heat‐loving microbes inhabit high‐temperature environments such as deep‐sea vents and terrestrial hot springs, where they flourish with an impressive phylogenetic and metabolic diversity. Thermophiles also exist in artificial environments as coal refuse piles and geothermal power plants. To thrive in such environments, thermophiles have numerous physical and biochemical adaptations that maintain the integrity and the function of the cell.
Bacteriology
Authors: Madigan Michael T , Jung Deborah O 
Published: October 2007

Abstract

Bacteriology is the study of bacteria, small cells that live an independent existence and play key roles in the biosphere. Bacteria include all prokaryotic cells and comprise two major phylogenetic lineages,
Bacteria
and
Archaea
. Bacteriology played a major role in the development of molecular genetics, and bacteria have been excellent tools for basic and applied research. In recent years, bacteria have been harnessed to produce valuable commercial products, and the critical contributions of prokaryotes to the functioning of the biosphere have been revealed.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Metabolism
Authors: Reineke Walter , Kaschabek Stefan R , Pieper Dietmar H 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Aerobic bacteria are able to use chlorinated hydrocarbons as the sole source of carbon and energy, leading to carbon dioxide, chloride and biomass; some anaerobic bacteria can use some chlorinated hydrocarbons as an artificial electron acceptor in reductive dechlorination. The ligninolytic enzyme system of white‐rot fungi exhibits ‘side activities’ for chlorinated aromatic compounds, though without value for the fungi. Liver enzymes are responsible for the formation of hydrophilic intermediates ready for excretion; these detoxifications often lead to highly reactive and potentially toxic intermediates.
Immunity to Infection
Authors: Pedersen Anders Elm 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
The immune system comprises innate and adaptive immune responses coordinated to prevent infection. Innate immune responses are early responses based on preformed cells and effector molecules with a limited repertoire of antigen receptors. In contrast, adaptive immune responses take several days to mount, but take advantage of a very large repertoire of antigen receptors and comprises memory. The immune system must constantly face pathogen invasion strategies and at the same time avoid destruction of non‐infected host tissue. In the following review the role of the various components of the immune system and their role in immunity to infections is described.
Phagocytosis
Authors: Russell David G 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Phagocytosis is the ingestion of particles by cells. The process is usually observed in macrophages and amoebae and almost invariably culminates in the degradation of the ingested particle in the cell's lysosome. The phagosome functions at the fulcrum of the innate and acquired immune systems and promotes the identification of foreign antigens.
Chemoattraction: Basic Concepts and Role in the Immune Response
Authors: Rodríguez‐Fernández José Luis , Riol‐Blanco Lorena 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Chemoattraction is defined as the unidirectional movement of a cell, in response to a chemical gradient of ligands. During chemoattraction the cells move in the direction from a low to a high concentration of the chemoattractant. Chemoattraction is called ‘chemotaxis’ when the ligand gradient is soluble and ‘haptotaxis’ when this gradient is bound to the substrate. Chemoattraction plays a fundamental role in the regulation of the precise location of leucocytes during the immune response and consequently is fundamental for the adequate functioning of the immune system.
The Thymic Niche and Thymopoiesis
Authors: Chidgey Ann , Boyd Richard , Hugo Patrice 
Published: October 2007

AbstractThe thymus, a bilobate gland located in the upper anterior thorax in higher vertebrates, is the major site of T‐lymphocyte production. This primary lymphoid organ composed of various nonlymphoid elements, referred to as the thymic stroma, governs the maturation and tolerance induction of haematopoietic precursors into immune‐competent nonautoreactive T cells. Whilst naturally involuting with age, the thymic stromal compartment remains dynamic in nature throughout life and retains the potential to regenerate.
Proteins: Postsynthetic Modification – Function and Physical Analysis
Authors: Wittmann‐Liebold Brigitte , Choli‐Papadopoulou Theodora 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Analysis of the entire genome (genomics) provides static information about the genes of an organism. In contrast, total protein analysis (proteomics) reflects the dynamic situation, providing information about the rate of expression and regulation of individual proteins within the cell. Clues as to the function of proteins in diverse cell processes can only be obtained if their structure and modifications or variations are fully understood. Recently, we learned to define important individual posttranslational protein modifications for function.
Netrins
Authors: Moore Simon W , Tessier‐Lavigne Marc , Kennedy Timothy E 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Netrins are a family of secreted proteins that function as chemotropic guidance cues, directing cell and axon migration during neural development. By directing cell migration and mediating cell–cell adhesion, netrins also influence the morphogenesis of lung, pancreas, mammary gland and vasculature. Netrin receptors include the transmembrane proteins ‘deleted in colorectal cancer’ (DCC), its relative neogenin, and members of the UNC5 family.
Enzyme Activity: Allosteric Regulation
Authors: Traut Thomas 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Cells can respond to changes in their environment by altering the flow through particular metabolic pathways. Such a change in any metabolic step is due to certain key enzymes that have the ability to alter their rate of activity. Such enzymes are defined as allosteric. The extent to which these enzymes adopt either the active conformation or the inactive conformation depends on their response to appropriate positive or negative signals. An easily measured feature of allosteric enzymes is the cooperativity that they show in a kinetic experiment.
Caps on Eukaryotic
m
RNAs
Authors: Furuichi Yasuhiro , Shatkin Aaron J 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
A 5′‐terminal cap is added to most eukaryotic cellular and viral pre‐messenger ribonucleic acids at an early stage of transcription. Capping is essential and modulates several subsequent events in gene expression including RNA splicing, translation and stability. These and other effects involve cap‐binding proteins that recognize the m7GpppN cap structure. Capping proceeds by a similar series of enzymatic steps in a wide range of systems, but differences exist between metazoans and unicellular eukaryotes and viruses, pointing to capping enzymes as potential targets for the development of novel and selective drugs against some fungal, viral and parasitic infections.
Idiotypes
Authors: Uner Aysegul , Gavalchin Jerrie 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Idiotypes, the unique and characteristic determinants of an immunoglobulin or T cell receptor, can function as antigens. Anti‐idiotypic responses, which include anti‐idiotypic antibody‐producing B cells and idiotype‐specific T cells, form a network of immune cells that regulate their production.
Integrin Superfamily
Authors: Krissansen Geoffrey W , Danen Erik HJ 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Integrins are a superfamily of cell‐surface adhesion molecules formed from eight different β chains and 18 different α chains that assemble as heterodimers to mediate cell–cell and cell–matrix interactions. As sensors of the microenvironment, they control vital cellular functions such as cell growth, differentiation, programmed death, and motility; developmental processes; and in the adult they mediate tissue maintenance, blood clotting and immunity.
Interleukins
Authors: Meager Anthony , Wadhwa Meenu 
Published: October 2007

AbstractThe interleukins (IL) belong to a category of biologically active proteins, termed cytokines. These proteins are derived mainly from white blood cells and act on white cells, although these criteria are not necessarily exclusive of other cell sources and activities. Interleukins, among other proteins, maintain the haematopoietic and immune systems and control their functions. They have been classified specifically by a designated nomenclature committee of the International Union of Immunological Societies/World Health Organization. In general, numbering of interleukins has followed the order of their discovery and this has led to some anomalies. It has become evident that interleukins can be classified into subgroups or families based on shared structural characteristics, and/ or shared receptor subunits and/or shared chromosomal locations. For example, IL‐1α, IL‐1β, IL‐18 and IL‐33 belong to the ‘IL‐1 family’, IL‐2, IL‐15 and IL‐21 to the ‘IL‐2 family’ (IL‐4, IL‐7, IL‐9 and IL‐13 might also be included as they share at least one receptor subunit with IL‐2 family members), IL‐10, IL‐19, IL‐20, IL‐22, IL‐24, IL‐26, IL‐28 and IL‐29 to the ‘IL‐10 family’, IL‐12, IL‐23 and IL‐27 to the ‘IL‐12 family’. IL‐3 and IL‐5 together with GM‐CSF and IL‐6 and IL‐11 together with several other noninterleukin named cytokines – LIF, OSM, CNTF, CT‐1 – can also be grouped as families of ‘like’ cytokines. The IL‐17 family is comprised of six related proteins (IL‐17A–F), one of which, the murine homologue of IL‐17E, was anomalously designated IL‐25. With hindsight, the remaining interleukins might have been better classified with other biological modifiers. For instance, IL‐8 is clearly a chemokine; IL‐14 and IL‐16 bear scant resemblance to any other interleukins, or other cytokines for that matter.In the following paper, the molecular characteristics of interleukin proteins, their cognate receptors and intracellular signalling pathways and their biological activities are briefly described. The interactions of particular interleukins in the regulation of immune cell growth, differentiation and function will be illustrated by short sections at the end of the paper covering (1) T‐lymphocyte development and activation and (2) chronic inflammation and autoimmunity.
Coltiviruses
Authors: Guirakhoo Farshad , Guirakhoo Susanne M , Monath Thomas P 
Published: October 2007

Abstract

Coltivirus (‘Colti’ from Colorado tick fever (CTF)) (family
Reoviridae
) is a genus of viruses that consist of 12 segments of double‐stranded ribonucleic acid (dsRNA). CTF is the most important tick‐borne human pathogen in the United States of America. Human infections occur after the bite of Colorado tick fever virus (CTFV)‐infected adult ticks, mainly
Dermacentor
spp. First described by Becker in 1930, at least 22 strains of CTFV are known, many of which cause disease in humans.
Animal Viruses Pathogenic for Humans
Authors: Nel Louis H , Weyer Jacqueline 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Diseases and infections that are readily transmitted between vertebrate animals and man are known as zoonoses. Many of these zoonoses are caused by viruses – some of these are rare, but others are of great epidemiological importance based on high mortality and morbidity and global distribution. New viral zoonoses continue to emerge from all parts of the world, particularly as wildlife and humans come into closer contact, given the present‐day dynamics of global development. Important emerging viral zoonotic diseases include Avian Influenza and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).
Eosinophils
Authors: Wagner Lori , Leiferman Kristin M , Gleich Gerald J 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
The eosinophil is a bone marrow‐derived white blood cell (leucocyte) that is present only in the gastrointestinal tract and lymphatic tissues of healthy individuals. Eosinophils participate in helminth (worm) immunity and in hypersensitivity diseases, such as bronchial asthma and allergies.
Epithelial Cells: Immunological Aspects
Authors: Pastore Saveria , Albanesi Cristina , Girolomoni Giampiero 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Epithelial cells display their nature of integral, resident components of the innate immune system, and provide a valid defensive line against environmental threats through the expression of a plethora of active mediators, including antimicrobial peptides, cytokines, chemokines and cell membrane molecules. By contrast, epithelial cells can play a relevant role in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory disorders (e.g. atopic dermatitis and psoriasis), where the amplification of the inflammatory reactions critically depends on the crosstalk between infiltrating leucocytes and epithelial cells.
Genetic Networks
Authors: Coffman James A , Davidson Eric H 
Published: October 2007

Abstract

Gene expression is regulated by sequence‐specific protein–DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) interactions that occur within the
cis
‐regulatory domains of genes. Genes that encode sequence‐specific DNA‐binding proteins both regulate and are regulated by the expression of other such genes. A set of genes whose activity is thus linked by sequence‐specific
cis‐trans
regulatory interactions constitutes a genetic network.
T Lymphocytes: Cytotoxic
Authors: Gotch Frances M 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes are T cells that have the ability to kill other cells. Most are major histocompatibility complex (MHC) Class I restricted CD8 T cells, but CD4 T cells can sometimes kill. Cytotoxic T cells are of great importance in host defence against cytosolic pathogens.
Antigen Presentation to Lymphocytes
Authors: Udono Heiichiro , Wang Jiyang O , Watanabe Takeshi 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Antigen presentation to T and B lymphocytes by antigen‐presenting cells plays a central role in the initiation and regulation of adaptive immune responses. T cells recognize peptides in the context of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. By contrast, B cells recognize proteins in a state of solution.
Antigen Recognition by
T
Lymphocytes
Authors: Ferrero Isabel , Michelin Olivier , Luescher Immanuel 
Published: October 2007

Abstract

T lymphocytes (or T cells) are thymus‐derived and are key players in the adaptive cellular immunity. They recognize antigen by means of their T‐cell receptor (TCR), which consist of two chains, and are surface expressed upon association with invariant CD3 units, which mediate TCR signalling. TCR, especially αβ TCR, exhibit a vast diversity, provided by the somatic rearrangement of TCR gene segments. γδ and αβ T cells exhibit important differences regarding tissue localization and antigen recognition. αβ T cells express as coreceptor CD4 or CD8. CD4+ T cells are MHC class II‐restricted and comprise T helper (T
H
) and regulatory (Treg) T cells. CD8αβ+ T cells are MHC class I‐restricted and are predominantly cytotoxic T cells (CTL). γδ T cells constitute as a link between innate and adaptive immunity. They are found frequently in epithelia (e.g. skin and intestine) and recognize nonclassical MHC class Ib molecules and diverse small nonpeptidic compounds in a coreceptor and MHC restriction independent manner.
Xenotransplantation
Authors: Cooper David KC , Ezzelarab Mohamed , Hara Hidetaka 
Published: October 2007

AbstractThe transplantation of organs and tissues across species boundaries is called xenotransplantation. The most likely source of animal organs and cells for transplantation into humans is the pig. Pigs, therefore, have been genetically engineered to provide their tissues with some protection against the human immune response. However, further immunological barriers need to be overcome. Many questions remain regarding the adequate function of pig organs in humans. The safety of xenotransplantation also remains of some concern. Is there a risk of the transfer of a pig infectious microorganism into the community? Present evidence is that this potential risk is low. This potential, however, has legal and regulatory implications.
Plant Response to Water‐deficit Stress
Authors: Bray Elizabeth A 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
When plants do not receive sufficient water they are subjected to a stress called water deficit. Water deficit in the plant disrupts many cellular and whole plant functions, having a negative impact on plant growth and reproduction. Plants have evolved many different mechanisms to deal with the occurrence of this stress as it occurs in their environments. Availability of water is the most important factor in the environment that reduces the production of our crops.
Plant Salt Stress
Authors: Zhu Jian‐Kang 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Plant salt stress is a condition where excessive salts in soil solution cause inhibition of plant growth or plant death. On a world scale, no toxic substance restricts plant growth more than does salt. Salt stress presents an increasing threat to plant agriculture. Among the various sources of soil salinity, irrigation combined with poor drainage is the most serious, because it represents losses of once productive agricultural land.
Tumour Antigens Recognized by T Lymphocytes
Authors: Van den Eynde Benoît J , Pang Ken C , Chen Weisan 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Cancer cells bear markers (antigens) that identify them to the immune system, thereby making them targets for destruction by cytolytic T lymphocytes. Therapeutic cancer vaccines designed to exploit our recently gained knowledge of the identity and structure of these antigens are now being tested in clinical trials.
Sea Urchin Embryo: Specification of Cell Fate
Authors: Angerer Robert C , Angerer Lynne M 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Specification of cell fate in sea urchin embryos involves initial asymmetric distribution of maternal molecules that establish vegetal and nonvegetal domains of transcription activity. Subsequently, fates of most blastomeres are regulated by cell–cell interactions involving signalling ligands and cell surface receptors.
Brachiopoda
Authors: Cohen Bernard L 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
A phylum of predominantly sessile, filter‐feeding marine invertebrates, with a ciliated, tentaculate feeding organ or lophophore and a bivalved shell. The two main living types (with either articulated or inarticulated valves) first appeared in the Lower Cambrian. Articulated forms give the phylum its common name: ‘lamp shells’. In recent molecular analyses, brachiopods and phoronids form a single clade.
Plant Golgi Apparatus
Authors: Hawes Chris , Satiat‐Jeunemaitre Béatrice 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
The plant Golgi apparatus exists as a number of discrete units known as Golgi bodies distributed in the cytoplasm. Its primary roles are the glycosylation of secretory proteins, the construction of complex cell wall polysaccharides and the packaging and targeting of such products either to the vacuole or to the cell surface.
Plant Mitochondria
Authors: Rose Ray J , McCurdy David W , Sheahan Michael B 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Plant mitochondria, like those of other eukaryotes, use an electron transport chain to pump protons and generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP). However, plant mitochondria possess some special features, including a nuclear‐encoded and stress‐inducible alternate oxidase that limits proton pumping. A balance of fusion and fission controls the morphology and number of plant mitochondria and is important for functionality and inheritance of their multipartite genome. The mitochondrial genome is an important determinant of male fertility.
Coevolution: Plant–Insect
Authors: Whitney Heather M , Glover Beverley J 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Coevolution between plants and insect is a relatively frequent phenomenon, in part because of the enormous species diversity of both groups. It is often diffuse, resulting in variability and radiation, and is presumed to result in unstable relationships. Coevolutionary relationships mainly occur between plants and herbivorous insects and between plants and pollinating insects.
Plant Nuclear Genome Composition
Authors: Heslop‐Harrison JS (Pat) , Schmidt Thomas 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
The plant nuclear genome consists of DNA divided among the chromosomes within the cell nucleus. Plant genomes contain coding and regulatory sequences for the genes and repetitive DNA. Genomes are evolutionarily dynamic and analysis provides insights into the evolution of genes, sequence families and genomes, and supports studies of species phylogeny and relationships.
Bacillus subtilisas a Model for Bacterial Systems Biology
Authors: Harwood Colin R 
Published: October 2007

AbstractBacillus subtilishas been the subject of intense study for nearly six decades. Initially, the key drivers were: (i) the need of the food industry for a nonpathogenic model bacterium to study the characteristics of endospores, and (ii) the observation, in 1959, thatB. subtilisstrain 168 could be genetically manipulated by transformation. In the intervening period,B. subtilis168 has become second only toEscherichia coliK‐12 in terms of the detail with which aspects of its genetic, biochemistry and physiology is understood. For the foreseeable future,B. subtilisrepresents an eminently tractable model in which to integrate knowledge gained from the reductionist approach to biology towards an understanding of how this bacterium functions as a unitary system. This will require the application of various ‘omics’ (e.g. genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics), the increased application of high‐throughput technologies and system modelling. The ultimate aim of anin silicomodel ofB. subtilisis that it can accurately mimic or predict its behaviour in the environment.