bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Electronics and Control
Authors: Chen C. Julian 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter discusses electronics and computer interfaces for STM and AFM. For STM, the detection of the minute tunneling current is of paramount importance. Thus, the basic concepts and analysis of the current amplifier, or more accurately speaking, the transimpedence amplifier, is discussed. It includes the typical circuits and an analysis of the gain, noise, frequency response, microphone effect due to the coaxial cable, and the logarithmic amplifier to make the distance dependence of the output signal linear. the feedback system is then discussed, including a typical circuit, as well as the analyses of the steady-state response and the transient response. Finally, the architecture of the computer interface system with the algorithm of automatic approaching is discussed.
Mechanical design
Authors: Chen C. Julian 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter discusses various mechanical designs for STM and AFM. The central piece of the mechanical design of STM and AFM is the course positioner. Therefore, various types of course positioners are also discussed. The louse and the pocket-size STM are discussed first. It is of significant historical importance but no longer popular today. The single-tube STM has a very simple mechanical structure, and still the basis of the most popular commercial STM and AFM. The Besocke-type or the beetles is very popular among builders of special-purpose STM due its immunity to temperature variation and vibration. For STM requiring superb stability, the walker and the kangaroo are the preferred design. The commercial nanostepper, the Inchworm, is described. It has been successfully used by many designers of special-purpose STM.
Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy
Authors: Chen C. Julian 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter discusses various aspects of scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS). It is an extension of the classical tunneling spectroscopy experiment to nanometer-scale or atomic-scale features on the sample surface. First, the electronics for STS is presented. The nature of STS as a convolution of tip DOS and sample DOS is discussed. Special tip treatment for the STS experiment, often different from the atomic-resolution STM, is described. The purpose is to produce tips with flat DOS, instead of special tip orbitals. A useful data process method, the Feenstra parameter, is presented. Experimental methods to determine tip DOS is discussed. A detailed account of the inelastic scanning tunneling spectroscopy, or STM-IETS, is then discussed. It includes the principles, the electronics, and the instrumental broadening of the features. This chapter concludes with the observation of the isotope effect in STM-IETS, a definitive signature of the vibrational spectra of molecules.
6 History and Memory
Authors: Fox Matthew 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter places Cicero's use of ironic history within its cultural context. Several different areas of Roman approaches to the past are discussed: the use of historical exempla, the use of funeral masks and the veneration of ancestors, and the Annalistic tradition of historical record-keeping. These are brought together in a discussion of Cicero's attitude to memory, and the intersection between memory and identity. The evidence from Cicero suggests an awareness of the symbolic power of history over its factual basis. The Roman interest in historical revival is explored. The chapter concludes that Cicero's use of history to explore rather than reinforce identity was characteristic of his times. His philosophical tendencies prompted him to exploit history's flexibility.
9 Ironic History in the Roman Tradition
Authors: Fox Matthew 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter integrates the readings of earlier chapters to consider the place of Cicero's ironic treatment of historical representation in the light of mainstream Latin historiography. First, the question of how far the past can actually be known is explored from treading texts that illustrate both historiographical and philosophical approaches. For Cicero, history is predominantly a form of representation. Cicero's Letter to Lucceius is explored, in which he asks shamelessly for his own historical glorification. The letter is taken as further evidence for Cicero's ironic approach to the past, and to his own relationship to it. A brief discussion of Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus follows, and the chapter concludes that all these writers shared an awareness of the literary and educational potential of presenting conflicting accounts of Rome's past.
10 Cicero from Enlightenment to Idealism
Authors: Fox Matthew 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The chapter centres on the detailed reading of a little-known treatise on Cicero, written in Latin by the Enlightenment thinker, John Toland. His treatise, Cicero Illustratus, presents Cicero as a cornerstone of the Enlightenment. This chapter looks at Toland's approach to Cicero as representing particular views of criticism that were current at the time. Toland's ambitions for his new edition of Cicero, which was never produced, are presented in some detail. Toland's reading reveals both how far back prejudices against Cicero as an advocate lie, but also that a sensitivity towards the dialogic quality of his writing was easier for Toland than it for today's readers. The chapter reinforces the usefulness of looking at this earlier reading to reveal the difficulties of approaching Cicero caused by subsequent developments in the academic disciplines.
The Four Tests for a Revelation
Authors: Swinburne Richard 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
There are four tests for whether a purported propositional revelation does indeed come from God: that its content is plausible (that not intrinsically improbable); confirmed by miracle; interpreted in a plausible way by a church founded by the prophet who originally delivered the revelation; and that the interpretation is plausibly true. A miracle is a violation of a law of nature, which God alone can bring about. Christianity (unlike Judaism, Islam, and Eastern religions) is a serious candidate for having a revelation authenticated by a miracle — the Resurrection of Jesus.
Conclusion
Authors: Swinburne Richard 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This book has argued that the Christian revelation satisfies the four tests of a genuine revelation from God very well: the content of the original revelation is plausible, it was confirmed by a miracle, it has been interpreted by a church in a plausible way, and the interpretation is plausibly true. No other purported revelation satisfies these tests nearly as well. There is plenty of scope for the Christian Church to develop its interpretations yet further.
6 Life in a Parish
Authors: Albert Jones David 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter describes the means by which clergy managed their glebe, whether by cultivating it themselves or letting it, and the means by which tithes were collected. It discusses the extent of their involvement in the agricultural economy of their parishes. It examines the evidence for the size and construction of clergy's parsonage houses, and the steps that were taken from the 1770s to build or improve parsonage houses to promote the residence of incumbents in their parishes. The evidence of the lifestyle of incumbents is investigated, along with the role and position of clergy wives, the provision of support for clergy widows, and the position of clergy in local society. The levels of expenditure of clergy are examined, especially in relation to the overheads in collecting tithe and cultivating glebe, taxation, and charity for the poor of their parishes.
9 Promoting Christian Knowledge
Authors: Albert Jones David 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter investigates the third key role of clergy: to teach and deepen people's knowledge about the Christian faith. It explores the evidence for the clergy's activity in instructing children in the Christian faith by means of catechizing, and in promoting and managing charity schools, Sunday schools and, in the early 19th century — National Schools. It also considers the evidence for their teaching adults by means of distributing tracts, establishing parochial libraries, and preaching sermons. The evidence of the approach of parish clergy to preaching is examined.
12 Conclusion
Authors: Albert Jones David 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter highlights emerging themes from the study, including regional variations; the relationship between the regions and London, the centre and localities; the role of clergy as gatherers and disseminators of information, both from and to the centre and localities; and the role of clergy as opinion-formers. It is suggested that clergy were unifying influences in society. The clergy were closely integrated with their local economies and local society, but they formed a distinct social and professional group, which distanced them from their neighbours. The clergy were not an archaic group compared to other professional bodies, but provided something of a model for the reformation and regulation of the legal and medical professions in the 1820s and 1830s.
1 Introduction
Authors: Ralph Jason 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter examines how criminal justice helps to construct society by reaffirming common values at the moment they meet with opposition. It also introduces the English School approach to the study of international society and it describes how it provides a useful framework for analysing the issues raised by the International Criminal Court. The chapter clarifies the use of the pluralist and solidarist labels at the heart of the English School research agenda, summarises the main arguments of the book and sets out the chapter outline.
2 International Society—Consent and Custom as Sources of Law
Authors: Ralph Jason 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter examines why legal positivism emphasises the importance of sovereign consent and relates it to the pluralist conception of international society introduced in the previous chapter. This is contrasted with a solidarist conception that identifies sources of law in processes that override the principle of sovereign consent. The chapter also examines the specific and contested role that peremptory norms play in the constitution of international society. Finally, it relates this debate to the contemporary critique of customary international law within American academia and within certain parts of the political and judicial branches of US government. It illustrates this with reference to the debate on the Alien Tort Claims Act and to documents claiming executive privilege in the war on terror.
3 International Society—The Duty Either to Extradite or Prosecute
Authors: Ralph Jason 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter follows on from the previous by exploring how the pluralist – solidarist distinction at the heart of English School inquiry manifests itself in the question of whether states have a right and duty to extradite or prosecute individuals charged with crimes that offend humanity. By focusing on the Pinochet case before the House of Lords and the Arrest Warrant or Yerodia case before the International Court of Justice it demonstrates how the pluralist concern for order within and between states has restrained the solidarist enthusiasm for universal jurisdiction. The chapter includes a section on the politics of international criminal justice. This advances the argument that the US prefers to limit the decision to prosecute to states because its position of relative power means that it can more or less guarantee its interests and protect its personnel from international criminal accountability. This is illustrated by focusing on the US response to Belgian legislation that enabled its national courts to exercise universal jurisdiction.
7 International Society and America's War on Terrorism
Authors: Ralph Jason 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The evidence presented in previous chapters contributes to the general argument that the US defends the idea of a society of states because it is in the kind of society that America can preserve a preferred self‐image and can best advance its particular interests. This chapter develops that argument one stage further by focusing on the US response to the terrorist attacks of 9–11. From the perspective of the Bush administration, only those fighting on behalf of sovereign states could claim a right to lawful belligerency and the right to protection under the laws of war. Dealing with the terrorist threat through the norms of the society of states, therefore, provided additional normative criteria to delegitimize Al Qaeda and it put the issue of counter‐terrorism in a legal and political setting the US could, as the most powerful state, more or less dictate. The chapter provides historical context to this policy by focusing on the US rejection of Protocol I additional to the Geneva Conventions and illustrates how US lawyers also used the concept of sovereignty in an attempt to escape the oversight of national as well as international courts.
3 Torture of Detainees and Presidential Prerogative Power
Authors: Pious Richard M. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the president's use of prerogative powers and the treatment of detainees in the war on terror. President Bush asserted his prerogative power in interpreting and reinterpreting conventions and customary international law obligations, and in interpreting the obligations of government officials to execute faithfully statute law, the Uniform Code of Military Justice, and various directives. It is argued that officials at the highest levels of government made decisions based on the constitutional authority of the president (as administration lawyers defined it) that left open the probability that detainees would be subjected to inhuman treatment and torture as defined by international law. The chapter explores why the issue of the treatment of prisoners has not risen to the level of an Iran-Contra affair and what the reaction tells us about the politics of prerogative power.
5 “The Decider's” Path to War in Iraq and the Importance of Personality
Authors: Langston Thomas S. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is not to second-guess the president's decision to go to war with Iraq, but to inquire into the possibility that it represents an outstanding example of the influence of personality upon decision making of the highest importance. The chapter proceeds first by presenting a composite view of the personality of the president, taking into account both his major personality traits and his world-view. Next, it breaks down the decision for war in Iraq into seven discrete decisions. The first six progressively made war increasingly likely. The last was the final decision to launch the invasion. Each decision is characterized based on the major actors who influenced the president's choice, the manner in which the decision was made, and the practical consequences of each choice for the likelihood of war. There is compelling evidence that personal factors drove the decision to wage war in Iraq.
Going Public, Going to Baghdad: Presidential Agenda-Setting and the Electoral Connection in Congress
Authors: Blinder Scott B. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractPresident Bush and administration officials sought to persuade the domestic public, lawmakers in Washington, and the international community of the need to take military action against Saddam Hussein's regime, even after the decision to go to war had apparently been made. Using the power of the presidential bully pulpit and sending high-ranking officials to the airwaves and speech circuits, the administration spared no effort to make the case for ‘disarming’ Saddam, by force if necessary. But was ‘going public’ — appealing to the American public to try to increase support for the president's preferred policy — a necessary or even useful step on the president's road to Baghdad? This chapter argues that ‘going public’ was useful in at least one sense: improving the president's chances of success in the Congress.
Anglicanism and the British Empire, c.1700-1850
Authors: Strong Rowan 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This book demonstrates that British imperialism was integrally connected to British religion. Using published sources, the book identifies the construction, development, and ingredients of a public Anglican discourse of the British Empire between 1700 and c.1850. It argues that the Church of England exhibited an official and conscious Anglican concern for empire and for missions by the Church of England, from the foundation of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts in 1701. Much of that earlier 18th century understanding went on to shape later Anglican Evangelical imperial attitudes in the Church Missionary Society founded in 1799. In this Anglican engagement with the British Empire, a public theological discourse of empire was formed and promulgated. This religious public discourse of empire was developed in an imperial partnership with the state. It was formulated in the Anglican engagement with the North American colonies in the 18th century; it underwent a revival of the church-state partnership in the period between 1790 and 1830, as witnessed in Bengal; and it was fundamentally transformed in a new paradigm of imperial engagement in the 1840s, which was implemented in the colonies of Australia and New Zealand. Both the old and the new imperial Anglican paradigms developed a religious and theological imperial discourse that constructed the identities for various colonized peoples and British colonists, as well as contributing to English-British identity between 1700 and 1850. It was a Christian lens that proved remarkably consistent and enduring for both the old and the new British Empires.
Introduction: English Religion and Empire to 1700
Authors: Strong Rowan 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The connection between religion and empire in England goes back to at least the 16th century. While missions and religion may not have been a primary motivation for English venturing overseas in the 16th and 17th centuries, nevertheless, when they did so, the English ensured their religion went with them. The annual sermons and the published extracts of the Anglican missionaries attached to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and, later, the Church Missionary Society from 1701 until the 1840s, allow investigation into the formation, maintenance, and adaptation of an Anglican discourse of the British Empire from the beginning of the 18th century to the mid-19th century.
2 The Construction of an Anglican Imperialism: British North America in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Strong Rowan 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
A public theological discourse of how the English-British empire was to be understood was framed by the Anglican Society for Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts in its original missionary engagement with the North American colonies in the 18th century. In its public sermons and missionary reports it constructed identities for the inhabitants of the empire, colonized and colonizers, and for the English themselves. It did so in partnership with the state, though this partnership was seen to be unsatisfactory in important dimensions.
3 Anglicanism in a Resurgent Imperialism: Bengal, 1790–1830
Authors: Strong Rowan 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The partnership between church and state in the empire underwent a period of revitalization in the period between 1790 and 1830, after the loss of the thirteen North American colonies. This is evident in Anglican engagement with the Bengal mission by both High Church and Evangelical missions. This engagement witnessed a remarkable continuity with the public theological discourse about the British Empire that had been constructed in the North American context previously.
5 The New Paradigm in the Colonies: Australia and New Zealand, 1820s–c.1850
Authors: Strong Rowan 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This new Anglican imperial paradigm was also framed in the colonies, where it was adopted at different speeds in different colonies. In Australia, between the 1820s and 1840s, the old church-state paradigm only gradually and reluctantly gave way to the new episcopal autonomous one under Bishop William Broughton. In New Zealand, it was the driving force of the state, of the episcopate of Bishop George Selwyn, from the 1840s. In both colonies, Anglican missionaries and bishops continued to construct identities for colonizers and the Aborigines and Maori indigenous peoples in ways similar to the 18th century Anglican missions.
6 Growth and Stability
Authors: GLYN ANDREW 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines whether the great reversal in economic policy over the past twenty-five years has rekindled economic dynamism in rich countries and how the stability of output has been affected. It is shown that excitement over the new economy boom in the USA has dissipated with the collapse of the bubble. Japan has been stuck in a low growth quagmire for fifteen years, reflecting in part the after-effects of precipitate financial liberalization. Europe's economy, battered by the effects of German unification, has been growing only feebly, with mass unemployment in the large Continental economies and with little response to repeated doses of deregulation.
The Senses, Reason and the Imagination
Authors: Kail P. J. E. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter compares three key aspects of Hume's account of mind, sense reason, and imagination. Explanatory projection rests with a contrast with detective sources, and it is argued that the senses constitute a detective source of content and reason of belief. This is a discussion of Hume's alleged scepticism about probable reason and the historical background to Hume's account of the imagination.
Into the Labyrinth: Persons, Modality and Hume's Undoing
Authors: Kail P. J. E. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter examines two subjects. The first is Hume's account of the fictional idea of substantial self and the sense in which it is projective. The second is an attempt to locate the source of Hume's famous disquiet with his account of personal identity. It is argued that an otherwise recalcitrant feature of Hume's texts becomes perspicuous when viewed from the perspective of realism about necessary connection.
The Golden: Relational Values, Realism and A Moral Sense
Authors: Kail P. J. E. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter shows how the projection of pleasure and pain can be integrated into a subtle form of realism. It is argued that Hume's account of the moral sense can be seen as modelled on a view of primitive animal cognition, whereby what is good for the animal is made salient in pleasurable experience; what is bad for it through painful experience. The moral pleasure and pains render salient Hume's catalogue of the morally relational values, namely that which is useful or pleasing.
Chapter 8 Health Insurance Patterns Nearing Retirement
Authors: Levy Helen G. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter asks how well Baby Boomers are protected against later-life health shocks. While exposure to such shocks is relatively high, the realization of risk appears unlikely and relatively little wealth is at risk. Almost one-quarter of the original Health and Retirement Study cohort was uninsured at some point in the six-year window before Medicare eligibility, but only 2% had an uninsured hospitalization in this window. Moreover, the amount at stake for the median uninsured person is relatively low. Since many in this age bracket approach old age in poor financial shape, lack of assets may be a larger problem than lack of health insurance. Policies aimed at preventing poverty among the elderly may be more important than policies to expand health insurance coverage among those on the verge of retirement.