bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Evaluating the suitability of hybrid poplar clones for the manufacture of oriented strand boards
Authors: Semple Kate E. , Vaillant Marie-Helene , Kang Kyu-Young , Oh Seung Won , Smith Gregory D. , Mansfield Shawn D. 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
Clonal trees from five different plantation-grown, industrially relevant hybrid poplar genotypes of the same age, grown on a common site in British Columbia, Canada, were tested for their performance in strand production and properties of oriented strand board (OSB). The results were compared against a benchmark mill-run OSB furnish derived from native aspen (Populus tremuloides). Variation in solid wood density among the hybrid poplar clones was shown to influence the compaction ratio and densification of the OSB, which in turn led to variation in board strength properties. After accounting for specimen density using co-variate statistical models, it was apparent that there were significant effects of genotype on bonding strength and thickness swell. Lower density wood from the fastest growing P. deltoides×P. trichocarpa (DTAC 7) clone resulted in better mat compaction and higher bond strength, whereas higher density wood from a P. trichocarpa×P. deltoides (TD 50-184) clone resulted in lower compaction and bonding strength. Flexural strength (rupture and elastic moduli) and nail pull through were not as significantly affected by either board density or genotype when adjusted for density. The study clearly demonstrates that fast grown, large diameter wood of lower initial wood density from hybrid poplar is highly suited for OSB production.
A numerical study of the transverse modulus of wood as a function of grain orientation and properties
Authors: Nairn John A. 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
Finite element analysis was used to study the effective transverse modulus of solid wood for all possible end-grain patterns. The calculations accounted for cylindrical anisotropy of wood within rectangular specimens and explicitly modeled wood as a composite of earlywood and latewood. The effective modulus was significantly reduced by growth ring curvature or off-axis loading, The large changes were attributed to the low transverse shear modulus of wood. The explicit, or heterogeneous, model was compared to prior numerical methods that homogenized properties in the transverse plane. The two models gave similar effective modulus results, but a heterogeneous model was required to capture details in modulus calculations or to realistically model stress concentrations. Various numerical methods for modeling transverse stresses in wood are discussed.
Genome Scan to Detect Genetic Structure and Adaptive Genes of Natural Populations of Cryptomeria japonica
Authors: Tsumura Yoshihiko , Kado Tomoyuki , Takahashi Tomokazu , Tani Naoki , Ujino-Ihara Tokuko , Iwata Hiroyoshi 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
We investigated 29 natural populations of Cryptomeria japonica using 148 cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence markers to elucidate their genetic structure and identify candidate adaptive genes of this species. In accordance with the inferred evolutionary history of the species during and after the last glacial episode, the genetic diversity was higher in western populations than in northern populations. The results of phylogenetic and genetic structure analyses suggest that populations of the two main varieties of the species have clearly diverged from each other and that two of the examined loci are strongly associated with the differentiation between the two varieties. Using a coalescent simulation based on FST and He values, we detected five genes that had higher, and two that had lower, values than the respective 99% confidence intervals (C.I.s) that are theoretically expected intervals under a neutral infinite-island model. We also detected 13 outlier loci using a coalescent simulation based on the assumption that the 2 varieties originated from the splitting of an ancestral population. Four of these loci were detected by both methods, two of which were detected in a genetic structure analysis as loci associated with differentiation between the two varieties of the species, and are strong candidates for genes that have been subject to selection.
Buchen, Eichen und Eschen in den Wäldern am Bodensee zwischen Arbon und Ermatingen | Beeches, Oaks and Ashes in the Forests on Lake Constance between Arbon and Ermatingen
Authors: Nussbaumer Hans 
Published: June 2007

Moist soils, rich in nutrients and mild climatic conditions make the region between Arbon and Ermatingen on Lake Constance a good growth area for most deciduous tree species. The aim is the cultivation of quality wood. For the treatment and regeneration of the three most important species of deciduous trees in the region - beech, oak and ash - some experiences are presented:
• After a close canopy density in the first adolescent phase, the regenerative cone at knee and hip height of the beech should quickly be uncovered, in order to achieve good stem wood. Too advanced age favours heart rot. • Oaks - especially the pedunculate oak spreads widely in this region - are very light-dependent, and it is, therefore, extremely difficult to nurse the particularly sensitive saplings to fully grown trees without sufficient regeneration areas. • Ashes grow early and with a steady intensity due to good light and sufficient space conditions and thus can be used at a relatively juvenile age, they most commonly produce white and first-class wood.
Analyse semi-automatisée de photos aériennes numérisées pour l'étude de la dynamique de peuplements arborescents | Semi-Automatised Analysis of Digitised Aerial Photographs for the Study of Arborescent Population Dynamics
Authors: Barbezat Vincent 
Published: June 2007

At the present time, landscape inventories, the third National Forest Inventory (NFI), permanent research plots in the forests,cantonal inventories, regional forest planning, the redefinition of useful farm land, a new inventory of standard tree orchards but also the protection of peat bog and alluvial areas are daily business. Therefore, the development of a software for automated aerial photograph analysis is of greatest interest to the Swiss Confederation and its cantons as well as to forest owners, research institutes and certain industries (private engineering enterprises, software producers).
In answer to these expectations, the Antenne Romande WSL, together with the Institute of Production in Microengineering of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne(EPFL), proposes to develop a software for user-friendly, neutral and rapid image-processing, the working precision of which will suit forest and landscape managers. Moreover, the software will provide scientists with basic data for the modelling of various ecosystem processes.
Erfahrungen im Umgang mit Buchdrucker-Massenvermehrungen (Ips typographus L.) nach Sturmereignissen in der Schweiz | Management of the eight-toothed spruce bark beetle (Ips typographus) during mass attacks – experiences after windfall in Switzerland
Authors: Forster Beat , Meier Franz , Gall Rolf , Zahn Christoph 
Published: June 2007

In 1990 and 1999 two heavy storms struck Europe, the worst gales ever recorded in Switzerland. Millions of cubic metres of standing spruce trees were subsequently attacked by the eight-toothed spruce bark beetle (Ips typographus L.). In Swiss forests, such heavy mass attacks have never been observed before. From 1990 to 1996 standing trees infested by beetles totalled 50% of the spruce timber thrown by the 1990 storm.
Logistics sometimes made it impossible to remove all windthrown timber before new generations of beetles emerged. Forest services and forest owners were forced to set priorities. The strained financial situation of many owners and ecological aspects were also reasons for changing forest protection strategies and leaving some storm and bark beetle damaged areas uncleared. In regions with such areas, the amount of subsequent bark beetle attack approximately doubled compared with other regions where storm damages and infestation spots were thoroughly cleared. To answer questions of new risk assessment, projects were started on scolytid behaviour in differently treated regions and in buffer zones.
Die Wald-Holz-Option, eine Brücke zwischen Klimapolitik und Wirtschaft – zehn Thesen | The forest/wood option: a bridge between climate politics and the economy - ten theses
Authors: Bemmann Albrecht , Hasenkamp Karl Peter 
Published: June 2007

Since the beginning of industrialisation the CO2 content in the Earth's atmosphere has increased from approx. 280 ppmv to approx. 370 ppmv today. Despite all national measures and international agreements to reduce them, CO2 emissions will roughly double over the coming decades (carbon emissions:5.6 billion tonnes in 1990; 12.0 billion tonnes in 2050).
The forest/wood option has six components:
• Avoiding CO2 emissions with forest protection measures • Priority protection for natural forests that represent important carbon reservoirs. • Increase of the fixation of carbon in forest ecological systems and wood products • Increase in biomass and therefore the carbon reservoir via sustainable forest management; • Creation of CO2 sinks by afforesting deforested areas, as well as the regeneration of partially cleared or degraded forests; the creation of nurseries on agricultural land; • By creating sustainable yield the carbon reservoir of the forest can be extended for the duration of its use via wood products (product – reservoir). • Lowering CO2 emissions by substitution • Energetic use of wood from sustainable forest management instead of fossil fuels avoids additional CO2 emissions,as the CO2 released from wood is recaptured and embedded in the biomass; • Use of wood instead of energy intensive materials such as steel, aluminium, cement or stone, avoids CO2 emissions.
Taking natural and socio-economic conditions into account the possibilities of the forest/wood option can be implemented in a number countries. Flat, open regions with some forest stands are the best locations for afforestation, which, owing to their socio-economic circumstances, provide suitable conditions for sustainable forest management. The more than two hundred years experience with sustainable forest management and use of wood gained by European foresters and forest scientists should be made available to countries outside Europe for the implementation of the forest/wood option.
Trichroic Infrared Measurements of Orientation
Authors: Koenig Jack L. 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
Orientation can be defined as the preferential alignment (either uniaxial or biaxial) of polymer chains or segments when subjected to an external force. The orientation induces significant changes in the properties both positively and negatively. Oriented polymers are generally aniostropic; the properties along a particular direction being affected according to the conditions of stretching along that direction. Stretching in one direction produces uniaxial materials. Stretching in two mutually perpendicular directions produces biaxial materials. In reality, many polymers have orientation with a three‐dimensional character. It is therefore necessary to obtain the structural absorbance (the average of the absorbance in the three directions) in order to determine the relative amounts of the structural components in the sample in the presence of orientation. The three‐dimensional orientation function can be measured using an infrared technique based on an infrared absorption intensity ellipsoid approximation coupled with a sample tilting procedure. Angle‐dependent absorption information is obtained from a tilting apparatus. The sample is mounted in a preferred direction on the tilting stage. The device is constructed such that the sample can be rotated about a horizontal or vertical axis, both of which are orthogonal to the direction of propagation. The apparatus is interfaced with a computer for automated and precise tilting control. A wire grid polarizer is used to polarize the incident light beam. Three‐dimensional information is obtained by rotation of the bulk sample on the axis perpendicular to the incident electric vector. The method is demonstrated for uniaxially drawn polyethylene terephthalate and phase I of poly(vinylidene fluoride), oriented and annealed both under stress and without stress.
Measurement of the Physical Characteristics of Polymers by Vibrational Spectroscopy
Authors: Tashiro Kohji 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
The usefulness of vibrational spectroscopy in the structural study of polymer materials has been revealed by reviewing various examples of phase transitions, crystallization, mechanical deformation, and so on. (1) The characteristic infrared (and Raman) bands are pointed out, which are sensitive to the regular chain conformation, the crystallinity, the chain packing mode in the crystal lattice, and the change in morphology or higher‐order structure. (2) The crystallization phenomenon is reviewed, which has been studied by the temperature‐ and/or time‐dependent measurements of infrared (Raman) spectra during the heating/cooling process or in the atmosphere of organic solvent vapor. (3) The microscopically‐viewed mechanical property of crystalline polymers has been discussed using the infrared and Raman data taken under the application of tensile force. (4) The observed frequency shift, which is due to the stress‐induced change in molecular geometry and force constant, is affected more or less by the difference in the morphology of the sample, from which the heterogeneous stress distribution in the sample is estimated on the basis of a complex mechanical model. (5) The simultaneous measurement of X‐ray diffraction and Raman spectra is outlined. The simultaneous measurement technique of viscoelastic modulus and infrared spectra under the control of humidity is also described.
Measurements of the Chemical Characteristics of Polymers and Rubbers by Vibrational Spectroscopy
Authors: Boerio F. James , Wirasate S. 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
Infrared and Raman spectroscopy are widely used to determine the chemical characteristics of polymers and rubber compounds. The purpose of this chapter is to review the use of these powerful vibrational spectroscopic techniques for determining characteristics such as branching, end groups, degradation reactions, stereoregularity, conformation, rotational isomers, hydrogen bonding, polyene formation, and cross‐linking reactions. A wide range of polymers is considered to illustrate the applications of infrared and Raman spectroscopy to polymers and rubbers. They include materials such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polybutadiene, poly(methyl methacrylate), polyoxymethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polyurethanes, polycarbonate, poly(vinyl chloride), and sulfur‐vulcanized natural rubber compounds.
Polymer Optical and Dielectric Properties through Vibrational Spectroscopy
Authors: Smith D. M. , Chughtai A. R. 
Published: June 2007

Abstract

Principles of the refraction and extinction of electromagnetic radiation incident upon homogeneous isotropic condensed phases are reviewed. The relationship between the complex refractive index,
n
(υ), and the absorption index,
k
(υ), through the Kramers–Kronig transform is shown as is the relationship of these optical constants to ɛ, the complex dielectric function. The basis of the determination of the optical constants n and k as a function of frequency for polymeric materials by infrared reflection‐absorption spectroscopy (IR‐RAS) is illustrated with examples as are other external reflection methods. Also discussed is the effect of absorber concentration on the IR‐RA spectra. Various methods for the measurement of optical constants and dielectric function of isotropic and anisotropic polymers covered are internal reflection techniques such as attenuated total reflectance (ATR), transmittance‐reflectance, transmission, and ellipsometry. The chapter concludes with comments on new spectroscopic techniques with potential application to the determination of optical constants of polymers.
Introduction to Vibrational Spectroscopy
Authors: Griffiths Peter R. 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
A summary of the basic theory of mid‐infrared, near‐infrared and Raman spectroscopy is given, including the concept of normal modes and fundamental, overtone, and combination bands. An introduction to vibration‐rotation spectroscopy of molecules in the vapor phase is then presented. The factors governing the intensity of bands in infrared and Raman spectra and the width of bands in condensed‐phase spectra and lines in vapor‐phase spectra are discussed. Finally, the effect of polarized light on oriented molecules is summarized.
Sampling Techniques and Fiber‐Optic Probes
Authors: Chalmers John M. , Griffiths Peter R. 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
The raw materials and development and commercial products of the pharmaceutical industry come in a wide and diverse range of forms. Sampling techniques for these must be representative and appropriately selected, particularly for solid‐state studies. In addition, process measurements require the use of specialized tools such as fibre‐optic probes. This chapter outlines the basic practices, principles and limitations underlying sample presentation methods for the vibrational spectroscopy techniques of near‐infrared (NIR), mid‐infrared, THz, and Raman spectroscopy. For NIR and mid‐infrared it covers both transmission and reflection techniques. The chapter also discusses sampling methods in relation to microspectroscopy and imaging. The chapter closes with discussions on fibre‐optic probes, fibre‐optic materials, and optical conduits and their uses with near‐infrared, mid‐infrared and Raman spectrometry.
Characterization and Optimization of Chemical Synthesis Using Real‐Time Vibrational Spectroscopy
Authors: Homsi Fadi , Barrett Paul , Wang Jian , Ferwerda Roel 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
For a long time, mid‐infrared and Raman spectroscopy have played an important role in the structure elucidation of organic compounds. However, only during the last 20 years, they became powerful technologies for understanding chemical reaction pathways and kinetics, and they are now an essential part of the Organic Chemist's Process Analytical Technology (PAT) toolbox. The technologies are utilized when researching reaction progress, kinetics, asymmetric and coordination chemistry, hydrogenation, reactive and green chemistry, and solution crystallization, which will all be discussed in detail. The chapter will be concluded with some of the new developments in this area.
The Analysis of Pharmaceutical Substances and Formulated Products by Vibrational Spectroscopy
Authors: Clark Don , Pysik Alexander 
Published: June 2007

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionPharmacopoeial ConsiderationsBulk Sample AnalysisDrug Substance CharacterizationFunctional Group AnalysisHydrogen Bonding and ZwitterionsPolymorphism, Salts, Hydrates, and SolvatesChiralityMethods to Probe Solid‐Phase PhenomenaProcess Analytical Technology ApplicationsFormulation AnalysisMicroscopic Sample AnalysisDrug Substance CharacterizationForensic AnalysisConclusionsAcknowledgments
Pharmaceutical Applications of Chemical Mapping and Imaging
Authors: Clark Don , Henson Mark , LaPlant Fred , Šašić Slobodan , Zhang Lin 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

The Technology and Rationale for Chemical Images

Sample‐Preparation Considerations for Chemical Mapping and Imaging

Chemical Mapping and Imaging Applications

Polymorph Analysis

Product Design and Development

Product Performance and Support

Chemical Image Production Using Chemometric Analysis

The Hyperspectral Cube and Chemical Images

Image Data Analysis

Data Preprocessing

Principal Component Analysis (

PCA

)

Ordinary Least Squares (
OLS
)

Partial Least Squares (

PLS

)

PLS

Quantitative Analysis

PLS

Classification

Analysis of Chemical Images

Conclusion

Acknowledgments
Terahertz Spectroscopy for Pharmaceutical Applications
Authors: Claybourn Mike , Yang Husheng , Gradinarsky Lubomir , Johansson Jonas , Folestad Staffan 
Published: June 2007

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionAbsorption Spectroscopy in theTHzRegionInstrumentationPharmaceutical ApplicationsImaging ApplicationsPharmaceutical Characterization ApplicationsTheoretical Modeling and Spectral InterpretationProcess AnalysisSummary
History, Trends and Prognostications
Authors: Griffiths Peter R. , Chalmers John M. , Pivonka Don E. 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
The development of mid‐infrared, near‐infrared and Raman spectrometers over the past 30 year is outlined and the way that these developments have impacted the analysis of pharmaceutical products is summarized. Fourier transform infrared (FT‐IR) spectrometers are almost one hundred times more sensitive than when they were introduced in 1969. The development of near‐infrared and Raman Spectrometers (both dispersive and Fourier transform) in the past 20 years has had an equal impact on pharmaceutical analysis. The rapid advances in the performance of personal computers have allowed some quite remarkable measurements that rely on complex chemometric algorithms to be made. Developments in accessories (such as attenuated total reflection accessories) and peripherals (such as infrared and Raman microscopes) has simplified the measurement of vibrational spectra. Finally, measurements that were completely unknown 25 years ago, such as hyperspectral imaging and vibrational circular dichroism spectrometry are also starting to have a large impact on pharmaceutical analysis.
Theory of Vibrational Spectroscopy of Polymers
Authors: Castiglioni Chiara 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
In this Chapter the theoretical basis for the modelling of vibrational spectra of polymers are illustrated. The different approaches suitable for the prediction of vibrational frequencies, infrared and Raman intensities are described with reference to the real case of a semi‐crystalline and of an amorphous polymeric material.
The theory underlying the calculation of phonon dispersion curves for a polymer showing regular conformation (treated as a 1‐D crystal) is reported and relationship between phonons of a polymer and normal modes of vibrations of its oligomers are discussed. The advantages resulting from a treatment based on valence coordinates and from the explicit use of the screw symmetry (for polymers with helical conformation) are shown.
Prediction of defect modes and its relevance in the structural characterisation of real samples is illustrated with examples.
A discussion about use and limitations of first principle approaches to the study of the vibrational spectra of polymers is reported, with reference to several studies that have appeared in the literature.
Depth Profiling of Polymers by Vibrational Spectroscopy
Authors: Fredericks Peter M. 
Published: June 2007

Abstract
Depth profiling has become an important application of the vibrational microspectroscopy of heterogeneous solid samples. This chapter discusses the experimental and theoretical aspects of depth profiling by both infrared and Raman spectroscopy. Various means, such as microtoming, exist to prepare the sample for analysis. Such methods are destructive but require only a small amount of sample. Infrared spectroscopy is restricted to destructive approaches, except for the ATR technique where limited depth profiling is possible using different internal reflection elements. Raman microspectroscopy can be used in the same way as IR and has the benefit of much better spatial resolution. However, if the Raman microspectrometer is operated in confocal mode it is also possible, without any sample preparation, for spectra to be collected from within the sample, a process known as “optical slicing”. While there have been some reports demonstrating the efficacy of this approach, there have also been warnings relating to the accuracy of the method. The latest experimental and theoretical studies are discussed in order to define the current state‐of‐the‐art in confocal Raman depth profiling.