bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Characterization of typical chemical background interferences in atmospheric pressure ionization liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry
Authors: Guo Xinghua , Bruins Andries P. , Covey Thomas R. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe structures and origins of typical chemical background noise ions in positive atmospheric pressure ionization liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (API LC/MS) are investigated and summarized in this study. This was done by classifying chemical background ions using precursor and product ion scans on most abundant background ions to draw a family tree of the commonly occurring chemical background ions. The possible structures and the origins of the major chemical background noise are clearly revealed in the family trees. In agreement with some suggestions in the literature, the chemical background ions studied so far can be classified mainly as either ions of contaminants (or their degradation fragments) or cluster‐related ones. A significant contribution from the contaminants (airborne, from tubing and/or solvents) from plasticizer additives (phthalates, phenyl phosphates, sebacates and adipates, etc.) and silicones is concluded. These ions of contaminants can also serve as nuclei for the clustering of HPLC solvent or additives, such as water and acetic acid, thereby leading to a second family of background ions. This study explains the persistence of some chemical background noise even under fairly strong declustering conditions in API LC/MS. One of the other interesting conclusions is that there is a clear difference in structures between the chemical background ions and the protonated analytes generated under atmospheric pressure ionization. This conclusion will contribute to the on‐going research efforts to exclusively remove or reduce the interference of chemical background noise in API LC/MS. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Experimental evaluation of fishway modifications on the passage behaviour of adult Chinook salmon and steelhead at Lower Granite Dam, Snake River, USA
Authors: Naughton George P. , Caudill Christopher C. , Peery Christopher A. , Clabough Tami S. , Jepson Michael A. , Bjornn Theodore C. , Stuehrenberg Lowell C. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPrevious studies of Pacific salmonid passage over Snake River dams indicated slowed passage at transition pools, the transition area between the fishway entrance and the fish ladder. In 2001 and 2002, we conducted an experiment to determine if modified weirs affected adult salmon and steelhead passage times and route selection through the Lower Granite Dam transition pool. Fish attraction flows through the lower ladder weirs were experimentally increased using removable panels. During the experiment we monitored radio‐tagged adult Chinook salmon and steelhead to determine passage routes and times through the transition pool. The weir treatment increased the number of spring–summer Chinook salmon passing straight through the transition pool compared to those exiting the transition pool to the collection channel or tailrace. Mean passage times through the transition pool differed among routes and were significantly lower during treatment periods for the exit‐to‐collection channel route in spring‐summer Chinook salmon, but not for other routes. Passage times among routes differed in steelhead, but there was no evidence of treatment effects on route use or passage time. Fall Chinook exhibited similar trends in route use and passage time to spring–summer Chinook, but differences were not significant, perhaps because of relatively small sample size. Total dam passage times did not differ by treatment or route for any run. Fish depth during passage of the transition pool suggested that most fish passed through submerged orifices and supported the hypothesis that increased water velocity through these orifices caused the increase in straight‐through passage in spring–summer Chinook. Collectively, the results suggested the weir modifications provided improvement to passage through the transition pool for spring–summer Chinook and no evidence of negative effects on other runs. The results from this study were used to develop new design criteria and modifications of the Lower Granite Dam fishway. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Bivariate random effect model using skew‐normal distribution with application to HIV‐RNA
Authors: Ghosh Pulak , Branco Marcia D. , Chakraborty Hrishikesh 
Published: September 2006

AbstractCorrelated data arise in a longitudinal studies from epidemiological and clinical research. Random effects models are commonly used to model correlated data. Mostly in the longitudinal data setting we assume that the random effects and within subject errors are normally distributed. However, the normality assumption may not always give robust results, particularly if the data exhibit skewness. In this paper, we develop a Bayesian approach to bivariate mixed model and relax the normality assumption by using a multivariate skew‐normal distribution. Specifically, we compare various potential models and illustrate the procedure using a real data set from HIV study. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TGF‐β/Smad‐signaling in liver cells: Target genes and inhibitors of two parallel pathways
Authors: Breitkopf Katja , Weng Honglei , Dooley Steven 
Published: September 2006

AbstractTransforming growth factor (TGF)‐β is a major mediator of fibrosis in diverse organs/tissues, including liver, due to its gene regulatory properties that lead to high expression and secretion of extracellular matrix components. Whereas the canonical Smad pathway seems to be very simple, TGF‐β turns out to be a multiplicity factor with a highly cell type specific outcome and therefore, no universally valid plan of its signal transduction can be formulated. In the present review, we will summarize information about the Smad dependent and Smad independent TGF‐β signaling network in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and hepatocytes, with emphasis on its role in chronic liver disease. In addition, current state of the art anti‐TGF‐β strategies for liver fibrosis treatment are discussed.
THE BEGINNING, THE MIDDLE AND THE END OF CLASSICAL MUSIC
Authors: SUSCHITZKY ANYA 
Published: September 2006

Richard Taruskin, The Oxford History of Western Music, 6 vols. (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2005)Until recently, serious students of music did not read sweeping histories of music. In a time of increasing specialization, we do not expect to find new ideas in such work. This has changed with the publication of Richard Taruskin's History of Western Music. Monumental in its scope and original in its approach but informal in its prose and always engagingly direct, it offers a provocative perspective on the whole of music's history and sets fresh agendas for anyone interested in music and its relation to the history of ideas, politics and culture. Taruskin's History differs from all previous projects of its kind in that it does not principally survey famous works by famous composers. Focusing instead on particular issues within a chronological framework (his chapter titles refer, amongst other things, to feudalism, humanism, enlightenment, virtuosos, transcendentalism and totalitarianism), and selecting composers whose music contributes to the consideration of those issues (sometimes omitting well-known figures or placing familiar works in radically new contexts), he sets out quite simply to explain why music has been composed as it has, and to show how its existence has relied not on composers in isolation but on a whole musical culture of composers, patrons, performers, critics and many others. Rather than relegating historical events and ideas to the status of context or calling them extra-musical, he places them at the centre of his narrative and in intricate dialogue with music; so while his close analyses of music will mean most to those with musical training, they are part of an argument about history that will be suggestive and illuminating to any reader.
The Era of Sadat
Authors: Kenney Jeffrey T. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter covers the political discourse on Islamist extremism during the Sadat years. Sadat established his reputation as president by steering a course away from the policies of his predecessor. His distinctive legacy was his economic and political opening to the West, which was preceded by an opening up of Egyptian society. Discourse on extremism during this period bears the distinct markings of the political negotiations underway between Islamists and the state; and the Kharijites were a tool for the claims of both the authorities and Islamists.
Introduction
Authors: Kenney Jeffrey T. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This introductory chapter begins with a study of the mythical image of the Kharijites created by medieval thinkers in the context of the political and cultural world of mid-20th-century Egypt. It explains the relevance of Islam's mythic history, including the Kharijites, to the development of modern Egypt. It argues that reinvented Kharijism in Egypt has, at different times, fitted the assessments offered by both proponents and critics. An overview of the succeeding chapters is presented.
The Child‐Scientist Theory
Authors: Goldman Alvin I. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractEarly childhood failures on false-belief tasks and related tasks lead many developmental psychologists to conclude that children (like scientists) undergo a succession of changes in their mental-state theories, especially changes from a non-representational to a representational theory. Early errors in belief attribution are viewed as the product of a “conceptual deficit” rather than performance limitations. Other evidence, however, suggests that performance factors like memory and inhibitory control problems are at least partly responsible. Recent experiments with reduced task demands enabled children as young as 15 months to show understanding of false belief. Child-scientist advocates usually hold that theoretical inference is used for both first-person and third-person mindreading, but there is evidence that undercuts first-person/third-person parallelism.
Simulation in Low‐Level Mindreading
Authors: Goldman Alvin I. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPeople have a primitive and largely automatic ability to recognize emotions in faces, an ability best explained by simulation, more specifically, mirror processes. In lesion studies of fear, disgust, and anger, paired selective deficits have been found in experiencing and recognizing these emotions. A patient with insula and basal ganglia damage, for example, scored very low on a questionnaire for experiencing disgust and was also significantly and selectively impaired in recognizing disgust in facial expressions. Such findings are best explained by simulation theory, which predicts that damage to a neural system responsible for undergoing a certain emotion would also yield impairment in recognizing it. Mirror processes involve matching neural activation in both a subject and an observer of a specific mental state, and such processes have been identified (via single cell recordings and neuroimaging studies) for motor intention, touch, pain, and the several emotions listed above.
Honest Patriots
Authors: Shriver Donald W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The book records attempts in three countries — Germany, South Africa, and the United States — to educate patriots who are neither loveless critics nor uncritical lovers of their nation, but rather loving critics. How does a national public learn to acknowledge the “dark side” of their country’s history? In the post-1945 years, Germans slowly but surely came to pay public attention to the evils of the Nazi era. In an astonishing accumulation of memorials, museums, films, anniversaries, and high school history books, the country has put its future generations on notice: “Never again”. Post-apartheid South Africa has seen comparable developments, especially in its Truth and Reconciliation Commission, new Constitution, memorials, and radically revised school text books. The United States, with a culture more focused on the future than the past, is undergoing a similar but slower public process. Two great crimes mark its national past: slavery and the fate of the people called Indians. The US is beginning to confront these collective crimes with new realism in new laws, museums, films, memorials, and history books. A political culture grows in its capacity for justice by remembering injustice. For a people not to remember the misdeeds of their past is to risk repeating them. Public memory requires concrete public signs, rituals, memorials, and education. This book seeks to record the attempts of these three countries to give public expression to justice by remembering injustice.
Germany Remembers
Authors: Shriver, Jr. Donald W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Foreigners still wonder if Germans can really be trusted to remember the evils of Nazism. This chapter documents the array of public measures which the country has taken in the past 60 years to educate its upcoming generations of citizens about those evils, with the hope, “Never again”. Documented here are the Holocaust memorials, anniversaries, museums, and school texts that have qualified Germany now as having established a “culture of memory” with few equals elsewhere in the world.
South Africa
Authors: Shriver, Jr. Donald W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
South Africa is credited with having achieved one of the great historical non-violent transitions from oppression to democracy. In the 10 years after 1994, its citizens and government have enacted several measures for ensuring that future generations will neither forget the apartheid past nor ever repeat it: new laws, a new constitution, a Truth and Reconciliation Commission, museums, liberation anniversaries, and public memorials to human suffering in the past. This chapter pays special attention to the TRC of 1995-98 and lessons to be learned from its work by other countries.
Old Unpaid Debt
Authors: Shriver, Jr. Donald W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Americans live in a culture resistant to much talk about the evils in their past; they prefer to think about the future. But like the descendants of victims of evil in Germany and South Africa, some living Americans are not about to forget the evil past. Prominent among them are African Americans. This chapter explores the stubborn persistence of racism in America, the work of a growing number of citizens to remember the pains of racism past and present, and to express that memory in public ways. Local illustrations of public repentance include Richmond, Virginia; Rosewood, Florida; Tulsa, Oklahoma; Salem, Oregon; and Selma, Alabama. After a “tour” of high school history books of 1960-2000, the chapter ends with some summary answers to the question, “Can the past be repaired?” as well as arguments for and against reparations for slavery.
Unreflected Absences
Authors: Shriver, Jr. Donald W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
So many “Indians” died in the onslaughts of European colonization, so many were diverted to reservations, and so little attention is paid Indian history in public schools that Americans generally are profoundly ignorant of who Indians were and are. This chapter documents some hopeful changes in this public cultural ignorance during the past thirty years: museums, films, history writing, high school history teaching, apologies, reparations, and memorials that promise some increase in public acknowledgment of the Indian claim, “We were here, and we still are here”. The author describes his own pilgrimage of learning about the original Powhatan nation of his native Virginia and the Mohicans of New York. The chapter ends with a survey of legal changes that have accorded new political power to members of the 550 surviving Indian nations, along with continuing legal and ethical tensions in the relation of two million Indians to the rest of the country.
Being Human While Being American
Authors: Shriver, Jr. Donald W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter celebrates public occasions and measures in recent years where the American government and citizens’ groups acknowledged national “misdeeds” in international relations, especially in its wars. The chapter begins with the 1998 Pentagon award of three soldiers’ medals to the helicopter crewmen who sought to call the My Lai massacre to a halt. It then describes recent presidential apologies for American failures to curb massacres in Bosnia and Rwanda. The author then nominates some still-to-be-acknowledged occasions for repentance in this country’s recent international affairs: the civilian-bombings of World War II, failures of public leaders to mourn — or even to count — the deaths of enemies in war, and the arrogance of American claims to global “full spectrum dominance”. The chapter concludes with pleas that America listen more carefully to its friendly critics in other countries, especially the two countries with which the book began: Germany and South Africa.
Moral Disagreement
Authors: Gert Bernard , Culver Charles M. , Clouser K. Danner 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter challenges the view that every moral question has a unique correct answer. The sources of unresolvable moral disagreement are the following four differences: (1) in the rankings of the goods (benefits) and evils (harms); (2) in estimates of the consequences of everyone knowing that violation of a moral rule is allowed in these circumstances; (3) in the interpretation of a moral rule; and (4) about who is protected by the moral rules. Important questions that do not have a unique correct answer are those concerning the best health care delivery system and the moral acceptability of abortion.
Principlism
Authors: Gert Bernard , Culver Charles M. , Clouser K. Danner 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter compares an account of common morality with the account of morality presented by Beauchamp and Childress in their book, The Principles of Biomedical Ethics. It offers a general critique of principlism, as well as of the first three of their four principles: autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice. It shows the superiority of the account of morality as an informal public system over their account, which uses four freestanding principles not embedded in any system.
What Doctors Must Know about Medical Practice
Authors: Gert Bernard , Culver Charles M. , Clouser K. Danner 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter shows the importance of recognizing the probabilistic nature of medical diagnosis and treatment. It discusses the possibly serious effects of physicians not understanding Bayes theorem, and hence, not appreciating the importance of knowing the prevalence of a disorder in the population to be treated or screened. It shows the importance of doctors knowing about volume-outcome studies, geographical variation studies, and practice guidelines.
INTRODUCTION
Authors: Code Lorraine 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Proposing that ecological thinking can effect a revolution in philosophy comparable to Kant’s Copernican revolution, the introduction eschews the abstraction and reductivism of orthodox western epistemology, to relocate inquiry “down on the ground”, in everyday lives and situations. In a series of ecological cautionary tales which display the negative effects of epistemologies of mastery, the introduction argues for mining the untapped resources ecological thinking affords, while warning against ecology’s propensity to romanticize “nature” and to align women and other Others with nature thus romanticized. It indicates why this book cannot be identified as an eco-feminist text, despite productive alliances between ecological thinkers and eco-feminists.
ECOLOGICAL THINKING
Authors: Code Lorraine 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter shows how ecology, literally and metaphorically, affords a model for rethinking the established theories of knowledge, and relations between humanity and the other-than-human, that characterize the social imaginary of the post-Enlightenment western world. Ecology figures as a study of habitats where people can live well together; of the ethos and habitus enacted in the customs, social organizations, and creative-regulative principles by which they strive or fail to achieve this end. Focusing on a shift in Rachel Carson’s thinking from geographical to ecological, and drawing on Kristin Shrader-Frechette’s analysis of ecological science, the chapter draws a parallel between Carson’s tacit epistemology and that of biologist Karen Messing to develop the working conception of ecology that informs the argument of the book. A reclamation of testimony as a source of evidence is central to the argument.
ECOLOGICAL NATURALISM
Authors: Code Lorraine 
Published: September 2006

AbstractStarting with a critical reading of the promise of Quinean naturalized epistemology for feminist and other post-colonial theories of knowledge, this chapter instead proposes an ecological naturalism centred on a conception of the natural and of natural knowledge-making derived from the science of ecology. For Quinean naturalism, laboratory-based cognitive science is the place to study how human beings “naturally” know; yet its promise is vitiated by the artificiality of its regulative conception of “the natural”. Its reliance on a residual positivist-empiricism blocks its capacity to relinquish the epistemological imaginary of mastery and control, to engage with specific, diverse human knowings, and to address the politics of knowledge. Although ecological science counts as a “weak” science by orthodox positivist standards (following Kristin Schrader-Frechette and Sharon Kingsland), this so-called weakness becomes a strength in the enhanced capacity it offers to know interpretively, non-reductively, and responsibly.
PATTERNS OF AUTONOMY ACKNOWLEDGMENT, AND ADVOCACY
Authors: Code Lorraine 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter addresses the covert capacity of autonomy — the goal of moral-political life in liberal-democratic societies — to oppress women and others who fail to fulfill its requirements. Taking the collapse of the welfare state as a locus of analysis, it shows how ecological citizenship and collective responsibility work toward reconfiguring the inequalities and injustices enacted under the aegis of a too-rigorous veneration of autonomy. One of the projects of the chapter is to reevaluate practices of advocacy in knowledge: a point that arises in chapter three with reference to medicine and is further developed here, both in connection with medicine and across a wider range of examples. Contrary to entrenched conceptions of epistemic self-reliance, the contention is that advocacy often makes knowledge possible: indeed, more radically, that without advocacy certain knowings are not possible. Trust is important to good advocacy, and testimony again plays a central part.
Introduction
Authors: Young Iris Marion 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The introduction presents an overview of the essays included in this volume, which are presented as a set of overlapping inquiries about social meanings of female embodiment. The distinction between “female” and “feminine” experience is explained and the tradition of existential phenomenlogy is described. The essays are shown to take a feminist perspective, both as expressing sex and gender-specific female subjectivity, and as claiming that women are not as free as they ought to be.