bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Failed Final Jihad
Authors: Baer Marc David 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683 within the framework of several of the book's interrelated themes: the links between conversion and conquest and between piety and proselytization, the centrality of the mediator in conversion, how conversion affects religious geography and sacred space; and the role war, violence, and changing power relations play in conversion. As is well known, the siege did not go as planned and the Ottoman forces were routed. The rest of the chapter explores the fallout. While the sultan continued to hunt and convert peasants, a gathering storm of opposition coalesced to banish Vani Mehmed Efendi and dethrone Mehmed IV.
Mehmed IV’s Life and Legacy, from Ghazi to Hunter
Authors: Baer Marc David 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines Mehmed IV's life and legacy. His hunting habit overshadowed his numerous conversions. Dire straits for commoners, lawlessness in the capital, and military failure turned commoners, the military, and factions in the administration against Mehmed IV. The sultan's constant hunting earned the wrath of the religious class and united commoner and elite alike in opposition. All anyone could see was that Mehmed IV was in the environs of Istanbul, pitching his tent where he pleased and hunting; no one seemed to have appreciated his proselytizing behavior. Within a decade of Mehmed IV's death, writers reinterpreted his reign. By the turn of the 18th century, everything positive that Mehmed IV had achieved for his dynasty, empire, and religion, namely, a restored name, greatest territorial extent, and hundreds of conversions of people and places, seemed to have been forgotten.
Conclusion
Authors: Baer Marc David 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses Islamic rulers and the process of conversion. It argues that the conversion of self, conversion of others of the same religion, conversion of others of different religions and their sacred spaces within society, and the waging of ghaza in part to convert others and their religious geography abroad were all linked during Mehmed IV's epoch. Most notable about the ideology of Mehmed IV's court was its marked religious piety: the sultan and his inner circle openly proclaimed their own piety in their writings and through their personal behavior and the policies they implemented. After experiencing their own conversion, Mehmed IV, Hatice Turhan, Fazil Ahmed Pasha, and Vani Mehmed Efendi considered themselves devoted Muslims returning society to the right path, from which it had deviated. Mehmed IV's time in power also invites comparisons with those of modern rulers, particularly the reign of the last important Ottoman sultan, Abdülhamid II.
Prologue: The Hill of the Axes 1504
Authors: Connolly S. J. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This introductory chapter uses one particular incident to describe some key characteristics of late medieval Ireland: a frontier society organized for warfare, in which power depended immediately on physical force, in which government authority and personal lordship were inextricably entangled, and in which cultural frontiers were clearly defined yet constantly crossed.
‘The Land of Banba is but Swordland’: Late Medieval Ireland
Authors: Connolly S. J. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
Gaelic Ireland in the late middle ages was an archaic and economically impoverished, but not necessarily static, society. The area ruled under English law by the Dublin government — traditionally seen as a shrunken east coast enclave (the ‘Pale’) — had in fact recovered from its mid-15th-century crisis. In outlying regions the descendants of the medieval colonists had adopted aspects of Gaelic culture, but this ‘gaelicization’ did not necessarily weaken their English political identity. The late medieval church reflected both the sharp ethnic divisions within the society and the scope for interaction across cultural boundaries. The close integration of religious and secular concerns was a source of strength rather than weakness, and the church was more pastorally effective than is often realized. The rise of the earls of Kildare as viceroys, effectively ruling Ireland in the king's name, is analysed.
From Lordship to Kingdom
Authors: Connolly S. J. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter analyses how Henry VIII and his ministers blundered into a confrontation with the Kildare dynasty, on which they depended for the management of the Irish lordship. The rebellion and destruction of the Kildares left a power vacuum, filled by the new strategy of seeking to integrate the Gaelic Irish lords, formerly considered aliens, into the English social hierarchy — the policy known as surrender and regrant. Meanwhile, Ireland followed England in rejecting the authority of the pope. Under Edward VI, surrender and regrant gave way to a more aggressive policy, while more far reaching changes in doctrine and liturgy — a true Protestant Reformation — encountered strong resistance.
Wild Fruit from Savage Soil: The Crisis of the 1590s
Authors: Connolly S. J. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, rose to power, first as England's client in Ulster, but subsequently as the main opponent of the extension there of the crown's authority. His rebellion in alliance with other Ulster lords, often referred to as the Nine Years War, represented the century's most serious challenge to English rule. Although O'Neill's initial aim was to preserve his regional autonomy, his decision to seek the support of Spain led him to put himself forward as a champion both of Catholicism and of an Irish patriotism. Edmund Spenser has been presented as the spokesman for a new policy of ruthless repression that determined the way in which the war was prosecuted by government forces. It is argued that English attitudes were more divided, and the shift in policy less dramatic than this implies. Following his defeat, O'Neill was in fact restored to his estates, but his departure into exile five years later (the Flight of the Earls) prepared the way for a more radical restructuring of Ulster society.
Food, Economics, and Entitlements
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
Putting the acquirement problem at the heart of hunger and starvation issues, this book argues that the entitlement approach, much in line with the old traditions of economics preoccupied with acquirement, can provide a general perspective to analyse effectively hunger and food policy requirements. To lower the degree of vulnerability to famine and starvation, this book raises a number of short-run issues such as famine anticipation, famine relief (food distribution vs. cash relief), and the role of food supply and food prices in famine, and some long-term policy concerns such as enhancing, securing, and guaranteeing entitlement, and diversification of production patterns.
Global Food Balances and Individual Hunger: Three Themes in an Entitlements‐Based Approach
Authors: Kanbur S. M. Ravi 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses three themes illuminating the regional element in the link between global food balances and individual hunger. First, for a nation-state in a global setting, it underlines the importance of non-market-based food-entitlements and the availability of food aid. Importantly, the prices of non-food exports should be considered while constructing early warning systems. It is argued that there can be and usually are significant indirect effects when various traded and non-traded food crops are substitutes in production or consumption. Lastly, in a system of market-based entitlements, there exists net buyers and net sellers, and hence a fall in food price has a mixed impact. The chapter also examines the problem of data availability. For making good use of nutrition-based poverty measures, performing sensitivity analysis using different cut-offs is suggested.
The Politics of Hunger and Entitlement
Authors: Sobhan Rehman 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
Access to food depends on food supply, the ability to establish entitlement over food, production, market transaction, and household political power. Hunger originates in ‘entitlement failures’ bearing community specificity rather than household-specificity features. While emphasizing the political influences on a state's direct contribution to entitlements, this chapter tries to establish a causal nexus between politics, hunger, and entitlement. In general, much of the entitlement is generated by the state through aid, subsidy, employment, public distribution of commodities, and incomes. A developing country's control over entitlement depends on external and internal political influences, and policies often become functions of political priority or compulsions. The chapter argues that to raise a household's entitlement level, significant action of a political nature is necessary.
Nutrition and the Economics of Food: Implications of Some Recent Controversies
Authors: Osmani S. R. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter argues that many of the policy debates arising from the recent nutrition controversies are ‘a classic case of much ado about nothing’. The difficulties associated with the traditional dietary approach to undernutrition-measurement using the average requirement as the cut-off norm are: intraindividual variation in requirement arising from adaptation in physical growth, interindividual variation in requirement due to genetic differences, and variation in requirement due to differing conditions of environmental hygiene, all leading to the misclassification of the undernourished. However, the appropriateness of an average norm as a method of measuring poverty depends on the conceptual foundations of poverty, opulence, or capability. For the capability approach, anthropometry has been an uncertain indicator due to lack of required information. This chapter suggests supplementary feeding programmes for wasted children and a simultaneous focus on entitlement to food and entitlement to hygiene as a policy priority.
Food and Standard of Living: An Analysis Based on Sri Lankan Data
Authors: Anand Sudhir , Harris Christopher 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines an empirical welfare indicator using data from Sri Lanka. Per capita income, because of its variability, may lead to overstatements of inequality and poor people's food consumption, and understatements of rich people's food consumption and the rich-poor disparity. Per capita total expenditure as a measure is flawed as it contains durable expenditure and this leads to to variability in total expenditure. However, lack of variability in per capita food expenditure is evident and it is less prone to seasonal variations in relative prices, has some practical advantages, and is superior to the remaining contender — foodshare. All these have made it a good welfare indicator. It is argued that widespread dissaving, reported for bottom ranges in developing countries, originates from the use of inappropriate welfare indicators. A re-ranking by per capita food expenditure is warranted on other countries' data sets.
Modelling an Early Warning System for Famines
Authors: Desai Meghnad 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
There exists a general consensus for the need of ‘early warning systems’ for policy makers' prompt response to impending famines. But since famines occur for a variety of reasons and a famine's influence on the economic system is varied, a formal early warning is difficult. This chapter argues that famines develop from initial shocks and the underlying dynamic process can help to devise an early warning system. Past data on famine-prone regions can be used as a basis to build appropriate warning systems. An early warning system should be accompanied by a policy response system that considers factors such as institutional structure, national and international politics, and the recent history of the area.
Feeding China
Authors: Riskin Carl 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter analyses the evidence of China's apparently remarkable success in reducing the prevalence of malnutrition. This success is particularly associated with public policies taking in relatively egalitarian distribution (the result of rural collective institutions) and widespread public support of health and nutrition. The chapter also focuses on the mechanisms of food distribution, provincial as well as personal. The rapid expansion of food production and consumption in the post-reform era owed much to the elimination of negative incentives, and the government's ever greater redistributive role has significantly reduced regional insufficiency of food supply. The chapter analyses factors contributing to the famine of 1959-61, and explores the roles of direct and indirect state policies and information in this regard. It is argued that despite the early success of reforms, the eradication of China's food problem is far from complete.
Policy Options for African Agriculture
Authors: Idachaba Francis 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines the stagnation and decline of sub-Saharan Africa's agriculture. It identifies four genres of constraints: rural infrastructure, research and technology, harmful pricing policies, and institutional arrangements. It criticizes the persistent ambiguity regarding the role of the government in African agriculture, and argues that in many instances donor agencies have only succeeded in making bad situations worse. The chapter emphasizes the needs of rural households as producers-consumers as well as the need for a proper sequencing of policy interventions. To transform Africa's agriculture, a wide range of policy options are presented which focus on the need to promote the food entitlement of the rural population. It is argued that to understand the policy alternatives, a demand-side approach rather than the traditional supply-side approach is required.
The Contribution of Industry to Solving the Food Problem in Africa
Authors: Samuel Wangwe 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter investigates some important intersectoral relationships, specifically the positive contribution of industry, by raising agricultural productivity and creating employment opportunities and hence increasing incomes outside agriculture, in alleviating the food problem in sub-Saharan Africa. It emphasizes the creation of linkages between agriculture and other sectors, linkages between industry and food production activities in agriculture, and the link between research and development. It also explores the role of industry in agricultural processing. To solve the persistent endemic undernourishment, the chapter suggests a wide range of remedial actions involving institutional changes and economic reforms, both within and outside the food sector.
The Elimination of Endemic Poverty in South Asia
Authors: Basu Kaushik 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter evaluates policies for combating persistent and mass poverty, with empirical illustrations from the experiences of some South Asian countries. It argues that direct action is possible and even desirable, and that different policy options are available for achieving higher growth and greater equity. The chapter scrutinizes various poverty alleviation programmes, many of which failed but are promising if effectively planned and implemented. To design an efficacious anti-poverty policy, it is essential to evaluate the whole package of several schemes together. The success of direct action programmes depends greatly on their political background. It is argued that political constraints are not only difficult to overcome but also difficult to understand.
The Neuropsychology of Anxiety
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This book provides an updated theory of the nature of anxiety and the brain systems controlling anxiety, combined with a theory of hippocampal function, which was first proposed thirty years ago. While remaining controversial, the core of this theory, of a ‘Behavioural Inhibition System’, has stood the test of time, with its main predictions repeatedly confirmed. Novel anti-anxiety drugs share none of the side effects or primary pharmacological actions of the classical anti-anxiety drugs on the actions of which the theory was based; but they have both the behavioural and hippocampal actions predicted by the theory. This text is the second edition of the book and it departs significantly from the first. It provides, for the first time, a single construct — goal conflict — that underlies all the known inputs to the system; and it includes current data on the amygdala. Its reviews include the ethology of defence, learning theory, the psychopharmacology of anti-anxiety drugs, anxiety disorders, and the clinical and laboratory analysis of amnesia. The cognitive and behavioural functions in anxiety of the septo-hippocampal system and the amygdala are also analysed, as are their separate roles in memory and fear. Their functions are related to a hierarchy of additional structures — from the prefrontal cortex to the periaqueductal gray — that control the various forms of defensive behaviour and to detailed analysis of the monoamine systems that modulate this control. The resultant neurology is linked to the typology, symptoms, pre-disposing personality and therapy of anxiety and phobic disorders, and to the symptoms of amnesia.
Overview
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
The core idea of a behavioural inhibition system including the septo-hippocampal system is presented here. This is linked to a strong ethological and pharmacological distinction between fear and anxiety; and to a primary role (illustrated with a schematic model) for the hippocampus in the resolution of goal conflict by increasing aversion and so producing behavioural inhibition.
A theory of the behavioural inhibition system
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter presents the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) as mediating between a Fight-Flight-Freezing system (FFFS) that controls pure avoidance (of punishment or frustration), and a Behavioural Approach System (BAS) that controls pure approach (to reward or safety). The BIS is activated when both the FFFS and BAS are concurrently activated. Its output increases the avoidance tendency as well as generating risk assessment, changes in arousal, and changes in attention. The BIS, as evidenced by anti-anxiety drug action, has immense species-generality and by implication, phylogenetic age. It is argued that it will, therefore, have distributed neural control with multiple evolved modules each providing a ‘rule of thumb’ that allows appropriate output under some but not all circumstances. The observed outputs of the BIS will often be the result of output from a range of parallel neural pathways.
The neurology of anxiety
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter reviews data from a range of disciplines and, in particular, the comparison of lesion effects with those of anti-anxiety drugs. It presents an essentially two-dimensional picture of the neurology of defense that matches the two ethological dimensions described in Chapter 2. Small defensive distances are dealt with by lower neural levels and large ones by higher neural levels following the hierarchy: periaqueductal gray; hypothalamus; amygdala/hippocampus; cingulate cortex; prefrontal cortex. Different streams within these levels control fear and anxiety, respectively.
Symptoms and syndromes of anxiety
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter provides a typology of disorders of fear and anxiety — such as anxiety disorder, phobias including agoraphobia, panic, and social anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder — mapping them to the two-dimensional framework provided by Chapters 2 and 6. It treats syndromes as resulting from unusual reactivity of structures and symptoms as resulting from unusual activity, with symptoms not providing a good guide to syndromes. Specific tests for some syndromes are derived from the theory.
The Pilot ACE at the National Physical Laboratory1
Authors: Wilkinson James H. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses the pilot Automatic Computing Engine (ACE) project at the National Physical Laboratory. The Pilot ACE had been designed purely as an experimental machine to demonstrate the competence of the team as computer engineers. It was originally intended that when it was successfully completed a full-scale computer would be built. However, when it was successful, it was the only electronic computer in a government department and the engineers came under very heavy pressure to use the Pilot ACE for serious computing. They implemented a small set of modifications which included the addition of an automatic multiplier and improvements to the control unit which made programming a little less arduous. The computer was then put into general use and did yeoman service for a number of years.
From Turing machine to ‘electronic brain’
Authors: Numerico Teresa 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines the relationships and differences between the various machines that Alan M. Turing developed in fields ranging from logic and the theory of computability to cryptanalysis, computer science, and artificial intelligence. Topics covered include Turing's role in the Enigma decryption project during the Second World War, the ACE project, and relationships between Turing and various US groups. Turing's project is compared with von Neumann's to highlight their similarities and differences.
The Pilot ACE instruction format
Authors: Norton Henry John 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter begins with the author's recollections about Alan M. Turing while working at the National Physical Laboratory. It then discusses the Pilot ACE Instruction Set Architecture (ISA). The ISA is an important abstraction for the interface between the hardware and the low level software. It standardizes instructions, machine language bit patterns, among other things. It allows for the use of different implementations of the same architecture on different machines.
The Pilot ACE: from concept to reality
Authors: Vowels Robin A. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses the development of the Pilot ACE, including the architecture, programming, and performance. The Pilot ACE was a general purpose computer of the serial type, with a clock frequency of 1 MHz. The word size was 32 bits, and dual arithmetic units were provided. One arithmetic unit supported 32-bit numbers (about 9 decimal digits), while the other was for 64-bit numbers (about 19 decimal digits). The 64-bit accumulator was also capable of functioning as two independent 32-bit accumulators. The Pilot ACE had Hollerith 80-column punch-card input and output equipment, the input device running at 200 cards per minute and the output device at 100 cards per minute.
The ACE Simulator and the Cybernetic Model
Authors: Woodger Michael 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses the ACE simulator and the Cybernetic Model. The ACE simulator was a demonstration machine built as an aid to the visualization of binary operations. Designed by D. W. Davies and Michael Woodger in the winter of 1949/1950, it was demonstrated on January 30, 1950 as part of the NPL Jubilee demonstrations to the Royal Society at Burlington House. The Cybernetic Model was constructed in May 1949, before even the first chassis of the Pilot Model ACE had been delivered. The Cybernetic Model was built to explore some of Turing's ideas about learning, and had nothing to do with the development of the ACE.