bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
La responsabilité pénale de la personne morale : une étude comparative
Authors: Geeroms Sofie 
Published: October 2008

The question of the penal responsability of a given legal person is one of the open areas in international law. The European Council has already taken position in favour of such a responsability. However, the tradition of national autonomy has not been questioned so far. Hence it is only on the basis of a systematic description and comparison that a European solution could be worked out.
The article offers a survey of the various legal Systems where the principle of penal responsability has been accepted (England, the Netherlands and France) and of those Systems where it has been refused until so far (Belgium, Germany).
The imputability of the material act and the moral element requires the main part of the discussion.
It is a remarquable phenomenon that Belgium and Germany, the two countries that do not accept a penal responsability of a legal person, nevertheless do take initiatives against criminal moral persons, either while hitting them through the physical persons or by means of non-penal measu-res.
The penal solution ought to be preferred to the administrative one, given the insuronces already implied in penal law. Once such a principle has been accepted, it makes sense to apply penal sanctions in a consistent way while taking into consideration the nature of the moral person(s) involved, and this for a given number of offences that may have been committed by them. Due to the direct relation with criminal reality, a large concept of "legal person " is recommended. It also makes sense to cumulate the penal responsability ofthe legal person on the one hand and the physical person on the other hand, as long as the principle of non bis in idem can be maintained.
In fact, none of the national legal Systems seems to be satisfactory on its own, but a few basic principles which may allow for a more global policy are now at least better known. This is exactly why a comparative discussion and analysis appeared to be necessary.
Conflits entre droit religieux et droit étatique chez les musulmans dans les pays musulmans et en Europe
Authors: Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh Sami Awad 
Published: October 2008

Les musulmans, comme les juifs, croient que les lois sont établies par Dieu. Ceci se heurte à la réalité juridique des pays arabo-musulmans dont le système juridique est largement inspiré par le droit occidental. Trois courants se confrontent, parfois violemment, au sein de ces pays : le courant intégriste (retour au système juridique islamique classique) ; le courant positiviste (maintien du statu quo) ; et le courant laïcisant (suppression des normes islamiques contraires aux droits de l'homme et désacralisation de la loi).
Ce conflit entre la conception religieuse et la conception laïque du droit s'étend aux musulmans dans les pays occidentaux, sur le plan éthico-religieux (prière, normes alimentaires, jeûne de ramadan, contact entre hommes et femmes, normes vestimentaires, cimetières) et sur celui du statut personnel (liberté religieuse, empêchement religieux du mariage, polygamie, domination de l'homme, rapports entre parents et enfants, répudiation et succession). Ce conflit, amplifié dans les mariages mixtes, est insoluble à moins d'une séparation nette entre le droit et la religion et de la mise à l'écart de l'idée que la loi a une origine révélée.
La tutelle de l'Office de la jeunesse sur l'enfant naturel en Allemagne : une institution en voie de disparition
Authors: Wenner Eva 
Published: October 2008

The biological mother of the child is always known in Germany. On the other hand it is more difftcult to establish the child's link with his father, especially if the parents are not married to each other. In this case, the father either voluntarily recognises the child or his paternity is established by the law. But the biological father sometimes refuses to assume his paternity.
The Germon law, trying to help the children to find their fathers, created an original institution. At the child's birth, it is put under the guardianship of the Youth office who helps him to establish his legal link with his father and to daim financial support from him.
Since the twenties, unmarried mothers are thus helped by the government to find the father of their child. But the authoritarian character of the aid is today criticised by feminists.
A new law takes into account these criticisms and transforms this authoritarian guardianship into voluntary assistance available to ail single parents. The unmarried mother now has the choice of whether or not to accept this governmental aid in effort to find the father of her child.
De quelques obstacles à la négociation collective en Algérie
Authors: Hamdan Leila 
Published: October 2008

The deterioration of the workers' living conditions has led to more and more distinct social inequalities resulting most often in strikes. The increase in salaries and protection of employment are the main daims. On the other hand, the liberalisation of labour law has changed the scenery of professional relations involving rationalisation ofthe conflictual relation caused by : the keeping of the former single Trade union in a privileged position, the emergence of a newform ofa nage-earning class representee by an autonomous trade union movement, and consciousness raising about being excluded resulting essentially front the absence of the Administration's concern for dialogue.
In order to prevent social protests from taking uncontrollable dimension, the new legislative structure of 1990 provides social partners with different legal means in order to list their action in a normative framework which is placed at their disposai with a view to discussing, negotiating and concluding an agreement which would bring about satisfactory assurance.
However the difftculty of the social intervening parties to sit and negotiate, the important point namely — relations pertaining to wages and social protection —, express the obstacles to institute a peaceful dialogue in an environment in which the State remains the protector of the social order.
L'architecte en France et en Italie : une comparaison
Authors: Salce Lucio 
Published: October 2008

Le régime de la responsabilité de l'architecte en France est caractérisé essentiellement par l'intention du législateur de permettre à la personne ayant subi le dommage d'avoir un recours rapide et efficace contre le dommage subi. Sous l'aspect procédural, il existe des présomptions de faute qui permettent à la victime de s'adresser directement à l'architecte par la faute duquel le dommage a été causé, sans qu'elle ait à démontrer les raisons techniques qui ont conduit à la faute de l'architecte, ce qui serait une charge de la preuve bien lourde pour la personne ayant subi les dommages. Il est suffisant qu'elle donne la preuve de la manifestation du désordre. Sous l'aspect de droit positif, en outre, grâce au système de responsabilité contractuelle, il est possible d'individualiser directement la faute comme provenant de l'activité de l'architecte constructeur.
Le but principal de cet article est donc d'envisager un système qui puisse marcher de la même façon en Italie où à présent la responsabilité de l'architecte, au contraire de la responsabilité d'un autre professionnel, le médecin, ne permet pas à la personne ayant subi le dommage de demander réparation directement à celui par la faute duquel le dommage est intervenu.
Le centenaire du BGB : le droit de la famille face aux exigences du raisonnement politique, de la constitution et de la cohérence du système juridique
Authors: Frank Rainer 
Published: October 2008

While Germany law, codified in the BGB (German Civil Code) of 1900, endured the first half of this century practically unchanged, the second half has been characterized by a whole host of reforms. The last major reform, the Children'sLaw (Amendment) Act, dates from 16th December 1997. Contrary to most other European legal Systems, reforms in Germany are often the resuit of constitutional pressures (equalityfor women, equal treatment of legitimate and illegitimate children) with it not being uncommonfor the Federal Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht) even to set deadlines for the promulgation of reforming laws.
The content of German reform laws are often distinguished by a particularly strict adherence to principles. Although infamily law conflicting interests typically necessitate a compromise, both the German legislator and the courts have, in Une with the prevailing Zeitgeist, tended towards allowing certain values to take precedence ; for example a child's right to know his natural parentage as against the mother's right to protection of her privacy, or the right to know his natural parentage as against the mother's right to protection of her privacy, or the right to the autonomous arrangement of the individual's legal affairs as against the protection of marriage as an institution, where contracts between an engagea couple in which the future marriage partners renounce all post-marital daims in the case of a subsequent divorce are regarded as valid.
Volume Measurement
Authors: Davis Thomas , Zanella Andrew 
Published: October 2008

AbstractThis unit describes the common types of volumetric apparatus used in the life science laboratory, their use, and care. When an experimenter needs to prepare solutions of accurate concentrations and to transfer quantitatively samples of liquid from one container to others, an array of glassware and plasticware is available for these operations ranging from a microliter to a liter in volume. Considerations of temperature, solvent compatibility, and safety also need to be taken into account.
Weight Measurement
Authors: Guzy Michael 
Published: October 2008

AbstractThis unit provides information to aid in the selection and proper use of a laboratory balance. Laboratory balances are used for measuring the mass of an object and come in two main types: mechanical and electronic. Electronic balances generally come with a computer interface to facilitate the collection, storage, and manipulation of the data. In addition to weighing objects, electronic balances also perform a range of computations, including counting objects, measuring density, statistics, and pipet volume calibration. Balances vary widely in terms of their capacity (how heavy an object they can accurately weigh), precision, accuracy, repeatability, and robustness. Understanding the various characteristics of a laboratory balance is necessary in order to be sure that the balance is well suited for your particular scientific or industrial needs. This unit also discusses the proper use and maintenance of a laboratory balance. In general, laboratory balances are relatively easy to use and require little maintenance.
Spectrophotometry
Authors: Morris Rob 
Published: October 2008

AbstractSpectroscopy is the study of the interaction of light with matter. By observing how light interacts with matter—through reflection, refraction, elastic scattering, absorbance, inelastic scattering, and emission—it is possible to (1) identify the wavelengths of light that interact with atoms and molecules, or (2) quantify the amount of light being absorbed, reflected, scattered, or emitted at a particular wavelength. This unit describes the background and basic principles of spectrophotometry (the study of the reflection or transmission properties of a substance as a function of wavelength, in particular, absorbance spectrophotometry. Also included is discussion of key spectrophotometer components and their functions, the relationship between absorbance and transmittance, experiment considerations, and the steps necessary in preparing a standard curve for determining absorbance concentration.
Reagent Preparation: Theoretical and Practical Discussions
Authors: Chakravarti Deb N. , Chakravarti Bulbul , Mallik Buddhadeb 
Published: October 2008

AbstractOne of the most important requirements for the successful completion of any biochemical protocol is to prepare reagents accurately. This unit describes general guidelines for the preparation of reagents, use of clean glass‐ and plasticware, use of high‐purity reagents, safe handling of chemicals and biochemicals, use of high‐purity distilled or deionized water, accurate weighing, pipetting, and pH measurement, and avoidance of chemical or microbial contamination of reagents and use of sterile reagents. Different units of concentration used for preparation of reagents or buffer solutions are described. This unit also includes a section for the preparation of buffer solutions with a practical example.
Measurement of pH
Authors: Wiley Emily A. , Chakravarti Deb N. 
Published: October 2008

AbstractThe measurement of pH is one of the most basic and necessary skills in a life science laboratory. The function and physical characteristics of biological molecules are highly sensitive to the pH of the environment. Common biological buffers must be prepared with the appropriate pH, usually close to neutral for most biological applications. This unit includes a discussion of the different pH instrumentation, notably pH electrodes, and their applications. It also relates basic pH measurement theory to critical parameters for the technique, and covers the correct use, handling, and storage of pH instruments.
Centrifugation
Authors: Gallagher Sean R. 
Published: October 2008

AbstractCentrifugation is a ubiquitous technique in the life science laboratory, and uses specialized equipment (centrifuges) to spin or centrifuge samples in rotors, generating centrifugal force for a range of applications that include pelleting of precipitates, isolating organelles, and protein and DNA purification. The unit describes basic applications, definitions, and references, and provides up to date tables for rotor specifications from major suppliers.
Purification and Concentration of Nucleic Acids
Authors: H. Dowhan Dennis 
Published: October 2008

AbstractThe purification and concentration of nucleic acids have become routine procedures in most biology and molecular biology laboratories. This unit covers the basic principles and procedures for the isolation, purification, and manipulation of solutions of DNA or RNA. The basic DNA protocol, using phenol extraction and ethanol precipitation, is appropriate for the purification of DNA from small volumes (<0.4 ml) at concentrations ≤1 mg/ml. Purification of DNA using commercially available silica membrane spin columns is presented as an alternate protocol. Isolation and purification of RNA from mammalian cells or tissues is also examined. Use of the protein denaturant guanidine thiocyanate and water‐saturated phenol, followed by concentration by isopropanol precipitation, for producing small samples of RNA is illustrated in the basic RNA protocol.
Overview of Chromatography
Authors: Mallik Buddhadeb , Chakravarti Bulbul , Chakravarti Deb N. 
Published: October 2008

AbstractChromatography in its many different forms is an indispensable separation technique for purification or analysis of one or multiple components from a mixture that may contain a variety of simple as well as complex molecules. This unit is focused on a specific type of chromatography known as liquid chromatography (LC), with particular reference to separation of proteins. Theory of chromatography is discussed in the context of partition of the components of a mixture between a solid stationary phase and a liquid mobile phase. Although very useful for chromatographic separation of small molecules, there is, however, considerable deviation observed in the case of separation of proteins. Principles of three commonly used chromatographic techniques for separation of proteins, such as size exclusion, ion exchange, and affinity chromatography are discussed. The unit is expected to be useful for biologists and biochemists, as well as engineers.
Column Chromatography
Authors: Chakravarti Bulbul , Mallik Buddhadeb , Chakravarti Deb N. 
Published: October 2008

AbstractChromatography is a widely used technique of separation which depends on the differential interaction of molecules between a stationary phase and a mobile phase. In most modern life science laboratories, purification of proteins plays an important role. Almost all types of laboratory‐based liquid chromatography techniques used for purification of proteins are carried out using the stationary phase contained in tubular columns. Although individual methods for sample loading or elution of these columns are usually different depending on the specific technique used, this general experimental procedure that uses tubular columns is known as column chromatography. This unit is focused on setting up laboratory‐based column chromatography methods for separation of proteins using three commonly used chromatographic techniques for separation of proteins, such as size exclusion, ion exchange, and affinity chromatography.
Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
Authors: Armstrong Jennifer A. , Schulz Joseph R. 
Published: October 2008

AbstractAgarose gel electrophoresis, which separates and sizes linear DNA and RNA fragments, is arguably the most basic and essential technique in molecular biology. It is commonly employed for analysis of PCR products, plasmid DNA, and products of restriction enzyme digestion. It is the first step for analysis of specific DNA and RNA fragments by northern and Southern blots. In this unit, we provide both written instructions and photographic images to take the reader from preparing a first agarose gel to analyzing results and determining the size of sample DNA. We include two protocols: agarose gel electrophoresis (commonly used to analyze DNA), and denaturing gel electrophoresis (for analyzing RNA). We have divided each protocol into four basic steps: (1) preparing and pouring the agarose gel; (2) preparing and loading samples; (3) running the agarose gel; and (4) staining the gel using the fluorescent stain ethidium bromide to visualize DNA and RNA.
SDS‐Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS‐PAGE)
Authors: Gallagher Sean R. 
Published: October 2008

AbstractElectrophoresis is used to separate complex mixtures of proteins (e.g., from cells, subcellular fractions, column fractions, or immunoprecipitates), investigate subunit compositions, verify homogeneity of protein samples, and purify proteins for use in further applications. In polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, proteins migrate in response to an electrical field through pores in a polyacrylamide gel matrix; pore size decreases with increasing acrylamide concentration. The combination of pore size and protein charge, size, and shape determines the migration rate of the protein. In this unit, the standard Laemmli method is described for discontinuous gel electrophoresis under denaturing conditions, i.e., in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). Support protocols cover the casting of gels, calculation of molecular mass using the electrophoretic mobility of a protein, and purification of SDS by recrystallization.
Staining Proteins in Gels
Authors: Gallagher Sean R. , Sasse Joachim 
Published: October 2008

AbstractThis unit describes protocols for detecting proteins in SDS‐polyacrylamide gels. It describes methods for Coomassie blue and silver staining, as well as the fluorescent stains SYPRO orange and red. Staining with Coomassie blue is easier and more rapid; however, silver staining methods are considerably more sensitive and can thus be used to detect smaller amounts of protein. Alternative rapid staining procedures are provided for each method. Fluorescent staining is a popular alternative to the traditional staining procedures, mainly because it is more sensitive than Coomassie staining, and often as sensitive as silver staining.
Overview of Blotting
Authors: Negritto Maria Cristina , Manthey Glenn M. 
Published: October 2008

AbstractBlotting techniques are among the most common approaches used in a molecular biology laboratory. These techniques, Southern, northern, and immunoblotting, are applicable to a variety of macromolecules including DNA, RNA, and protein, respectively. Each of the techniques are dependent on the ability to resolve the individual macromolecules in a size‐dependant manner, transfer the molecules to a solid support, and finally use a defined probe to detect the specific molecule of interest. The utilization of the blotting technology over the last 30 years has been instrumental to the elucidation of many fundamental biological processes. The continued use of blotting technology holds promise for even greater discovery over the next 30 years.
Nucleic Acid Blotting: Southern and Northern
Authors: Mays Hoopes Laura L. 
Published: October 2008

AbstractE.M. Southern invented blotting of DNA in 1975; the method was extended to RNA in 1977. Standard Southern blotting includes limited depurination, denaturation, and neutralization of the DNA in gels (where they have been separated in size by electrophoresis) and capillary transfer of the DNA onto nitrocellulose or nylon blotting membranes. For northern blotting, RNA is guarded from base and RNase, denatured, separated by electrophoresis, and then blotted to nylon blotting membranes. Both types of blots are then blocked to prevent nonspecific binding, hybridized with probe, and washed. Next the sequences of interest are located by detecting labeled probes. Alternative methods involve dot/slot blotting when the size of the nucleic acid being probed is not of interest. Electrophoretic transfer from polyacrylamide gels can be used when the nucleic acid fragments of interest are too small to be effectively resolved on agarose gels. Artifacts in Southern blot can result from incomplete digestion, overloading the blotting membrane, incomplete blocking, damaged blot media, and air bubbles. In northern blotting, RNA quality must be monitored, and RNA that is degraded or contaminated with excess DNA should be avoided.
Labeling DNA and Preparing Probes
Authors: Haushalter Karl A. 
Published: October 2008

AbstractLabeling nucleic acids with radioisotopes, fluorophores, biotin, or digoxigenin enables their detection and analysis. When designing a labeling strategy, consider the intended application, the source of nucleic acid, and the type of label to incorporate. DNA oligonucleotides can be 5′ end‐labeled with radioisotopes in a reaction catalyzed by T4 polynucleotide kinase, or nonisotopic labels can be incorporated into oligonucleotides during DNA synthesis. Larger DNA substrates can be labeled by 5′ end labeling (radioisotopes) or labeled uniformly along the length of the DNA by nick translation or random primed synthesis (using radioisotope or nonisotopic labels). The labeled DNA can be used for a variety of applications, including probing Southern blots, probing northern blots, in situ hybridization, quantifying real‐time PCR results, and gel shift assays.
Immunofluorescence Microscopy
Authors: J. Asai David 
Published: October 2008

AbstractThe visualization of fluorescently tagged molecules is a powerful strategy that can contribute to the understanding of the complex dynamics of the cell. A particularly robust and broadly applicable method is immunofluorescence microscopy, in which a specific fluorescently labeled antibody binds the molecule of interest and then the location of the antibody is determined by fluorescence microscopy. The effective application of this technique includes several considerations, including the nature of the antigen, specificity of the antibody, permeabilization and fixation of the specimen, and fluorescence imaging of the cell. Although each protocol will require fine‐tuning depending on the cell type, the antibody, and the antigen, there are steps common to nearly all applications. This unit provides protocols for visualization of the cytoskeleton in two very different kinds of cells: flat, adherent fibroblasts and thick, free‐swimming Tetrahymena cells.