bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Quality Control in Field Sampling Methods
Authors: Kontopanos KN , Williams ES 
Published: March 2009

Maintaining quality control in field sampling involves preparation in three stages: 1) Pre-sampling preparation of sampling and safety plans, sampling equipment and sampling containers; 2) On-site collection of site specific and quality control samples; 3) Post sampling preparation of laboratory and chain-of-custody forms as well as preparation of samples for shipment.
Sampling begins with the development of site sampling and safety plans. The sampling plan is used to determine the location, type and number of samples to be collected. On the site, the sampling plan may be adjusted to reflect field conditions. The safety plan is used to establish levels of protection required for specific activities and any other emergency information necessary. Once these determinations are made, field equipment (which includes both sampling supplies and personal protective clothing) can be prepared. For each sample collected, a lab specified volume of aqueous or solid material must be collected to ensure an adequate volume of sample for analysis. Samples are collected in specified types of jars so that the container itself does not influence sample results. When packing sampling equipment, care is given to each item so that samples will not be contaminated with off-site material.
Quality control samples are collected to assure reliable analytical results. These quality control samples include: a trip blank, used to determine contamination which may result from storage, transport or site activities; a field blank, used to determine previously existing container contamination and contamination which may result from ambient on-site conditions; an equipment blank, used to determine contamination in sampling equipment; an additional sample volume for a laboratory matrix spike/matrix spike duplicate sample, used by the laboratory to determine spike recoveries for analysis of matrix effects and laboratory data accuracy; unidentified (“blind”) duplicate samples, used to check laboratory precision; and background samples, used for comparison when determining the type and amount of contamination present. Preserve samples as required in the field. Decontaminate all field equipment to prevent cross-contamination of samples collected.
After sampling, complete all required laboratory forms. Maintain chain-of-custody on samples at all times. Pack jars in individual plastic bags to reduce cross-contamination if breakage occurs. Wrap jars individually with bubble plastic and place in coolers with ice for shipment. Ship samples for overnight delivery.
Fatigue Behavior of Neutron Irradiated Zircaloy-2 Fuel Cladding Tubes
Authors: Nakatsuka M , Kubo T , Hayashi Y 
Published: March 2009

Effects of neutron irradiation and iodine as a corrosive fission product on the fatigue behavior of Zircaloy-2 fuel cladding tubes were investigated using two different types of test specimens in order to evaluate the fatigue strength of BWR fuel subjected to such variable loading conditions as load following or automatic frequency control operations.
An in-cell fatigue tester was developed that enabled tests on the C-shaped specimen machined from irradiated fuel cladding tubes. Unirradiated Zry-2 plate specimens were also fatigue tested for reference. In order to obtain the effects of iodine on fatigue life, the tests using plate specimens were undertaken at iodine partial pressures from 0.5 to 140 Pa as well as in an inert gas atmosphere. Experimental results from fully reversed bending test at 623 K for unirradiated and irradiated fuel cladding tubes up to 6 × 1025 n/m2 (E &gt; 1 MeV) are summarized as follows.
Fatigue life had a tendency to drop with increasing iodine partial pressure, reaching a saturation value about one tenth of that in an inert gas atmosphere.
Minimum iodine partial pressure affecting the fatigue behavior of fuel cladding tubes was estimated to be 0.1 Pa. This value was much higher than the calculated equilibrium vapor pressure of iodine in fuel rods, indicating that effects of iodine on the fatigue life would be very small or negligible during variable loading conditions.
Neutron irradiation was found to increase the fatigue life of cladding tube for the total strain amplitude above 0.3% and decrease it below 0.3%. The increase or decrease in fatigue cycles was attributed to the hardening effect or localized deformation in the irradiated material, respectively.
Fatigue limit of unirradiated Zry-2 tubes was shown to be 0.22%, and neutron irradiation reduced the value to 0.18%. The total strain amplitude of 0.18% was found to coincide with the elastic strain at the proportional limit under the uniaxial tensile test of irradiated Zry-2.
Both for unirradiated and irradiated specimens, transgranular fracture surfaces were induced by the bending. Ductile fracture surfaces were observed for unirradiated material, and neutron irradiation changed this surface into a typical brittle transgranular one.
Controlled Composition Zircaloy-2 Uniform Corrosion Resistance
Authors: Graham RA , Eucken CM 
Published: March 2009

The influence of chemical composition and manufacturing variables on the nodular corrosion resistance (determined by 500°C non-refreshed steam autoclave testing) of controlled composition Zircaloy-2 was reported previously (Zirconium in the Nuclear Industry: Eighth International Symposium, ASTM STP 1023, pp. 334–345.). The present study extends the previous work to include uniform corrosion, which is of interest for cladding tubes and spacer strips.
Controlled composition Zircaloy-2 is defined where nickel and iron are adjusted towards the upper ASTM composition limits and tin is adjusted towards the lower limit. To investigate the effects of tin, iron, chromium, and nickel on the uniform corrosion of Zircaloy-2, a special 5500-kg ingot was triple melted. The composition was intentionally varied within a controlled portion of the ASTM B 350 range along the ingot length. Specimens of the ingot with different compositions were hot worked and beta quenched at a common size. Strip specimens (0.7 mm thick) were fabricated using three process schedules spanning the annealing parameter (ςAi = ςti exp (-80 000/RTi) range applicable to current production practice for either tubeshell or strip material. Corrosion weight gains were obtained from 360 and 420°C static autoclave tests extending to over 500 days exposure.
A statistically significant reduction in 360°C corrosion weight gain was observed as the nickel was increased to the upper ASTM composition limit. An interaction was observed between nickel content and ςAi. In the 420°C test, increasing nickel decreased the variability in observed weight gains that occurred as the annealing parameter varied. The data are comparable with controlled composition Zircaloy-2 spacer strip manufactured using production equipment and processing. No effect of varying nickel within the upper half of the ASTM Zircaloy-2 composition range (580–750 ppm) on hydrogen uptake was found. Hydrogen uptake depended primarily on corrosion weight gains of the individual specimens.
Effect of Alloying Elements in Zircaloy on Photo-Electrochemical Characteristics of Zirconium Oxide Films
Authors: Inagaki M , Kanno M , Maki H 
Published: March 2009

Semiconducting characteristics of oxide film on pure Zr, Zr-Sn binary alloy, and Zr-Sn-X (X: Fe, Ni, or Cr) ternary alloy were evaluated by a photo-electrochemical method to study the effects of alloying elements on the oxidation mechanism of Zr alloy in a boiling water reactor (BWR) environment.
Oxide films of the alloys showed the characteristics of an n-type semiconductor. Maximum photocurrent (Imax) was generated by an illumination of monochromatic light with a photon energy of 5 to 6 eV (i.e., the band gap energy of the Zr oxide semiconductor was 5 to 6 eV).
Higher corrosion-resistant alloys showed a lower value of Imax. Maximum photocurrent decreased by an addition of Fe, Ni, or Cr, notably Fe or Ni, to Zr-Sn alloy. By repetition of cold-working and α-annealing subsequent to β-quenching, Imax increased. Such changes of Imax caused by changes in alloy chemical composition and material processing, were explained by the valence theory of oxide semiconductors (i.e., the decrease of Imax was considered to result from the increase of holes in the oxides due to the substitution of divalent cations (Ni2+) and trivalent cations (Fe3+, Cr3+ ) at Zr4+ cation sites).
From these results, the effects of alloying elements on the oxygen vacancy structure of the surface oxide were believed to play a major role in controlling the corrosion resistance of zirconium alloys.
Corrosion of Zircaloy in the Presence of LiOH
Authors: Perkins RA , Busch RA 
Published: March 2009

The corrosion of Zircaloy-4 is accelerated in water or steam above about 350°C when LiOH is present in sufficient concentrations. A short-term test (16 h) to predict inreactor corrosion behavior has been developed based on this accelerated corrosion. A group of claddings with a range of in-reactor corrosion behavior has been tested in LiOH solutions from 310 to 415°C with Li concentrations up to 375 ppm. Up to 100 times the rate seen in pure water was obtained in supercritical water with high LiOH levels. The best correlation to the in-reactor behavior was obtained for a Li content in the range of 75 to 190 ppm in the temperature range of 390 to 410°C.
The corrosion rate for Zircaloy-4 in steam containing LiOH has been observed to be higher than in water with LiOH for tests below the critical temperature. For tests above the critical temperature, the corrosion rate was greater for samples which were above the initial water line in the capsule. These samples would have been exposed to LiOH-bearing steam during the initial heat up of the samples. Therefore sufficient Li is present in the steam phase to cause accelerated corrosion.
The accelerated test with LiOH correlated well with 415°C/3 day autoclave test results for Zircaloy-4 but not for zirconium-based alloys containing niobium. The 415°C/3 day test has been found to correlate well to in-reactor corrosion performance for Zircaloy-4. Based on the assumption that this test is also effective for evaluating the corrosion resistance of other zirconium-based alloys, the accelerated LiOH test appears to be effective only within the Zircaloy-4 composition range. Therefore the LiOH accelerated test should not be used for evaluating new alloy compositions.
Effects Of LiOH on Pretransition Zirconium Oxide Films
Authors: Cox B , Wong Y-M 
Published: March 2009

At short times and intermediate LiOH concentrations (pH 10–13) the pretransition oxidation kinetics of the Zircaloys appear to be identical with those in neutral water. Nevertheless, in pH12 LiOH the time to transition is reduced and post-transition rates are increased over those in water. In a search for evidence for precursors of these effects, oxide films were formed on Zircaloy specimens in 573 K water and pH10-14.5 LiOH solutions (0.7 to 2.1 × 104 ppm Li) for times from 1–70 days and were examined subsequently by optical and electron microscopy (EM), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) interferometry, impedance spectroscopy, and polarization in a fused nitrate/nitrite melt at 573 K. A more limited range of measurements was performed on specimens of fuel cladding that had been oxidized in pH 7 and 12 LiOH solutions (70 ppm Li) at 633 K for other studies.
Results showed that all specimens corroded in LiOH solutions, even at low concentrations, exhibited enhanced electronic conductivity in the oxide; this resulted in enhanced oxidation in the fused salt medium, even when no such effect was visible in aqueous solutions (from the weight gains). FTIR interferometry and impedance spectroscopy showed that some oxide films formed in pH12 LiOH were significantly thicker than in water (when no difference in their weight was evident), while in other tests the oxide in pH12 LiOH was thinner than in pH7. This dichotomy can be explained by a loss of oxide by dissolution if in some instances it reprecipitates on the surface as a porous layer, whereas in other circumstances it reprecipitates on the autoclave walls.
Functional and Technical Evaluation of the Skier by a Specific Ergometer
Authors: Grappa E , Bonvecchio A , Zucco P 
Published: March 2009

Alpine skiing can be considered as a skilled sport with mixed (aerobic/anaerobic) characteristics, that requires a high muscular effort. Environmental and technical difficulties often make “field” tests difficult. Therefore, we used a skiing simulator (named Ski Master) to carry out tests capable of giving exact evaluations of the cardiometabolic and neuromuscular tasks that skiing requires.
Seven athletes were tested. They were connected to a CO2-O2 analyzer through a facial mask in order to record respiratory and metabolic parameters (ventilation (VE), oxygen consumption (VO2), CO2, production (VCO2), respiratory quotient (R), METS) every 30 s; they were also subjected to continuous electrocardiographic (ECG) monitoring using telemetry.
In a second series of tests, we used a two channel portable electromyographic (EMG) analyzer to make electromyographic recordings of the skiers during skiing practice. The schedule consisted of an exercise lasting 30 and 60 s, reproducing a fast parallel skiing descent involving continuous turns.
The results obtained from the first series of tests showed a high cardiovascular effort. Further confirmation came from a specific ventilation (Ve/VO2) ratio amounting to 34 ± 1.5 L × L O2-1 with an R that was always greater than one. Furthermore, they showed that lactate metabolism takes an active part in the effort. The tests performed during EMG monitoring highlighted certain differences between skiing on snow and exercising on the ergometer. We noticed that the activation of back muscles always preceded the activation of thigh ones. Also the activation amplitude of back muscles decreased as technical skiing ability improved, which showed a higher ratio in comparison to vastus lateralis.
The Custom and Practice for Identification and Mitigation of Common Hazards at U.S. Ski Areas—An Opportunity for Standards
Authors: Penniman D 
Published: March 2009

Improving the safety of the sport of skiing through standards has long been the goal of numerous organizations within and associated with the United States ski industry. Organizations such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the National Ski Areas Association (NSAA), the Professional Ski Instructors of America (PSIA), and the National Ski Patrol System (NSPS) have all established extensive safety standards for ski equipment, ski lifts, skier education, and/or emergency response. Many of these standards have been codified into state and municipal laws.
In addition to these areas of concern for safety has been the use of marking and signing by U.S. ski areas to warn skiers of hazardous conditions on the ski slopes. For various reasons, however, few standards have been formally adopted on the principles and methods for identifying and/or mitigating common hazards often encountered by recreational skiers. Despite this lack of written guidelines for the U.S. ski industry, a common custom and practice for identifying and mitigating many of the hazards found on ski slopes has evolved.
Most common hazards at ski areas are not unique and can be identified according to several basic principles. In this paper, principles for identifying common hazards at ski areas will be presented, and the most common methods for mitigating those hazards as observed by the author will be discussed.
How to Organize a National Ski Safety Council and How This Could Contribute to Increased Skiing Safety
Authors: Eriksson E 
Published: March 2009

Many skiing nations could improve their skiing safety if they managed to organize a government supported Ski Safety Council. In Sweden, we have the longest experience in the world of how to arrange and run such a ski safety council. We first formed a “Ski Safety Interest Group.” After six years' work we contacted the Swedish government's sports minister and explained in detail what advantages a government supported Ski Safety Council could have for our country. We stressed the amount of voluntary work we had performed almost without any economic support and the reduction in the rate of ski injuries that we could document as the result of this work. We also pointed out what advantages it would have for us to be a government supported council (besides the economic ones). Especially in countries with government controlled TV networks (like the Scandinavian countries), it is of paramount importance to be a government supported organization, because one is then able to use the TV-network for free commercials about ski safety. One can also receive government support for various campaigns for increasing ski safety. It is likewise easier to interest the press in your campaigns if you contact them as an official organization supported by the government.
The Ski Safety Council should preferably have representatives from different government organizations engaged in skiing and ski equipment, such as the board for consumer affairs. It should also consist of members of the ski doctor organization, ski instructor organization as well as representatives for those insurance companies that insure skiers. We have also elected to have representatives for the importers of ski equipment like the sports article seller organizations.
We have localized our Council in the Swedish Association for Outdoor Life and we share a secretary with this organization. Such a ski safety council should arrange regular ski safety seminars on a national level, it should collaborate with other similar organizations. Norway has built up a ski safety council based on the Swedish model and we have had a very fruitful collaboration with them. The Danes are trying to create a similar council. The formation of a National Ski Safety Council can definitely help to increase ski safety on a national scale.
Fretting and Contact Fatigue Studied with the Aid of Fretting Maps
Authors: Vingsbo OB 
Published: March 2009

Fretting fatigue refers to fatigue life shortening in bulk testing, induced by the simultaneous application of surface fretting, that provokes nucleation and growth of surface fatigue cracks. This paper suggests controlling fretting fatigue by controlling the conditions of the fretting contact.
Fretting is known for its complexity of parameters and variables. The present work has focused on a systematic representation of the surface effects of fretting, called fretting maps. By dynamic recording of tangential force and displacement for convex circular contact between metallic specimens, different fretting regimes are distinguished. The corresponding modes of surface damage are identified by metallographic studies of the fretting scars. For increasing displacement amplitude, three regimes can be identified. 1. The stick regime is characterized by very limited interfacial slide and surface damage. A tangential force (FT) versus displacement (δ) plot for a complete load cycle is a straight line, indicating predominantly elastic deformation and no sliding losses. 2. The mixed stick-slip regime contact surface is subdivided into a central stick area, surrounded by an annular yield and slip area. For soft materials contact fatigue cracks are observed around the stick-slip boundary. The FT(δ) curve displays a narrow hysteresis loop, indicating some plastic deformation and relaxation by sliding. 3. The gross slip regime (transition) is recognized by a sudden drop in the recorded FT(δ) curve, corresponding to a transition from static to kinetic friction (the “point of incipient gross slip”). All adhesive asperity contact bridges are broken during every half-cycle and plastic deformation takes place in the bulk of the contact zone. The scars are characterized by sliding wear grooves in the fretting direction. The FT(δ) hysteresis loop is deformed by the incipient gross slip drop in FT.
Fretting test series were performed at varying test parameters, and fretting maps were constructed by pairwise combinations of the recorded critical parameter values for transition from one regime to another. Generally, there is a gradual transition from the stick regime to the mixed regime, whereas, the mixed-to-gross-slip transition is sharp.
The mixed stick-slip regime is characterized by high cyclic surface stresses at the boundary between the stick zone and the slip annulus, promoting contact fatigue. Thus, conditions of mixed stick-slip will aggravate bulk fretting fatigue. Similarly, the sliding conditions of the gross slip regime are characteristic of fretting wear, during which surface fatigue cracks will be successively worn away and prevented from contributing to fretting fatigue. Once the relevant fretting maps for a given tribosystem are established, it is, in principle, possible to control the fretting process by choosing the active parameters so as to promote or suppress a certain type of fretting damage.
The Biological Production Facility—Design for Protection of the Worker and the Community
Authors: Damm PG 
Published: March 2009

Facilities for the manufacture of biologicals require careful assessment of the building construction and location, the heating, ventilating, and air conditioning, the movement of personnel and materials, personnel vaccination, security, major equipment selection and validation, protective equipment, decontamination procedures, environmental monitoring and control, and overall process validation.
This paper expands on these major design considerations and discusses the safety organization necessary to ensure the safety of the biological worker and those in the surrounding neighborhood, as well as the safety of the product being manufactured.
Minimal Guidelines for Biotechnology Safety—Activities of the United Nations Specialized Agencies
Authors: Oviatt VR 
Published: March 2009

The specialized agencies of the United Nations with responsibilities for public health, environmental protection, workers' health, industrial development, and the production of food, biologicals, and vaccines are currently developing “UN” minimal guidelines for biotechnology safety. The work is being conducted by the informal UNIDO/WHO/UNEP Working Group on Biotechnology Safety. Representatives of the United Nations (UN) Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the UN Environment Program (UNEP) are full members of the working group. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labor Organization (ILO), and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) participate as observers.
The reasons for undertaking development of these guidelines include (1) requirements of individual programs, (2) the need for an international norm, and (3) use by developing and other countries where such guidelines do not exist. Several studies were undertaken prior to work on the guidelines. These included a review of (1) current views of the risks associated with laboratory research, large-scale operations, and environmental application; (2) existing national legislation; (3) awareness of biosafety in the developing countries; and (4) various approaches to biotechnology safety application.
The guidelines are in three parts: (1) safety guidelines for laboratory safety practice, including biological containment; (2) safety guidelines for large-scale (scaleup) practice; and (3) safety and risk assessment guidelines for release of genetically engineered organisms to the environment. After completion, the draft guidelines are scheduled to be “tested” in several interested developing countries. Following the testing procedure, the guidelines will be redrafted as necessary and then reviewed by a panel of experts.