bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
New Towns and Rural Development in Egypt
Authors: Abou-Zeid Ahmed M. 
Published: April 2006

Opening ParagraphIn a poor and densely populated country like Egypt, where most of the people are engaged in agriculture and where cultivable land is limited, first priority in any development policy is usually given to agricultural projects for the reclamation of semi-fertile lands and the construction of settlements near the newly opened up areas. A large number of such projects have been executed in Egypt in the last twenty years or so: the cultivation of large areas in the oases of Kharga and Dakhla using subterranean water and the emergence of what is presumptuously called ‘the New Valley’; the reclamation of semi-desert lands in the coastal zone in the Western Desert and the digging of a long canal to carry the much needed water for irrigation from the Nile. The inhabitants of new settlements are usually drawn from the thickly populated provinces and are selected according to age, marital status and number of children. The construction of these settlements is thought of as an effective means for relieving the overcrowded provinces of their excess population as well as developing neglected regions.
Social interaction and the management of Songhay socio-political change
Authors: Stoller Paul 
Published: April 2006

Opening ParagraphKwaara banda daarey, hala ga kano, yeow s'a gar. The stranger (no matter how long he/she has lived in a town) will never possess the choicest fruit of the daarey tree behind the village.The daarey tree (Ziziphus jujuba) is found in and around Songhay towns in the Republic of Niger. Since its sweet red fruit is coveted, the whereabouts of the finest daarey are never divulged to foreigners, lest they steal from the Songhay that which is most delicious in their communities. The proverb underscores just how careful the Songhay are in protecting from non-Songhay that which is their own. It also suggests that just as non-Songhay will never possess the choicest daarey fruits, so too they will neither marry the most beautiful Songhay maidens nor become influential in community affairs. The most beautiful maidens, like the best daarey trees, are kept from the sight of non-Songhay; the sociocultural knowledge which enables a person to be perceived as influential is never taught directly to those who have migrated to the lands of the Songhay.
On the rationality of conversion (Part I)
Authors: Horton Robin 
Published: April 2006

IntroductionIn a recent article in this journal I sketched the outline of a theory which I suggested might help us to make sense of a large but puzzling accumulation of data relating to the ‘conversion’ of African peoples to Islam and Christianity. The theory evoked a vigorous critical response, also in this journal, from the Islamist Humphrey Fisher. In the present paper I shall reply to Fisher's criticism. In the process, I hope to show that the theory can be used to make sense of a range of data not carefully considered in my previous article.
The ‘leopard’ killings of southern Annang, Nigeria, 1943–48
Authors: Nwaka Geoffrey I. 
Published: April 2006

Opening ParagraphThis article examines the extraordinary outbreak of violent deaths which occurred among the Annang and Ibibio of eastern Nigeria in the mid-1940s and was described by the colonial police as ‘probably without parallel in the history of violent crime of any country in the world’. Between 1943 and 1948, but especially after 1945, one mutilated body after another was found in quick succession in a restricted border area shared by 130 villages in the Abak and Opobo districts of the Old Calabar Province. Over 200 such deaths were recorded in a short space of time. Initially medical officers who examined the bodies of the victims seemed to agree with the local people that the deaths were caused by genuine leopards, which were a constant menace to life in the area. The local police were preoccupied with other matters and showed little interest in deaths attributed to wild animals. But vague rumours were current, especially in missionary circles, that a ‘leopard cult’ of professional assassins might be engaged in murderous activities in the area, covering the tracks of their crime by simulating the clawmarks and ravages of wild beasts. Preliminary inquiries by local officials in 1945 appeared to confirm the suspicions and, in spite of strong doubts and protests from various quarters, a large force of police was let loose on the ‘infected’ area to suppress the murder gang and any other local organisation associated with the killings. At least 102 suspects were convicted for man-leopard murders, seventy-seven of whom were actually hanged in one of the most bizarre anti-crime campaigns of the colonial period.
The emergence of a Diola Christianity
Authors: Baum Robert M. 
Published: April 2006

Opening ParagraphAfrican religious history in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries has been dominated by the rapid growth of Islam and Christianity. This has been especially true of the Senegambia region of West Africa, which has witnessed the adoption of Islam by approximately 80 per cent of the region's populace and the development of a small, but influential Christian minority. Among the Diola of the Casamance region of Senegal, Islam and Christianity have both enjoyed rapid growth. The approximately half million Diola, however, include the largest number of adherents of their traditional religion within the Senegambian region. They are sedentary rice farmers and are usually described as acephalous peoples. While Muslims and Christians have been in contact with the Diola since the fifteenth century there were few conversions during the pre-colonial era (Baum, 1986). During the colonial era Islam became the dominant religion among the Diola on the north shore of the Casamance river, and Christianity also attracted a considerable following (Mark, 1985). Among the south shore communities neither Islam nor Christianity became important until after the Second World War. Seeing the increased momentum of recent years, many observers are confident that the south shore Diola will follow the northern example and convert to Islam or Christianity. Louis Vincent Thomas, the doyen of Diola ethnographers, described Diola traditional religion as ‘a false remedy to a very real crisis; fetishism will become a temporary response that will be quickly swept away by another attempt, even larger and undoubtedly more profound: Islam and perhaps we could add, Christianity’ (Thomas, 1967: 225; translations are my own, unless otherwise stated).
Generating an income in the urban environment: the experience of street food vendors in Ile-Ife, Nigeria
Authors: Pearce Tola Olu , Kujore Olufemi O. , Agboh-Bankole V. Aina 
Published: April 2006

IntroductionThe economic condition of workers in the fast-growing urban centres of African countries is of concern to scholars and policymakers interested in developing programmes to alleviate the persistent poverty. However, there is a dearth of micro-level research on the economic activities of the numerous occupations to be found in these settings. This information would provide a more realistic basis for policies and the assessment of competing theoretical models of social change (Moser, 1980). The aim of the present paper therefore is to provide baseline data on the economic situation of one group of workers within the urban economy—vendors of street foods. Street foods are defined as edibles which have been prepared outside the consuming household and are ready for consumption at point of purchase; however, the buyer may take them elsewhere. The study does not include those ready-to-eat foods prepared within the confines of modern establishments with four walls. Modern restaurants and the cafeteria sections of hospitals, prisons, colleges and universities were therefore excluded. The small-scale businesses under study are part of what is known as the informal sector. The study was conducted in Ile-Ife, a university town in Oyo State (Yorubaland). Among the Yoruba, women became active in small-scale trade following changes in the patterns of international trade and in farming since the fifteenth century. This process was also facilitated by colonial penetration into the socioeconomic fabric of the society (Afonja, 1981). Within the trading business the marketing of street foods was dominated by women (Bascom, 1951; Marshall, 1964; Fadipe, 1970). Central to the concerns of this paper therefore are the levels of income generated by these women, the problems associated with the enterprise and possible recommendations on how to improve the situation of food vendors in the urban economy.
Perceptions of gender stratification
Authors: Caplan Pat 
Published: April 2006

Opening ParagraphIn this article I consider gender as a form of stratification on the coast of East Africa, with specific reference to northern Mafia Island where I have carried out fieldwork between 1965 and 1967, and again in 1976 and 1985. I am interested in the way in which this has changed over the twenty-year period in which I have been observing this area.
How a Bill became a Law in Zimbabwe: on the Problem of Transforming the Colonial State
Authors: Seidman Robert B. 
Published: April 2006

Opening ParagraphOn 18 April 1980, a new black government took power in Zimbabwe. It confronted the widest gap in the world between the very poor and the very rich. Some 6000 white farmers owned farms with an average size of 6000 acres, comprising the best half of the arable land in the country. 800,000 African farmers scratched a living out of the sand and rocks that constituted the other half. Seventy-five per cent of the children of wage workers on the white farms suffered from malnutrition: their parents had a minimum monthly wage of $20 (Rhodesian). Eighty-five per cent of those children had never received a medical examination or visited a clinic. The dismal figures roll on and on.
The Punjab Government and Communal Politics, 1870–1908
Authors: Barrier N. Gerald 
Published: April 2006

One of the most controversial interpretations of recent Indian history is that the British governed the subcontinent through a strategy of divide and rule which led to Hindu-Muslim conflict and ultimately the 1947 partition. Divide et Impera has often been portrayed in vernacular tracts, Congress publications, and scholarly works as a fundamental cause of communal tension.The similar assumptions, methodology, and sources upon which these assessments rest, however, have resulted in a clouding of key issues and a misreading of the historical record. The studies generally focus upon twentieth-century developments such as Hindu and Muslim political parties or communal riots and then project their findings backward to earlier periods. Because British attempts to play Hindu and Muslim against one another apparently intensified antagonism following the Morley-Minto reforms, it is argued that similar policies prior to 1900 helped create the initial estrangement between the two communities. Communal activities are admittedly easier to examine once Hindus and Muslims began to organize for elections and legislative proceedings, but preoccupation with formal competition and a concomitant simplistic explanation of the origins of communalism have postponed a much-needed investigation of the formative period in the nineteenth-century when British rule and changes within Indian society set the stage for subsequent communal organization.
The Diffusion of Cotton Processing and Trade in the Kinai Region in Tokugawa Japan
Authors: Hauser William B. 
Published: April 2006

The diffusion of cotton processing and trade were major features of the expansion of rural commerce and handicraft production in the Kinai region during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Both were responses to demands for sources of non-agricultural employment in Japanese villages. They made available off-season by-employment for small farmers and offered new types of employment to those under-employed in agriculture. The expansion of rural participation in cotton processing and trade brought the villagers into conflict with urban merchants and artisans. This initially led to reinforcement of urban commercial prerogatives by the government and subsequently to legal confrontations between rural and urban merchant groups which in 1823 were decided in favor of the rural merchants. The role of the government shifted from protection of urban merchant interests to denial of their monopoly and monopoly rights and tacit support for the expansion of rural processing and trade.Overall, the expansion of rural commerce and handicraft industry illustrate the economic and social changes which characterized the Kinai region during the Tokugawa period and the commercialization of the village economy. It also illustrates the inability of the Tokugawa bakuju to limit or direct the process of societal change.
Addenda and Corrigenda
Authors: Beal Edwin G. , Beal Janet F. 
Published: April 2006

Addenda to the obituary and bibliography of Dr. Arthur W. Hummel, JAS, XXXV, 2, Feb 1976, pp. 265–761933 “China's Literary Heritage.” D. C. Libraries, v. 4, no. 2, Jan 1933: 23–29.1949 Review of Antonio Sisto Rosso, Apostolic Legations to China of the Eighteenth Century. American Ecclesiastical Review, v. 121, no. 5, Nov. 1949: 428–430.The writers of this obituary notice wish to thank Mr. Sharman B. Hummel, the second son of Dr. Arthur W. Hummel, for the loan of a remarkable series of tape recordings which he asked his father to make in 1968 for the benefit of his family. These tapes, together with others made in 1973 and 1974, were most helpful in the preparation of this account.
The People in History: Recent Trends in Japanese Historiography
Authors: Gluck Carol 
Published: April 2006

AbstractIn the 1960s a group of Japanese historians responded to the contemporary bureaucratic superstate by embarking on a search for a popular past. They began to reexamine Japan's modern experience from the point of view of the people, not the elite, and with special emphasis not on political events but on social forces and attitudes. They rejected Marxism and modernization theory as alien and limiting and sought instead an indigenous methodology that might better fit the Japanese case because it was derived from it. By choosing topics that suggested the importance of popular energies in the development of modern Japan, they endeavored to enlarge the canvas of social history by bringing the people into it as significant subjects of historical change. Their scholarly efforts have drawn the attention of Japanese within and without academic circles and, as this introductory critical essay suggests, may usefully draw that of Western readers as well.
Nocturnal Labors in the Light of Day
Authors: Dalby Michael 
Published: April 2006

Devotees of operatic silliness will recall how Anna Russell, in her music hall routine explaining the convoluted plot of Wagner's Ring, prepares her audience for the reappearance of that disgusting dwarf Allllberic (“ten hours after the damned opera begins”), and leans forward conspiratorially to deliver her long-awaited line: “I'm not making this UP, you know!” And anyone who supposes that Edward W. Said, Parr Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Columbia, is simply fabricating something in his book Orientalism; is taking oblique potshots at the academic establishment out of misdirected political dissatisfaction with the situation in the eastern Mediterranean; is presuming to speak of what he does not know professionally; is fulminating about a nastiness peculiar to Islamic studies; is attributing to innocent scholars the unlikely or unintended motive to control the object of their scholarship; or, finally, is saying nothing of relevance to practitioners of other disciplines or students of other areas—anyone who harbors such suspicions may wish to consider the manner and substance of the following two passages, chosen from among documents that I happen to have seen in the past several weeks:In Japan we have no Nineveh or Babylon to disentomb, no Jerusalem to uncover of its superincumbent debris, in order to identify its ancient topography, no Ilium that was, to bring to light, after the oblivion of the ages, nor ancient ruins of any kind whatever to interest the antiquary.
Some Observations on the “Seventeenth-Century Crisis” in China and Japan
Authors: Atwell William S. 
Published: April 2006

For more than three decades now, scholars have been debating whether or not a “general crisis” occurred in European social, economic, and political history during the seventeenth century. The debate is far from over, but one of its happy side effects has been that students of seventeenth-century Spain, France, or England now are rarely satisfied to study their chosen countries in total isolation. Indeed, it is generally agreed that many aspects of European history during the early-modern period need to be studied from an international perspective in order to be understood fully.The author maintains that the same is true for early-modern China and Japan. Although they had radically different economic, social, and political systems, the Ming dynasty and Tokugawa shogunate experienced a number of problems during the midseventeenth century that were at once interrelated and strikingly similar to those occurring in other parts of the world at the same time.
Colonialism and the Ideological Origins of the Vietnamese Revolution—A Review Article
Authors: Popkin Samuel L. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractsRecent books on colonial Vietnam by David Marr and Martin Murray make possible an assessment of the relationship between economic change and the diffusion of modern ideologies among Vietnamese intellectuals. The ideological ferment that Marr documents occurred because the downfall of Confucianism left intellectuals without a way to analyze their country. Martin Murray's detailed description of colonial economic transformations helps to explain why most of the Vietnamese concern was with radical ideologies, and why there was no intellectual and economic basis for moderate political activity among the intelligentsia.
Contemporary Chinese Literature in Translation—A Review Article
Authors: Lee Leo Ou-fan 
Published: April 2006

This article surveys the available English translations of contemporary Chinese literature from the People's Republic. In view of the post-Mao Party policy of relative freedom for creative writing, more works are pouring out of China than ever before. Of the most recent translations, the largest share belongs to Panda Books, a publishing subunit of the Foreign Languages Press in Beijing. Under the leadership of the Yangs (Xianyi and Gladys), a husband-and-wife team of great renown, this new Panda series has published more than a dozen titles as of 1984, and new ones continue to be received.Despite its voluminous production, the editors of the Panda series have made certain choices that are of dubious value. Especially weak is the representation of traditional literary works, which are often drastically abridged or collected in slender anthologies. In comparison, coverage of modern and contemporary works is more exciting. The translations are generally correct, the most felicitous from the hands of Gladys Yang. However, the translations suffer from a certain uniformity of style and sometimes from severe cuts. Volumes in the series are nevertheless a useful addition to the increasing library of English translations of contemporary Chinese literature, now more than adequate for an undergraduate course.
Revisionism Reconsidered: Kang Youwei and the Reform Movement of 1898
Authors: Wong Young-Tsu 
Published: April 2006

The reform movement of 1898 sought to move the Qing empire toward comprehensive and unprecedented institutional change and thus was a critical event in modern Chinese history. Had it succeeded, China could have, like Meiji Japan, entered the modern era without revolutions. Yet, however determined and daring its leaders, the historic effort was suddenly and tragically cut short by a coup.The standard view of the Reform Movement has been that, in reaction to China's repeated defeats and humiliation as well as the inadequacy of the Self-strengthening Movement, the reform-minded Kang Youwei (illustration 1) and Liang Qichao finally won support for change from a sympathetic Guangxu Emperor. The reformers then managed to put into effect a nationwide reform program through imperial decrees. But the movement, which lasted barely over one hundred days, came to an abrupt end when the Empress Dowager Cixi and her conservative supporters recaptured political power, executed or imprisoned many of the reformers, and placed the emperor under permanent house arrest.
A New Point Type from Hell Gap Valley, Eastern Wyoming
Authors: Agogino George A. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe Hell Gap point, excavated from a cultural level dated by radiocarbon at 8890 B.C. (10,850±550 B.P.), is described by H. M. Wormington. It represents the oldest known cultural level at Hell Gap, an extensive multi-component quarry site occupied by paleo-Indian groups over a considerable period of time.
The Place of International Law in Chinese Strategy and Tactics: The Case of the Sino-Indian Boundary Dispute
Authors: Stahnke Arthur A. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe Sino-Indian boundary dispute provides an interesting test case to determine the willingness of mainland China, a revolutionary regime, to argue its position within the framework of traditional international law. Judging by Peking's official rationale for its claims in that dispute, one must conclude that its leaders demonstrated an awareness of the law's uses and limitations, and a willingness to rely upon it as an important support for its position. Thus, though the issue was viewed as a political question, Peking chose to argue that the correct answers to it should rest upon such legal or quasilegal considerations as: (1) the boundary had never been delimited through a process recognized by international law and (2) Chinese claims to contested territory were based upon historical evidence such as administrative control and official records. At the same time, China's diplomate skillfully interspersed nonlegal theses, e.g., that India was seeking to gain by the imperialist activities of the British, and underlined all of their propositions with a show of military strength on her southern frontier.
The Individual and Society in Gandhi's Political Thought
Authors: Rothermund Indira 
Published: April 2006

The problem of the relation of the individual to society and to the state was central to Gandhi's political thought and action. It has been said that Gandhi's “deliberate onslaught on the creed of individualism as it has been in operation during the last two or three centuries gave it a mortal blow.” How are statements like this to be reconciled with the fact that Gandhi appealed to individual conviction in his campaigns?In analyzing this problem we should look at the main concepts of social and political philosophy which had an impact on Gandhi's life and thought. Indian philosophy is of special importance in this context and therefore a major part of this paper is devoted to the discussion of Indian concepts and ideas as they were understood and interpreted by Gandhi. Much of Gandhi's thought and action can be explained only in terms of the historical situation and the social setting of his day and age. But Gandhi's campaigns and his contribution to the Indian freedom movement have been described by many authors and therefore no attempt is made in this paper to outline the course of events.