bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Matching
Authors: Lee Myoung-Jae 
Published: February 2006

AbstractIf the treatment (T) and control (C) groups are different in observed variables x, then the difference in outcome y cannot be attributed to the difference in the treatment. The obvious solution is to compare only those subjects with the same (or similar) value of x across the two groups. Selecting subjects similar in x across the T and C groups is ‘matching’. Treatment-effect estimators with matching (or simply matching estimators) are introduced first, assuming that the matching has been done already; then how to do matching in practice is discussed. If x is high-dimensional, it is hard to find matched subjects, but there is a simple way to avoid the dimension problem, called ‘propensity score matching’. Matching also can be done to control for unobservables, e.g., using identical twins controls for genes. Combining before-after design with matching yields the popular ‘difference-in-differences’ design, which can be generalized to ‘difference in differences in differences’. These difference-based designs can deal with unobserved confounders to some extent; it is thus fitting that they are examined in the second half of this chapter before hidden bias is dealt with in the following chapters. This chapter employs terms used in medical science and epidemiology: a treated subject is called a ’case’, and a control subject a ‘control’.
Multiple and dynamic treatments*
Authors: Lee Myoung-Jae 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter generalizes binary treatments to multiple treatments, which can occur at a given time. Multiple treatments can occur over time, as well at each given time point having a binary treatment. The latter aspect leads to dynamic treatment effect, which is an important and evolving area of research. When a binary treatment is given consecutively over time, its duration can be handled as a single ‘cross-section’ cardinal treatment if the covariates are time-constant. Otherwise, if some covariates are time-variant, a ‘hazard-based’ causal framework may be used. The most difficult case in dynamic treatment effect arises when interim responses that are controlled for are affected by the earlier treatments, and affect future treatments; the ‘G algorithm’ is introduced for this case.
7 Hartley, Tucker, Priestley
Authors: Harris James A. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
David Hartley ends the first part of his Observations on Man with an argument for necessitarianism that emphasises the obvious influence of motives upon choice, and that straightforwardly, and unusually, denies that we experience ourselves as free in our choices. Hartley’s style of philosophizing is taken up by Abraham Tucker and Joseph Priestley. Priestley deploys the rhetoric of Newtonian natural philosophy in his writings on free will, and seeks to establish that necessitarianism is the only position compatible with a ‘scientific’ approach to human action.
Understanding Eating Disorders
Authors: Giordano Simona 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Understanding Eating Disorders is an original contribution to the field of healthcare ethics. It develops a new theory concerning the moral basis of eating disorders, and places such disorders for the first time at the centre of philosophical discourse. The book explores the relationship that people have with food and their own body by looking at genetics and neuro-physiology, sociology and family studies, clinical psychology and psychiatry, and frames abnormal eating at the extreme of a spectrum of normal behaviours, directed by moral values. Giordano argues that abnormal eating is not a psycho-pathological phenomenon, but the coherent implementation of ordinary moral values with a long tradition in Western culture. The book also contains a detailed analysis of UK legislation, accompanied by a timely critique of the law on treatment of mental disorders in general and of eating disorders in particular.
Eating Disorders: Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa
Authors: Giordano Simona 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter uses case histories to illustrate the reality of eating disorders and provides a detailed clinical description of the condition. It explains what eating disorders are, how they manifest, whom they affect, and what somatic effects they have. It discusses distortion of body image, which is thought to affect eating disorder sufferers. Family and social issues relating to eating disorders are introduced. The effects of abnormal eating on the endocrine system, the heart, and the gastrointestinal apparatus are reported in detail and in accessible language. This chapter also introduces ethical issues surrounding care and treatment of people with eating disorders.
Paternalism v. Respect for Autonomy
Authors: Giordano Simona 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter discusses the ethical issues that arise for people dealing with someone in the grip of an eating disorder, and articulates a theory of justifiable paternalism. Eating-disordered behaviour is often dangerous and self-harming, and the person with eating disorders is typically intelligent and defends her eating habits. This chapter answers the question: can we rightly prevent people from harming themselves, if this is what they want? It argues that sometimes paternalism may be ethical, but only when certain conditions are met (when the behaviour to be restrained lacks autonomy in some relevant way). The theory of paternalism articulated in this chapter takes into account various philosophical and ethical notions, which are explained in plain language.
Is Pathological Behaviour Caused by Mental Illness
Authors: Giordano Simona 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter considers a widespread argument that behaviour classified as psychopathological is caused by the mental illness. It is common to believe, for example, that patients hear voices because they suffer from paranoid schizophrenia; or that they lose interest in life because they suffer from depression; or that they binge and fast because they suffer from bulimia and so on. It seems to follow that the autonomy of the person with a mental illness is diminished, and therefore paternalism towards mentally ill people can be justified precisely on the grounds that they have a mental illness. This chapter argues that a mental illness does not cause the experiences and behaviours that are regarded as pathological. It shows that it is fallacious to contend that abnormal experiences and behaviours are the result of an underlying mental illness. This has important ethical implications — paternalism cannot be claimed as ethical because the person has a mental illness.
Scientific Understanding of Eating Disorder
Authors: Giordano Simona 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter explores the organic basis of eating disorders, and discusses whether eating disorders are a form of addiction. Gene variations seem to be involved in both anorexia and bulimia nervosa. However, it is unclear what these variations are and how they may interact with environmental stressors to determine the onset of the disorders. Moreover, though there is clear evidence that physiological abnormalities are linked to eating disorders, variations are generally corrected as abnormal eating patterns are abandoned. The relationship between these abnormalities and the onset of eating disorders is thus unclear. This has important ethical implications: it cannot be claimed that eating disorders are caused by organic causes, or that organic dysfunctions diminish the sufferers’ autonomy.
Lightness and Eating Disorders
Authors: Giordano Simona 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter draws on literary and artistic sources (Kundera, Dickinson, Giacometti, Modigliani, Sartre) to explain the value of lightness. It shows that the pursuit of lightness is not a contemporary phenomenon, contrary to what many people believe. Victorian literature is replete with slim and aerial heroines. Slimness and lightness symbolize values that are part of Western morality. It argues that the value of lightness is moral in nature, and that the pursuit of thinness is not the result of an aesthetic choice, but reveals adhesion to a cluster of moral values.
The Value of Lightness
Authors: Giordano Simona 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Lightness and fasting are often associated with positive feelings and with beauty. Arts, music, and literature testify the value that is attached to lightness in Western culture. Lightness and food restriction are also thought to be morally valuable, as an instrument to asceticism and spirituality. This chapter discusses the body-mind split and its repercussions on the value of lightness. It traces the origins of this split in ancient Greece, and looks at how such metaphysics of the human person spreads in the Latin world and in Western religion and philosophy. It shows that food restriction becomes valuable in the light of this metaphysics and of the ethics that follow from it. Food restriction corporealizes self-government, self-discipline, willpower and control, all of which are praised within such an ideology. The body is corrupted and corruptible, and needs to be controlled and transcended. Lightness and slenderness are the emblem of the person’s self-control and discipline. Concomitant denigration of fat reflects the low conception of the body, which is found in all eras in Western culture. Lightness and thinness are normative, moral ideals that reflect the body/mind juxtaposition and the idea that the body is inferior to the spirit or mind.
The Role of Expectations in the Genesis of Eating Disorders
Authors: Giordano Simona 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter explores family dynamics recurrent in families with an eating disordered person. According to clinical studies, these families present similar traits. Clinical studies agree that in these families, expectations of the person who will develop eating disorders are too high and unrealistic. This seems to lead the future eating disordered person to find a way to gain control over her life. The struggle for control over eating seems to be a defence against excessive expectations.
Autonomy and Control in Eating Disorders
Authors: Giordano Simona 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter considers whether eating disordered behaviour is autonomous. This would have important ethical implications, as there is a prima facie ethical obligation to respect autonomous behaviour. It shows that eating disordered behaviour seems undermined by some defects in autonomy, such as defects in perception of hunger and satiety, defects in the ability to apply knowledge about food to self, false beliefs relating, for example, to food and its assimilation. These defects in autonomy seem to provide a prima facie justification for paternalism. However, this chapter shows that some elements specific to eating disorders weaken the strength of paternalism. Although there seem to be defects in autonomy, these do not provide clear justification for paternalism towards people with eating disordered.
Anorexia Nervosa and Refusal of Life‐Saving Interventions
Authors: Giordano Simona 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter considers the case in which the anorexic patient refuses naso-gastric feeding. It argues the principle of autonomy seems prima facie to dictate that the patient’s decision not to be fed should be respected, if the decision appears to be autonomous. However, this chapter shows that the principle of autonomy is not a sufficient ground for accepting the sufferer’s decision to die, in the case of anorexia nervosa. The decision to omit or withdraw life-saving treatment for anorexia necessarily has to rest on the capacity to identify with the suffering of the patient, and on the willingness to end the pains of the sufferer. In short, on one’s compassion. The death of the anorexic can be prevented and the effects of abnormal eating are completely reversible. The refusal of artificial feeding and hydration may therefore be profoundly devastating for carers, possibly more devastating than the refusal of therapy in cases of untreatable degenerative or mortal illnesses. This is humanly understandable and ethically relevant, and seems to weaken the normative strength of the principle of respect for people’s competent decisions.
Conclusions: The Need for Change
Authors: Giordano Simona 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This conclusive chapter summarises the content of each chapter. It argues that helping people with eating disorders means questioning ordinary moral values and beliefs. The focus should shift from the person with eating disorders, from her eating habits, and from what happens in her mind to shared moral assumptions about what is good and right, and their repercussions. Eating (normal or abnormal) is not important per se. Eating is important as an expression of people’s moral beliefs, and it is these beliefs that need to be unmasked and discussed.
Pragmatism
Authors: Misak C. J. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter argues that Peirce did not want to disqualify certain important kinds of pragmatism from the category of the legitimate. He provided the resources for a plausible, if not precise, moderate empiricist criterion of legitimacy. Once articulated, it can be employed in constructing an account of truth. Peirce’s construct of truth is not an analytic definition of truth, but a distinctively pragmatic elucidation of truth. It is an account of the relationship between truth and inquiry.
Inquiry: The Fixation of Belief
Authors: Misak C. J. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter argues that Peirce’s account of inquiry has a sane empiricism at its core: inquirers aim to get beliefs that fit with experience, broadly construed. When a belief, which has come into doubt, is replaced, the new belief is probably better. However, it may eventually be overthrown and shown to be false. When there are beliefs that would forever withstand the tests of experience and argument, what is the point of refusing to confer upon them the title ‘true’. According to the pragmatist, there is no point at all — only a spurious desire for transcendental metaphysics.
Supporting unemployed people: income protection and activation
Authors: Clasen Jochen 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThe chapter discusses three periods of policy change in the field of social protection for unemployed people. It explains basic parameters of unemployment protection systems, contrasting contemporary systems with those which existed in the late 1970s. Making use of several indicators, it assess the scale and profile of change in each country. The different reform profiles are identified and their genesis discussed in the context of major legislative changes. It argues that the specific links between unemployment protection systems and respective national political economy structures have impacted strongly on the emerging reform profiles. Dynamic power relations within and across government parties, as well as contextual changes impeded or facilitated policies, thus explaining cross-national variations in the pace and profile of reform.
Family policy: charting new waters
Authors: Clasen Jochen 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
The chapter discusses three periods of policy change in the field of family policy. Concentrating on basic aspects of family support, such benefits and tax allowances for families, as well as pension credits and parental leave programmes, the chapter contrasts current policy provision with the one which existed in the late 1970s. Using a number of indicators, it assess the scale and profile of change in each country. The chapter argues that both countries have traditionally favoured the male breadwinner families and been rather modest in the support for families per se, albeit for different reasons. However, family support has expanded in both countries, particularly since the 1990s, for several reasons. The ‘paid work’ oriented rationale for policy expansion has become a major driving force in the UK and, more recently, in Germany. Institutionally less embedded than the other two policy areas, national family policy profiles have evolved more dynamically.
Neurons and Neonates: Reflections on the Molyneux Problem
Authors: Gallagher Shaun 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter looks at problems and solutions involved in Molyneux’s famous question to John Locke — whether a person born blind, if they were given sight, would be able to recognize shapes learned by touch. Traditional empiricist answers to this question are based on principles of perception that can be challenged by recent research in developmental psychology and neuroscience. A new answer to the Molyneux problem is proposed, along with a new set of principles.
From Community to Diverse Union
Authors: Majone Giandomenico 
Published: February 2006

AbstractSince the Treaty on European Union, it has become clear that the process of European integration moves along several paths, of which the Community path is the best known, but not necessarily the most important one. The flexibility that appears in several forms in the TEU signaled an emergent strategy for achieving progress in politically sensitive areas, even at the price of a loss of overall coherence. The aim of greater flexibility was given official recognition by the Amsterdam and Nice Treaties. The drafters of the Constitutional Treaty also acknowledged the impossibility of forcing the integration process into a single institutional framework. In a Union where national preferences are becoming much more varied, the temptation to form smaller, more homogeneous groupings may well become irresistible.
5 Institutional Balance Versus Institutional Innovation
Authors: Majone Giandomenico 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter discusses the delegation of implementing powers by the Council (or by the Council and the EP) to the Commission or to European agencies. While delegation to the Commission may involve wide discretionary powers, European agencies are denied the regulatory powers which national agencies normally have. The Commission uses the principle of institutional balance to impede institutional developments which would reduce its own role, but would enhance the credibility of European policies. The division of roles between the Commission and the agencies aggravates an already serious accountability problem.
6 Policy Dilemmas
Authors: Majone Giandomenico 
Published: February 2006

AbstractUnder the Community method, policy is largely the by-product of actions undertaken to advance the integration process or to preserve institutional balance, rather than to solve concrete problems efficiently. The policy that eventually emerges is all too often the best bargain that can be negotiated politically. This chapter discusses some clear-cut cases of policy failure, such as the common fisheries and agricultural policies. EU environmental policy is shown to lack a clear rationale, and highly uncertain in its actual results. Risk regulation is a particularly interesting case. The central tenet of EU risk policy — the precautionary principle — is logically defective, tends to distort, rather than clarify regulatory priorities, and has isolated the EU internationally on several occasions.
Beyond Intergovernmentalism
Authors: Majone Giandomenico 
Published: February 2006

AbstractMember states are increasingly willing to commit themselves to common tasks, but wish to act outside the Community method. How credible are such commitments? It is easy to find cases where the national governments did not take their commitments seriously, but it is also the case that significant results have been achieved outside the traditional framework. There are in fact effective strategies of commitment that do not involve delegation of powers to third parties. In an information-rich environment, where national leaders are quite aware of the preferences and constraints of their colleagues, delegation to centralized institutions is less important than it was in the early stages of integration.
International Economic Integration, the Nation‐State, and Democracy: An Impossible Trinity?
Authors: Majone Giandomenico 
Published: February 2006

AbstractCritics of globalization argue that economic integration threatens democracy and national sovereignty by restricting the range of public goods political leaders can offer to their voters. However, the experience of the EU shows that it is possible to integrate economically without eliminating either national sovereignty or the welfare state. This is not to say that the welfare state is not facing serious challenges, but these are largely endogeneous (unfavorable demographic trends, growing popular resistance to high levels of taxation, etc.). In the EU, the problem is not a diminution of democracy at the national level, but a democratic deficit at the supranational level. Representative democracy can only flourish at national level, but supranational institutions can improve its quality by disciplining the discretion of national governments.
10 The Future of the Union: Montesquieu Versus Madison
Authors: Majone Giandomenico 
Published: February 2006

AbstractA European federation of states deeply divided along cultural, social, institutional and economic lines would be unable to provide the variety of public goods, including income redistribution, that citizens of modern welfare states take for granted; hence, it could not attract or retain sufficient popular support. Democratic life would continue to develop in the framework of the nation-state while the federation, far from correcting the democratic deficit of the present EU as federalists hope, would actually make it worse. In turn, this lack of legitimacy would prevent the would-be federal government from acting energetically, even in areas where the nation-states need to pool their sovereignty in order to play a more incisive role on the international scene. The confederal option seems to offer the only feasible solution to this dilemma.
Tracking Truth
Authors: Roush Sherrilyn 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This book develops and defends a new externalist, reliabilist theory of knowledge and evidence, and develops a new view about scientific realism. Knowledge is viewed as a tracking theory that has a conditional probability rather than counterfactual formulation, and the property of closure under known implication is imposed on knowledge. It is argued that the tracking theory of evidence is best formulated and defended as a confirmation theory based on the Likelihood Ratio. These tracking theories of knowledge and evidence fit together to provide a deep explanation of why having better evidence makes one more likely to know. The new tracking theory of knowledge is argued to be superior to all currently known externalist rivals. It provides a distinctive explanation of why knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief, and explains why knowledge is power in the Baconian sense. Finally, the book argues that confirmation theory is relevant to debates about scientific realism, and defends a position intermediate between realism and anti-realism based on a view about what having evidence requires.
3 Tracking: More and Better
Authors: Roush Sherrilyn 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter introduces the rules of applying the tracking conditions, and discusses the upshot of formulating the tracking conditions in terms of probability and counterfactuals. Criteria are introduced which provide a solution to the generality problem for tracking. Special kinds of epistemic luck are discussed, and the new view is defended against charges that tracking is too weak as an account of knowledge.