bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Nature of Archaeological Explanation
Authors: Fritz John M. , Plog Fred T. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractWe argue that the development and use of law-like statements by archaeologists to explain characteristics of the archaeological record has been and should continue to be one of the most important goals of archaeological research. Using a model for explanation developed by the philosophers of science, Carl Hempel and Paul Oppenheim, we indicate the role of such statements in archaeological classification. However, in archaeology such statements are found to be implicit, untested, and extremely general in referent.We further argue that the testing of potential laws requires a shift from an inductive procedure, or from one in which undirected data collection forms the first and the "abstraction" of laws from data forms the last research step, to a deductive procedure in which the explicit formulation of potential laws and their empirical consequences precedes and directs the collection of data.
Aluminum Powder: A Technique for Photographically Recording Petroglyphs
Authors: Swartz B. K. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe application of a mixture of aluminum powder and water, rather than chalk, is proposed for photographically recording petroglyphs. The use of chalk is questionable due to its permanency, tendency to disfigure soft surfaces, indistinctness of line and non-light-reflecting properties. Petroglyphs should be photographed without additives whenever possible, but with good judgment aluminum powder can be used as a time- and labor-saving aid.
Suggested Change in System of Site Designations
Authors: Heizer Robert F. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe SI-RBS trinomial system of site designation which indicated the state by a number taken from its position in the alphabetical list of states should be amended due to admission of Alaska and Hawaii. Since a change must be made, it is proposed that the state reference not be its numerical-alphabetical list position, but the official U.S. Post Office two-letter state abbreviation.
The Statistical Use of Artifact Distributions to Establish Chronological Sequence
Authors: Dempsey Paul , Baumhoff Martin 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis paper describes and demonstrates an improved statistical method for determining chronological sequences among archaeological sites. The method, derived from a system of measurement called contextual analysis, depends on the pattern of artifact types present and absent at each site rather than on the relative frequency of occurrence of types. The process of contextual analysis is presented in sufficient detail to provide a guide for other studies.For purposes of demonstration, the chronology of 16 central California burial sites, originally analyzed by Heizer, Fenenga, Lillard and others, and subsequently re-examined by Belous, was again reworked. The results showed an extremely high measure of agreement with Heizer's chronology, a rank order correlation coefficient of .96 being obtained. This high agreement is taken as evidence not only that a purely statistical method of establishing dependable sequences is possible, but also that contextual analysis is a sufficiently sensitive technique to solve the archaeological problem.
Early Man in Arizona: The Pollen Evidence
Authors: Martin Paul S. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractUnder the classic Bryan-Antevs model the climatic history of the Southwest has been divided into (1) pluvial, (2) early postpluvial or Anathermal, (3) mid-postpluvial or Altithermal, (4) late postpluvial or Medithermal. Pollen analysis of radiocarbon-dated pluvial deposits shows that the desert grassland of southern Arizona and the short grassland of the Texas High Plains were invaded by a pine forest or pine savanna during the last pluvial period. Sulphur Spring-age alluvial deposits at Double Adobe, dated as pluvial in age by Sayles and Antevs, do not contain the pine-pollen record associated with pluvial conditions elsewhere; six radiocarbon dates from deep alluvial deposits at Double Adobe range from 7756 to 9350 years B.P. On the basis of pollen content and radiocarbon-age estimates, the beds are of early postpluvial rather than pluvial age, and thus the Sulphur Spring-stage artifacts found there are also early postpluvial in age.Under the Bryan-Antevs model the Altithermal, 7500-4000 B.P., is considered an especially hot, dry period. Sediments associated with three radiocarbon dates within this interval contain slightly more pollen of mesic and hygric indicators than do sediments postdating the Altithermal. Interpreting the results literally, the Altithermal was wetter, not hotter and drier, than at present. The limitations of pollen analysis are not fully understood. But the traditional view of a hot, dry Altithermal in southern Arizona cannot be verified from fossil pollen evidence available to date.
The Clarksville Deer—A Case History
Authors: Guilday John E. , McCrady Allen D. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe articulated skeleton of a deer (Odocoileus virginianus) was recovered from a depth of 10 feet under the bed of Pymatuning Creek, Mercer County, Pennsylvania, in sands and silts of Pleistocene origin. A radiocarbon date of 1150 ± 100 years B.P. (I-650) and wood of broad-leaved, deciduous trees establish a Postglacial origin for the skeleton. Deposition is believed to have been effected by stream meander in reworked Pleistocene valley outwash.
Preceramic Transhumance in the Callejón de Huaylas, Peru
Authors: Lynch Thomas F. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe nature of the connections between coastal and highland Peru is a largely unresolved problem. Seasonal transhumance in the sierra zone, suspected in preceramic times, may bear on the beginnings of Andean agriculture. The preceramic occupation of the upper Santa Valley spans a wide range of environments and types of sites, which probably represent related facies of a single cultural cycle. The sites include high elevation hunting camps, workshops, open air river terrace sites, and a dry cave in which plant remains are well preserved. It is thought that preceramic hunter-gatherers migrated regularly from one elevation and environmental zone to another, and that this should be systematically reflected in the frequencies of various classes of artifacts in the stone tool industries.
Sex, Age, and Tooth Position as Factors in the Production of Tooth Wear
Authors: Molnar Stephen 
Published: April 2006

AbstractIn recent studies of heavily worn teeth of California Indian skeletal remains, considerable difference was seen in types and degree of wear. This variation in dental attrition was related to factors of sex, age, tooth position, and, in some cases, dental caries. The relative importance of each of these variables was considered.The sex of the individual was found to be a major factor in tooth wear and a higher degree of attrition was found among females. As would be expected, the older individuals had the most heavily worn teeth but this relationship was not constant and some differences were seen. Tooth position was also an important variable in determining the degree of wear. The upper teeth were worn more heavily than the lower and alveolar abcesses or carious teeth probably were the causes of regional differences in wear.The identification of these factors and description of their effect on dental attrition patterns is another step towards understanding human tooth wear. Plotting the frequency of the occurrence of degree and type of wear for each tooth by age group and sex aided in the analysis of this skeletal population. Application of this method of analysis to other groups can provide the means for interpreting the relationships between dental attrition and cultural variables.This is an expanded version of a paper read at the 1969 annual meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists.
Smudge Pits and Hide Smoking: The Use of Analogy in Archaeological Reasoning
Authors: Binford Lewis R. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractIt is argued that as a scientist one does not justifiably employ analogies to ethnographic observations for the "interpretation" of archaeological data. Instead, analogies should be documented and used as the basis for offering a postulate as to the relationship between archaeological forms and their behavioral context in the past. Such a postulate should then serve as the foundation of a series of deductively drawn hypotheses which, on testing, can refute or tend to confirm the postulate offered. Analogy should serve to provoke new questions about order in the archaeological record and should serve to prompt more searching investigations rather than being viewed as a means for offering "interpretations" which then serve as the "data" for synthesis. This argument is made demonstratively through the presentation of formal data on a class of archaeological features, "smudge pits," and the documentation of their positive analogy with pits as facilities used in smoking hides.
Methods for the Descriptive Analysis of Archaeological Material
Authors: Gardin J. C. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractMost studies on the use of punched cards and computers in archaeology seem to take for granted that scientific standards exist to express the data upon which algorithms are to be performed, for retrieval or classification purposes. The author's view is different; examples are given of descriptive codes which have been designed under his direction since 1955 for the storage of archaeological data (artifacts, abstract or figured representations, buildings, etc.) on punched cards of various kinds (marginal, peek-a-boo, IBM, etc.). In order to obviate the shortcomings of natural language, three categories of rules are required: orientation, segmentation, differentiation. The concluding remarks concern the relation of the descriptive languages which are thus obtained to scientific language in general; differences are stressed, as well as reasons for postulating a continuum from the former to the latter.
Nankoweap to Unkar: An Archaeological Survey of the Upper Grand Canyon
Authors: Schwartz Douglas W. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractAn archaeological survey of the areas along the river and the side canyons in upper Grand Canyon led to the location of 18 sites, five isolated and 13 in four clusters. The age of these sites is consistent with others found in the Grand Canyon north of the Colorado River and ranges generally around the periodA.D.1050-1150. It would appear that the occupants of these sites were struggling agriculturalists of the Anasazi pattern who were unable to adjust to this rigorous environment and abandoned the area. Evidence for a more or less continuous use of the Grand Canyon was found in the Little Colorado River Canyon, where the original Hopi sipapu was located. While prehistoric occupation may once have occurred to a minor degree near the mouth of the Little Colorado, its major function has been as a passage-way between the Hopi pueblos and the Hopi salt mine, with an intermediate stop at the sipapu (a geological formation). This paper is one of a series that attempts to outline archaeological developments in the Grand Canyon region.
An Archaeological Hoax in the Marquesas
Authors: Smith Carlyle S. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractAt the 29th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology I presented a paper entitled “Excavations on Hiva Oa, 1963.” In the abstract distributed at the meetings I stated (p. 41) that a decorated potsherd which appeared to be a fragment of a ceramic disk had been found at the Pekia site on Hiva Oa, Marquesas Islands. I also stated, “Thus far no parallels are known in Polynesia. A comparative study is in progress.” I can now report that the specimen is of modern manufacture. This came to light upon the return of Dr. Yoshiko Sinoto to Hiva Oa on May 21, 1964.
The Thorny Oyster and the Voice of God: Spondylus and Strombus in Andean Prehistory
Authors: Paulsen Allison C. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractAn exchange network based on long-distance export of Spondylus and Strombus, two mollusks native to coastal Ecuador, united the sierra and coast of both Ecuador and Peru during a long period of Andean prehistory. The gradual expansion of the export area is sketched, using evidence from three successive periods: (A) 2800 to 1100 B.C., (B) 1100 to 100 B.C., and (C) 100 B.C. to A.D. 1532. Each of these periods corresponds not only to an enlargement of the exchange sphere, but also to a striking change in the sociocultural status and role of the two shellfish in highland Ecuador and in Peru. This series of qualitative changes is related to evolutionary sociopolitical developments in the central Andes. Chávin is seen as a pristine state, linked to the later Huari and Inca empires through their common use of Spondylus and Strombus shells as symbols of the oracles that were important integrative mechanisms in the evolution toward large-scale societies.
Some Archaeological Correlates of Ranked Societies
Authors: Peebles Christopher S. , Kus Susan M. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe evolutionary stage designated chiefdom or ranked society is examined for its utility in archaeological research. The concept of redistribution is abandoned as an indicator of chiefdoms. A cybernetic model of chiefdoms is presented, and measures of mortuary differentiation, ritual-regulatory networks, subsistence autonomy, and part-time craft specialization are proposed as indicators of this type of socio-political organization.
Historic Site Content, Structure, and Function
Authors: South Stanley 
Published: April 2006

Site content, structure, and function are examined using information drawn from historic sites, ethnographic observation, and modern material-culture studies in an effort to understand more about the relationship of past cultural systems to their material by-products. The elements of site content, such as artifacts, architecture, features, and strata, are examined in terms of their temporal and spatial dimensions in relation to site function.The importance of identification of use, form, function, condition, and size in relation to spatial pattern and associations is emphasized. Given the ability to control or identify site function, those of us working on historic sites can begin to recognize the site structure correlates of site function and thereby take our place alongside experimental archaeology and ethnoarchaeology in the development of general archaeological theory.
A Preliminary Evaluation of Tooth Tartar among the Preconquest Maya of the Tayasal Area, El Peten, Guatemala
Authors: Evans David Trice 
Published: April 2006

AbstractA sample of 48 burials from the Tayasal Peninsula area, El Peten, Guatemala, is used to tentatively suggest a dietary shift sometime around Middle Classic times among the Maya. This conclusion is reached through an observed variation in the amount of calculus, or tooth tartar, deposited through time.
A Coordinate Approach to Northern Maya Prehistory: A.D. 700-1200
Authors: Ball Joseph W. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractDespite almost 100 yr of research on the Yucatan peninsula, including several major archaeological and ethnohistoric projects, an organized synthesis of the pre-Late Postclassic culture history of this region has yet to appear. In the present paper, a trial coordination of the accumulated archaeological and ethnohistoric materials dealing with the eighth through twelfth centuries A.D. is presented, and a culture historic framework for this period is suggested.
Boundary Conditions for Paleolithic Social Systems: A Simulation Approach
Authors: Wobst H. Martin 
Published: April 2006

AbstractPleistocene societies are viewed in this paper as manifestations of band society from which Paleolithic archaeologists can generate hypotheses about this cultural system and against which they can evaluate the validity of general cultural explanations. A general model is posited toward the isolation of Paleolithic societies in the archaeological record. Their numerical size is predicted from Monte Carlo simulations of model populations, and ways are discussed in which distinguishable equilibrium states of such societies can be predicted in time and space. Under the assumption of maximal constraints, simulations are used to predict the size and longevity of social units. The frequency of settlements produced during an equilibrium state of a society is simulated and the utility of survey for activity areas outside the settlements is demonstrated. The models developed in this paper are intended to stimulate deductive research in Paleolithic archaeology.
Construction of a Deductive Model by Simulation of a Traditional Archaeological Study
Authors: Borillo M. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis article is based on 2 observations. First, I note the quality of certain traditional archaeological studies, focusing on evaluation of results obtained and of information used. Second, I observe the incoherence of many of the constructions of "analytical" archaeologists, who sometimes naively imagine that it is possible to substitute sophisticated algorithms for analysis of the logic and archaeological meaning of problems in prehistory.The goal of this work is twofold: (1) to set up a model for analysis of traditional archaeological works that resolves the linguistic and logical difficulties encountered during extraction of the information they contain; and (2) to give an example of the way in which "description" and "calculation" may be integrated into a logical analytical scheme, so that the problem of "interpretation" (that is, of proceeding from formalisms to meaning) is resolved without reproducing the shortcomings of traditional discourse. These shortcomings include a preponderance of personal intuition, an absence of explicit justifications, and numerous incoherences.This paper is meant to be a contribution to efforts to reestablish the bases of archaeological reasoning in their historical continuity, beyond the mechanistic oppositions tending to mask the dialectic between "new" and "traditional" archaeology.The paper is translated from its original French by Claudine Farrand.
Inzuikizi
Authors: Smith Edwin W. 
Published: April 2006

Opening ParagraphIf we are to understand the firm belief in witchcraft we must first investigate the African's conception of ‘medicine’. In many Bantu languages the word for ‘medicine’ is identical with, or similar to, the word for ‘tree’, e.g. Zulu umuthi, Herero omuti, Lamba umuti, mean both ‘tree’ and ‘medicine’ ; in Ila musamo (plural misamo) is ‘medicine’ and isamo is ‘tree’. This points, I imagine, to the fact that most medicines are of vegetal origin.
Sense and Nonsense in Politics
Authors: Surkin Marvin 
Published: April 2006

I take my cue for the title of this paper from Merleau-Ponty, the French phenomenologist, who wrote in 1948 that “the political experience of the past thirty years oblige us to evoke the background of non-sense against which every universal undertaking is silhouetted and by which it is threatened with failure.” Merleau-Ponty refers to the experience of that generation of intellectuals for whom Marxism was a “mistaken hope” because it lost “confidence in its own daring when it was successful in only one country.” But this criticism is equally relevant for a new generation of intellectuals in America for whom the ideals of liberalism have been emptied of reality and have become little more than a super-rational mystique for the Cold War, a counter-revolutionary reflex in the third world, and a narrow perspective of social welfare at home. Merleau-Ponty argues that Marxism “abandoned its own proletarian methods and resumed the classical ones of history: hierarchy, obedience, myth, inequality, diplomacy, and police. Today intellectuals in America are making the same critique with equal fervor about their own lost illusions.As we search for new ways to comprehend the social realities of American life and new modes of social thought and political action to reconstruct “the American dream,” Merleau-Ponty's notion of sense and nonsense guides us to see the historical relationship between ideologies and practice, between thought and action, between man and the world he creates. It symbolizes that recurrent fact in history whereby reason parades as unreason, where even “the highest form of reason borders on unreason.” We must learn from recent history that “the experience of unreason cannot simply be forgotten;” that the most noble claims to universal truth, the most rational modes of philosophical or social inquiry, the most convincing declarations of political leaders are all contingent, and should be subject to revision and open to criticism and change.
Analysis Using Primary Sources for Term Papers in the Introductory Course
Authors: Morris Jeffre B. , Macchiarola Frank J. 
Published: April 2006

Many of the problems facing higher education are not capable of correction within the classroom setting. Yet, a great deal can be accomplished by an individual instructor in order to combat the often-spoken student criticism that classroom experiences are fundamentally deficient and unsatisfactory. This article offers political scientists a reasonably simple method of increasing student interest and participation in the Introductory American Government course. It concerns the design of a term paper which attempts to gain the active involvement of students through the use of primary source material.The teacher of an introductory American Government course today is probably very encouraged by enormous student interest in the workings of the political system. At the same time, it is not improbable that he is discouraged by the generally low level of substantive knowledge of current events and historical facts. In addition, he is disturbed to find that students do not read books and rarely read newspapers, that they rely upon television and rumor to support their substantive beliefs. The instructor is, additionally, torn between the pull of current issues as a source of classroom learning, and the commitment to the subject matter and methodology of the discipline, as the focus of classroom attention.In addition, those who assign term papers to their classes must fight the widespread and probably accurate student presumption that most term papers are added drudgery complementing the deadening succession of textbook assignments and blue-book examinations; that they are time-consuming, dull and irrelevant. Furthermore, students complain, again in justice, that their work is not usually read by the professor teaching them, or if read, is considered in a cursory fashion, so that hours of student effort result in simply a grade and possibly a one sentence comment along with, of course, the correction of a few grammatical and spelling errors.
Internships in Politics: The CUNY Experience
Authors: Hirschfield Robert S. , Adler Norman M. 
Published: April 2006

In December of 1949, a student of public service internships wrote: “All of the professions have sought reality and human understanding, at least in some degree, through the use of internships.” At that time, however, according to a survey conducted by Thomas and Doris Reed, only one American college offered what we would now regard as a political internship program.Today this situation has changed dramatically, and the place of political internships in undergraduate (as well as some graduate) curricula is established in scores of colleges. The pressure for so-called “life experience” courses, the move toward independent study and off-campus programs, and the renewed interest of political and administrative leaders have all contributed to the burgeoning of intern programs. In fact, a recent meeting at Lexington, Kentucky saw internship directors from across the country gathering to confer on such matters as the philosophy of internship, financing, organization, relationships among politicians, academics and students, and related matters.