bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Application of 3D Seismic Technology to Reservoir Management. Some Recent Examples
Authors: Mikulieh M.J. , Macleod M.K. 
Published: October 2008

Introduction
Reservoir Geophysics, or the application of 3D seismic technology in reservoir characterization and monitoring, is a diverse subject covering a wide number of descreet applications. In this paper we will see application in three specific examples including:identification of an oil/water interface in a Gulf of Mexico major field, with the obvious extension to monitoring a waterflood,the use of seismic amplitudes as a Iithology indicator to constrain kriging of a reservoir from well data in Nigeria, andthe use of repeat 3D seismic surveys (4D) to monitor a steamflood in Indonesia.
In Figure 1 we show a list of applications of 3D seismology to a variety of reservoir problems. Taken together, we loosely define the sum of these applications as 'reservoir geophysics.

Example 1. Mapping an Oil/Water Contact, Gulf of Mexico.
The first example is from the Bay Marchand Field in the Gulf of Mexico. Bay Marchand is a very large field with production of more than 700 million barrels, to date, and ultimate recovery of about 1 billion barrels. It is composed of more than 500 individual reservoirs. In this example we look at just one reservoir, the '7900'D'. In Figure 2, we show a time-dice from a 3D survey but along the top of the reservoir. The 3D survey was recorded in 1987, tier this reservoir had been under production for many years. Note the varying amplitude pattern on the time-slice. Because the reservoir sand is approximately 70' to 100' thick and encased in thick shales over the entire reservoir area, we expect that a 3D survey, shot before production commented, would show a relatively uniform amplitude over the same area. Instead, we see a varying pattern suggesting water break though near the eater. We interpret the high amplitudes (reds) on the time slice as oil bearing reservoir, and the low amplitudes (blues) as areas where, at the time the way was recorded, the reservoir had already watered out.
In Figure 3, we show a plot of p-wave velocity vs. bulk density from the well data. Observe the nice separation between the oil bearing sands (yellow dots) and the encasing shales (orange 'X's'). Wet sands are shown as red triangles. Straight lines on the plot indicate points of cmstant normal reflection coefficient, and are labeled. We see that the reflection coefficient is 0,2 to 0.25 for the oil sands and 0.1 to O.15 for the wet sands. This data indicates that in good seismic data we expect to see different amplitudes between the wet and the oil bearing sands.
If we would re-record this survey, we should expect to see further changes in the amplitude pattern as the water encroaches from the south, hence we would be able to monitor the waterflood. However, at Bay Marchand we have not yet recorded a follow up survey for this purpose.
Using Multiple Time Lapse 3D Seismic Surveys for Fluid Characterization in Consolidated Sandstone Reservoirs
Authors: Moorelchevron David E. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
Analysis of wireline sonic and density measurements of a study well in a h a y consolidated sandstone reservoir shows changes of only 2-8 microseconds/ft increase in transit time and .lg/cc increase in density as water saturation (Sw) changes from 10% to 100% as oil is replaced by brine. The zero offset acoustic impedance between the reservoir and non-reservoir material (encasing shales) shows a 3%-5% increase in impedance contrast over the same changes in water saturation (Sw). Forward seismic modeling of the acoustic logs that change as a function of water saturation from 25% to 100% shows detectable changes in thereservoirs' seismic signature both prestack and poststack. These changes range from 10%-35% increases in amplitude and reflection strength as water saturation increases creating a "dun spot" condition. Seismic reprocessing of a 1982 and a 1991 2D seismic line through the study well confirms themodel predictions of stacked seismic amplitudes of the reservoir. Subsets of a 1982 and a 1995 3D survey covering the study well were normalized to each other using poststack processing techniques. The 3D "region grown"' reflection strength difference map, extracted along the horizon identified by the seismic forward modeling and confirmed bythe 2D seismic test, shows changes in reflection strength that, at least on a gross scale, relates to the production data in the study area.

Introduction
The use of multiple time lapsed 3D seismic sweys for the analysis and characterization of fluids in reservoirs of aproducing field has emerged as one of our most important technical developments in the oil and gas industry for thls decade.
Recent published case histories show that time lapsed 3D seismic surveys can track the movement and change of fluids in porous unconsolidated sandstone reservoirs. This successhas been achieved primarily because of the large effect that fluid types such as gas, oil, and water have on the acoustic impedance of this type of reservoir relative to its encasing material (usually shale).
Can time lapse 3D seismic data be used in consolidated sandstone's for fluid movement and characterization wherethe effects of fluid types on the acoustic impedance of the reservoir is small?
This paper will show that one can identify and quantlty the seismic response as a function of fluid type and saturation of a consolidated sandstone by using seismic forward modeling techniques with well log data measured at a study well. Coupled with newly developed seismic processing techniques that can enhance and detect even subtle changes in acoustic impedance, the paper will then show how the time lapsed 2D data sets compare to the modeled seismic response of the log data at the study well.
Upon confirmation of the time lapsed 2D seismic data to the model seismic data, the paper will then show how the study progressed to a time lapsed volumetric evaluation of the reservoir using subsets of 1982 and 1995 3D surveys over the study well.
Recent Advances in Deepwater Gulf of Mexico Geotechnical Investigations
Authors: Dutt R.N. , Hamilto T.K. , Pelletier J.H. , Doyle E.H. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
The methods and the technology for deepwater geotechnical investigations in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) have evolved over a number of years, and this evolution has been punctuated by several technological advancements. Deepwater geotechnical investigations are now pushing the limits of present capabilities, both in terms of drilling and in situ testing tools. More efficient and advanced tools are being developed to keep pace with the ever increasing water depth requirements and the related technological challenges. This paper describes some of the recently developed tools. Where existing tools have been modified, both the shortcomings and improvements are discussed, The tools described in the paper include the small-diameter piezoprobe, wireline hydraulic fracture tool, Halibut II remote vane shear system, and the long-stroke cone penetrometer system, whichis still in the initial stages of development. Also described in the paper are the ongoing joint industry projects that are part of this tool development effort. Investment and continuoustool development will make it possible for the geotechnical community to meet the future challenges in 2000-m to 3000-m water depth.

Introduction
The oil and gas industry continues moving into ever deeper waters of the Gulf of Mexico. The enthusiasm demonstrated in recent rounds of deepwater lease sales suggest that the industry is now prepared to invest in deepwater exploration and production.
The march into the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico began in the mid to late 1970s, and the journey into deeper waters continued through the 1980s (Pelletier et al., 19%). Geotechnical investigations were targeted at developingdesign information for both fixed platforms and compliant tower foundations. Beginning in the late 1980s, the scene changed from exploring prospects in less than 600m of waterto those in water depths exceeding 850 to 900m. The deepest water depth for a geotechnical investigation to date has been at Shell's "Mensa" prospect (1616m). The foundation scenarios for these deeper waters have changed to subseatemplates and tension leg platforms (TLP).
Deepwater geotechnical investigations in the Gulf of Mexico are now beginning to exceed operational limits of existing site investigation systems. The status of the current technology, and the direction the industry has taken to develop systems and tools to meet the deepwater challenges, are described in subsequent sections of this paper.

Evolution of the Deepwater Geotechnical

Investigation Practice
Geological and geotechnical investigations performed to date in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico have identified an overall very complex environment. The complexity is primarily the result of the upward movement of salt diapirs which have produced extensive zones of steep slopes, faults, fluid expulsion areas, rocky seafloor, eroded seafloor, chemosynthetic communities and other features which make development of oil and gas production facilities challenging, if not impossible.
Can Poor 3D Sampling Lead To Successful Results ?
Authors: Davies Kevin J. , Hampson Gary 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
Traditionally seismic spatial sampling has been restricted by operational constraints. Typically shot sampling has been poorer than receiver sampling, yielding non-optimum stacking geometry and aliased contaminated data. Recent advances inthe understanding of the effects of sampling in seismic data and the introduction of techniques that allow interpolationbeyond aliasing, have permitted the pseudo-creation of optimum geometry or 'stack array' from non-optimum acquisition geometry.
Two examples are used to show how careful handling of aliased energy and stacking geometry can yield apparently successful results from non-optimum sampled data.
The first example is taken from a deep water environment NW of Britain. Data were acquired with a flip-flop source yielding a sub-surface shot interval four times greater than the group interval. In addition the poor sampling intervals lead to the recording of severe spatially aliased water bottom multiples. Application of a spatial antialias filter within the common shot domain followed by interpolation beyond aliasing in the common receiver domain, provides significant improvements to the stack.
In the second example, a 2D site survey vessel was used to acquire a high resolution 3D survey with a shot interval equal to half the group interval. However, the larger than desired group interval passed aliased energy. A combination of interpolation beyond aliasing and spatial antialias filtering applied to both shot and receiver domains permitted theunwrapping and removal of aliased energy. The difference between stacks with and without re-sampling is striking.

Introduction
Seismic surveys are usually acquired with a compromise between theory and finance. Often we design surveys that at least adequately sample in time, but inadequately sample in space. In particular the high costs and limitations on source generation lead to shot sampling that is poorer than receiver sampling, yielding non-optimum stacking geometry and aliased contaminated data. Aliasing is an inherent property of all sampling systems and its effects can be found in a number of seismic processing domains and ultimately in the stack.
The consequences of poor spatial sampling were recognized by Anstey1 in his paper 'What ever happened to ground roll?'. More recently authors such as Vermeer2 and Hampson3 have provided further advances in the understanding of spatial sampling theory, particularly in the two dimensional wavenumber domain. A number of processing strategies that overcome the effects of poor field sampling have been suggested,. including pre-stack interpolation (Spitz4, Jakubowicz5) and post-stack wave number notch filtering (Hampson3). This paper intends to demonstrate that a combination of these processing techniques can lead to successful results.

Sampling Geometry
Optimum symmetrical sampling defined by Vermeer2, is rarely adopted in modem marine 3D acquisition. More commonly, flip-flop source geometries lead to poorer asymmetricalsampling.
Wave Power Use for Island Power Supply by a Backward Bent Duct Buoy
Authors: Masuda Y. , Kuboki T. , Liang X. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
The Backward Bent Duct Buoy (BBDB) started as a Twin Fuselage BBDB, and was developed to Cylinder float BBDB. Water tank teat indicated a significant output increasing. A sea test in Mikawa bay in the inland sea area was conducted in 1995, and produced 300 watts from a 45 cm wave of 2.7 sec period from a 2.86 m BBDB. Using the Froude Simulation law, and scaling by 10, a wave in the open sea will generate 1,000 Kw from a 28.0 m BBDB.

Introduction
Wave power use is not yet completed except navigational light buoy, but solar power(l50 Watts/ m2) is highly concentrated towave power through wind blows on wide sea surface, and it is stored as swell on sea surface, Table I shows wind and wave Conditions Associated with fully developed sea states. Table I Wind and Wave Power Density by wind speed.
(available in full paper)
In case of 15 m/s in wind speed, wave power through I m width IS equal to solar power in 500 m22 and wind mill area of 50 m 2. Therefore, wave power use will be economical way than solar cell or windmill to use natural energy since energy density is higher. The other hand, wavegives a very strong breaking force to wave power facility constructed on shore, floating wave power device has a merit to avoid such destructive force by following to wave.
Long life and safety mooring were certified by Floating type Wave Power Generator Kaimei by JAMSTEC, Floating platforms by Oil Industry and Fairway Buoy use on sea etc.
The other hand, floating type wave power generator is easy to construct by ship-yard facility, than shore base facility which must be constructed on random shore line. In order to get an economical and safety floating type wave power device, Backward Bent Duct Buoy (BBDB) was developed in this 10 years by corporative study work of Japan, China, Denmark and Ireland. Further interest of India, Philippine and others is given to this study at recent time.
We will ex-plains recent tank study, sea trial and further view for island's and land's power.
Principle of BBDB and circumstance of development. The are various proposals for a Wave Power Generation buoy; Oscillating Water Column (OWC) with buoy is popular, Center Pipe Buoy (Figure 1) is used for navigation buoy, and a turbine generator is used on it. It is known that air output is increased by increasing length of the center pipe. but extending it to vertical direction brings a handling difficulty.
For OWCdevice it is known to open the mouth to wave coming direction but Mr Koichi Nishikawa and Mr Takahiko Masuda proposed that Backward Bent Duct Buoy (Figure 2) which has horizontal long duct to open to backward.
Environmental Impact of Coastal Sand Utilization in a Sniall Pacific Island Nation
Authors: Cruickshank Michael J. , Morgan Charles L. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
Almost without exception, the small island nations of the Pacific are facing the need to accommodate growing populations in a global environment that imposes significant changes in how people live. Roads, airports, public buildings, durable dwellings, hotels, and shore protection are all part of the considerable infra structure without which contemporary lifestyles cannot be sustained. Most of these structures are built with concrete and island people who have traditionally relied on their beaches to supply sands and aggregates for local construction are finding the source materials in short supply. The island of Tongatapu in the Kingdom of Tonga has for some years been affected by degradation of beaches and hinterland caused by the removal and sale of beach sand. It was proposed that an alternative source of sand be sought offshore and surveys by the regional South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission located several deposits in the lagoonal area to the North of the island. The potential for ecovery of these sands and the likely environmental impacts were presented in an Environmental Impact Analysis prepared for the government of the Kingdom.
The action studied in the EIA was to replace the mining of sand beaches on the island of Tongatapu with the mining of sand from Basin A, an offshore deposit located in the lagoon approximately 10 km north of Nuku'alofa in 15 m water depth. Review of available reserves indicated as much as 2.6 million m3 of sand, sufficient for 180 years at present rates of usage. A production of 15,000 m3/yr was assumed, using a 4" submerged suction pump, mounted on a 25 meter motorized barge with a capacity of 75 m3. The dredge would operate on site for three hours each working day and discharge to a stockpile at the wharf in Nuku'alofa. Public hearings disclosed a number of concerns including anchoring scars on nearby coral heads; visual effects and operational noise affecting nearby tourist resorts; the social effects of displacing workers presently engaged in beach mining; and possible but minor effects on commercial, subsistence, and sports fisheries in the vicinity ofthe operation. Environmental effects requiring specific analysis were limited to dispersion of fine sediment from the dredge overflow and possible effects on nearby bottom fish and some corals. The most far reaching effect appeared to be the recovery of the beaches from which sand is presently being removed.
The effects of the overflow plume on the dredge may be reduced by using an anti-turbidity overflow system (ATOS) on the dredge hopper and discharging near the bottom. Monitoring would be required to confirm the presence on the bottom of fine sediment from the discharge plume; and monitoring of fish catches or sightings would be necessary to determine any effects on the fisheries, or on prime dive sites. Noise from the operations may be monitored at appropriate intervals. It may also be appropriate to monitor for unauthorized beach mining,
Neptune Project: Regulatory and Classification Issues and Requirements
Authors: Parker W.J. , Ghosh S. , Praught M.W. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
This paper summarizes the responsibilities of the American Bureau of Shipping Classification Society (ABS), Minerals Management Service (MMS), and the United States Coast Guard (USCG) for permitting a Floating Production System (FPS). Authors present an overview of the permitting strategy and the regulatory framework in regard to the Neptune Sparbased FPS. A list of regulatory approvals is identified for proper planning of the project activities to prevent project delays. A table is provided to show the responsibility delineation, and the administration of paper flow for the approval process. This paper highlights the operator's strategy of approaching the classification society andregulatory agencies to bring them on-board in the early stage of the project.

Introduction
During the last two decades, the offshore industry has been successfully meeting the challenge of producing hydrocarbons in deep water by innovative design of platforms includingcompliant towers, tension leg platforms (TLP), and floating production semi-submersibles. One such innovative concept is the Spar based FPS which has been studied in great detail during the last 4-6 years.
Oryx Energy Company (Oryx) and CNG Producing Company concluded in 1994 that the Spar based FPS waseconomical in comparison to a TLP and other competing concepts for the Viosca Knoll Block 826 field. The Neptune Spar has been successfully installed in Viosca Knoll (VK)Block 826 in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM), located approximately 90 miles south of Mobile, Alabama in 1.930 feet of water. It is located in the MMS New Orleans District of the Gulf of Mexico Region and in the USCG New OrleansMarine Inspection and Captain of the Port Zone of the Eighth Coast Guard District.
For this new concept, the requirements and responsibilities of the primary regulatory agencies, MMS and USCG, were not well understood, nor well defined in the regulations. The Spar structure falls under the "Platform Verification Program" administered by the MMS: therefore, aCertification Verification Agent (CVA) needed to be identified to review the design, fabrication and installation ofthe Spar. The permitting process to obtain the necessary approvals by the USCG were not familiar to Oryx. In discussions with the USCG, several different permitting options were discussed for the project, each with their benefits and drawbacks. These included applying for a Certificate of Inspection (COI) from the USCG with the USCG reviewing the design and conducting inspections; applying forclassification from ABS and a COI from the USCG with ABS reviewing the design and conducting inspections for the USCG, or documenting the Spar in a foreign country and applying for a Letter of Compliance (LOC) from the USCG. Oryx sought a streamlined permitting and inspection strategy and after reviewing the options, chose to apply for class from ABS, with ABS responsible for the design review and inspections for the USCG and to nominate ABS as the CVA for design, fabrication and installation.