bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Coal's Increasing Role in the Fossil Fuel Industry
Authors: Eckard William E. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Coal was used by man thousands of years ago and has played a significant role in modern civilization. The solid fuel will surely continue to be important in the affairs of man. The United States has about 20 percent of the world's coal resources, enough to last several centuries even at an expanded rate of consumption. Projected expansion of coal consumption for energy and fuels production will require the solution of several major problems, including those related to mining methods, mine health and safety, economics, and coal process technology.

Introduction
The "energy crisis" of the 1970's, oddly enough, stems largely from a domestic shortage of petroleum, the so-called "rock-oil" that was discovered and came to our rescue back in the 1850's and 1860's. This saved us from the country's first energy crisis, "The Great Whale Oil Shortage" of the last century. Now, it looks like another energy source, coal, will be "discovered" and save us from the current shortage of essential fuels.
Let us think about coal for a few minutes-its history, availability, mining, and its potential as a future source of liquid and gaseous fuels.

History of Coal Use
The history of coal is rather fascinating and probably not very well known, even in the coal areas of the United States. No one knows when coal was first used, but it was believed to have been used for funeral pyres in Wales about 4,000 years ago. Coal may also have been used by the Chinese approximately 3,000 years ago, is mentioned in the Bible, and was known by the Greeks.
Coal was once considered a nasty, dangerous substance. The smoke and odor of burning coal frightened people; some though it was a curse. Laws were even passed to prohibit its use. History seems to be partly repeating itself, judging by current concern over pollution from coal mining and utilization.
Great Britain first fully recognized the true value of coal. Starting in the mid-1700's, coal began to serve as a source of power for steam engines, in effect, catalyzing the Industrial Revolution. Much of the coal used at that time was first converted to charcoal and. was referred to as "cole". Around 1900, the spelling was changed to "coal".
French explorers were the first to discover coal in North America. This was in 1679 near what is now Chicago, Ill. American Indians had made objects from coal before that time, however, and had used it in pottery-making in the Southwest.
The Economics of Coal Conversion Systems
Authors: Wellman Paul , Katell Sidney 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Various systems are being considered for converting coal to either liquid or gaseous fuels. The economics of several of these systerns have been completed. Data are presented here for two of the most promising systems developed by the Federal promising systems developed by the Federal Bureau of Mines—the Synthane process, which uses a fluidized gasification system to produce high-Btu gas, and the Synthoil process, produce high-Btu gas, and the Synthoil process, which produces low-sulfur heavy fuel oil.

Introduction
In the past, the United States has been fortunate in having large reserves of the three major fossil fuel energy sources—gas, oil, and coal. Now this has changed. Gas and oil sources have diminished while demand has increased. This is not true of coal, which still is our most abundant fuel. It is the only major fuel that can meet our country's energy needs through this century.
Since coal in its original form is usually dirty and difficult to transport, it has become necessary to convert it into a more desirable form. At this time, the energy situation in the United States is critical enough to justify intense efforts to develop coal conversion methods. Research and development by the Federal Bureau of Mines and the Office of Coal Research is being directed toward the study of several conversion processes.
Synthane gasification and Synthoil liquefaction are two of the most promising systems that have been considered. One advantage shared by both systems is that they use any kind of coal. Much of our coal, especially that which is near large marketing areas, is highly caking and unsuitable for most gasification processes. Synthane uses the caking coals directly as well as a wide range of other coals including lignite. The Synthoil process converts high-sulfur coals to clean fuel oil that contains low concentrations of sulfur and ash.
The Process Evaluation Group of the Bureau of Mines has recently completed cost studies of these two systems. This paper deals with the economics and the technology of these two approaches to coal conversion.
The Synthane plant was designed to produce 250 million standard cubic feet per produce 250 million standard cubic feet per day of high-Btu gas, which will be suitable for substitute natural gas (SNG). The Synthoil plant was designed to produce 108,394 barrels plant was designed to produce 108,394 barrels per stream-lay of low-sulfur, heavy oil, which per stream-lay of low-sulfur, heavy oil, which is intended for use as a boiler fuel.
Influence of Rock and Fluid Properties on Immiscible Fluid-Flow Behavior in Porous Media
Authors: Merliss F.E. , Doane J.D. , Rzasa M.J. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
An investigation of immiscible flow behavior in porous material as affected by fluid properties and the solid material characteristics has been made consolidated and unconsolidated sands.
Production mechanisms analyzed were external, gas and water drives and solution gas drives. Flowing pressures up to 1,500 psi were used. The work indicates that variations exist in the flow behavior of such systems, and that relative permeabilities and relative permeability ratios are functions not only of fluid saturations, saturation histories, and the porous material geometry, but also fluid properties and solid material characteristics.
An approximate method of determination of relative permeabilities from external drive experimental data has been derived to correlate the variations encountered in flow behavior. It is based on viscous flow theory and allows the mathematical determination of a pressure profile [for constant pressure differential or constant flow rate experiments] for external gas and water drive systems. Any desired static pressure may be used in the experiment.
Porosities and permeabilities were studied by choosing models with a wide range of characteristics. The consolidated sands had porosities from 13 to 21 per cent, while for the unconsolidated sand the porosity was from 34 to 39 per cent. Permeability ranges varied from 1.5 to 300 md for consolidated material, and 7 to 20 darcies for the unconsolidated material. The models used varied in length from 16 cm to 77 1/2 cm, with diameters from 2.54 cm to 5.08 cm.
The unconsolidated sand was treated with a silicone material to make it oil-wet for the water drive experiments. In the gas drive experiments on these treated sands, the silicone material effectively increased the oil-solid adhesion tension.]
Capillary phenomena were investigated to determine their effect on flow behavior in various wettability systems.

Introduction
The amount of oil that can be recovered economically from a reservoir is dependent upon the fluid-flow relationships which exist for that particular reservoir. Laboratory experiments are performed to arrive at relative permeability relationships which are used to make predictions of recoveries from reservoirs. Effective use of relative permeability characteristics requires knowledge of what they are and what affects them.
Latest Developments in High Strength Tubular Products for H2S Service
Authors: Franceschina L.E. 
Published: December 2007

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

Abstract
Heat treating facilities at the Tube Division of The Algoma Steel Corporation, Limited make use of a novel water quenching process which has made possible development process which has made possible development of the highest strength levels of tubular products currently available for use in products currently available for use in hydrogen sulphide environments.
Development of the quenching process, the present state of product development, and present state of product development, and research toward production of even higher strength levels, will be reviewed.
In hydrogen sulphide environments, high strength steel products are known to be susceptible to sulphide stress cracking. This phenomenon is generally believed to be caused when hydrogen atoms, evolved on the metal surface by a corrosion reaction, tend to enter the metal in the presence of hydrogen sulphide. This atomic hydrogen trapped in steels drastically reduces the ductility and causes the steel to crack. As H2S is often one of the components found in oil fields and as oil drilling activity has steadily been forced to regions requiring deeper wells, the demand for high strength H2S resistant tubular products has also been increasing.
Casing and Tubing Grade C-75 produced by using normalized and tempered steels to meet A.P.I. Standard 5AC was the first grade to be used for this application. There is now, however, much evidence from laboratory and field testing showing that a quenched and tempered martensitic microstructure is much superior in resisting H2S attack than the normalized and tempered-microstructure. Normalizing produces a mixed grain structure depending on the composition of the steel and the cooling rate. Quenching from the austentizing temperature produces martensite, a form which is under stress.
Optimizing Plunger Lift Operations in Oil and Gas Wells
Authors: Wiggins Michael L. , Nguyen Sean H. , Gasbarri Sandro 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Many low volume oil and gas wells produce at suboptimum rates due to liquid loading. This situation is caused by an accumulation of liquids in the wellbore that creates additional backpressure on the reservoir and decreases production. Plunger lift is an artificial lift technique characterized by the use of reservoir energy stored in the gas phase which is used to lift liquids to the surface and has proven to enhance the performance of these wells. Unfortunately, the lack of a thorough understanding of plunger lift systems has often led to disappointing results in actual applications.
This paper presents a discussion of plunger lift and the dynamic interaction of the mechanical plunger lift system coupled with the reservoir behavior. In this study, a dynamic plunger lift simulator is used to investigate various operating scenarios for both oil and gas wells. Analysis of the results provides improved insight into the efficient operation of plunger lift systems.
Interpretation and Correlations of Clay Swelling Measurements
Authors: Civan Faruk 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Analytical models for interpretation and correlation of the effects of clay swelling on the permeability and porosity of clayey porous rocks are developed and verified by experimental data. The parameters of the models, including the swelling rate constants, and terminal porosity and permeability that will be attained at saturation, are determined by correlating the experimental data with these models. This study reveals that swelling of clayey rocks is essentially controlled by absorption of water by a water-exposed surface hindered diffusion process and the swelling-dependent properties of clayey rocks vary proportionally with their values relative to their satu-ration limits and the water absorption rate. These models lead to proper means of correlating and representing clayey rock properties, and enhanced understanding of the relevant processes.
Effect of Viscosity on Downhole Gas Separation in a Rotary Gas Separator
Authors: Lackner G. , Doty D. R. , Shirazi S. A. , Schmidt Z. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Electrical submersible pump (ESP) installations are commonly used in the oil industry to aid the flow of fluids from the reservoir to the surface. As with any pump, the presence of free gas at the pump intake can adversely affect the operation of an ESP. One method of reducing the amount of free gas that the pump has to process is to install a rotary gas separator.
In this work, the effect of viscosity on the performance of the separator is investigated. New experimental data were gathered, covering a broad range of operational conditions in terms of pressures, liquid flow rates, gas-liquid ratios and rotational speeds. The experiments were conducted on a field scale experimental facility using a commercially available separator. The working fluids were water, two mineral oils and air. An existing mechanistic model (based on physical principles) that predicts the bottomhole gas separation efficiency in ESP installations, was then evaluated with the data. Based on this investigation, improvements were implemented in the model to better capture the influence of viscosity on the downhole gas separation process.
The results of the study indicate that there are two regions of separation efficiency that have a pronounced transition between them. One region in which the rotary gas separator is very effective (separation efficiencies between 80% and 100%), and the other in which it is not effective at all (separation efficiencies between 30% and 55%). The location of transition depends on the fluid physical properties, operational conditions and geometry of the separator. . The mechanistic model can predict this behavior, and agrees well with the data that are obtained during this investigation. Fluid viscosity, in the range of investigation (1 cp to 50 cp at 100 ºF), is found to have only little influence on gas separation efficiency. This may indicate that the effects of turbulence, at high rotational speed, dominate the behavior of the flow inside the separator.
Assessment of Matrix Acidizing Treatment Responses in Gulf of Mexico Wells
Authors: Zhu D. , Hill A. D. , Morgenthaler L. N. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
A coherent approach for evaluating matrix stimulation consists of a series of steps. First, pre-treatment well performance data needs to be collected to estimate how severe the well is damaged, and based on the initial information, a treatment can be designed. Then during treatment, skin response should be monitored through pressure and flow rate measurement, to: 1) insure the treatment is performing as desired, and 2) collect data for post-treatment study. From this step, the design and the information about the reservoir used in the design can be confirmed. Generally, a matrix stimulation consists of more than one stage, especially when diversion is required. Post-treatment review and interpretation of skin evolution during each stage provides valuable information regarding causes of the skin responses. And finally, the post-treatment well performance data can be used to confirm the skin estimate obtained during the treatment.
We studied the effectiveness of seventeen matrix acidizing treatments in Gulf of Mexico sandstone reservoirs by evaluating the skin factor evolution during the treatments from the rate/pressure responses and by examining production performances after stimulation. For these wells, the skin factors at the end of the acid treatment derived from analysis of the rate and pressure during the treatment were compared with skins obtained from post-treatment production. The study showed that the combination of these methods of evaluation provided additional information about the success of the treatments. Characteristic examples presented in the paper illustrate such behavior as effective stimulation, efficient diversion, acid over-treatment, and proper (or inappropriate) acid selection.
Coral Creek Field Study: A Comprehensive Assessment of the Potential of High-Pressure Air Injection in a Mature Waterflood Project
Authors: Glandt C. A. , Pieterson R. , Dombrowski A. , Balzarini M. A. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Shell has been producing from the Cedar Creek Anticline (CCA), in the Williston Basin, southeastern Montana, for more than 40 years. Presently, most fields are mature waterfloods with production rates declining between 3% and 8% per year. The producing rocks are low-permeability, non-fractured, porous carbonates that leave waterflood residual oil saturations in the range of 30% to 40%. In order to arrest decline and increase ultimate recovery, a tertiary technology, High-Pressure Air Injection (HPAI), has been considered.
Coral Creek Field in the CCA currently produces around 1300 stb/d of oil from the Red River Formation. Due to its size and its relatively low water-cut of 70%, Coral Creek was regarded as an ideal candidate to test HPAI. HPAI is being utilized successfully after primary depletion in other fields in the Williston Basin.1,2,3 However, the technical and economic feasibility of tertiary applications is yet to be demonstrated. A comprehensive field study was undertaken as a prerequisite of such an endeavor.
This study integrates all of the geological and production information accumulated during the life of the field, in order to assess the technical viability of tertiary HPAI. The main finding is that under the assumptions of the study, HPAI will not only arrest the production decline, but also double waterflood reserves and current rates in about 5 years.
Field Application of After-Closure Analysis of Fracture Calibration Tests
Authors: Talley G. R. , Swindell T. M. , Waters G. A. , Nolte K. G. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
This paper describes field examples of fracture optimization that are based on the after-closure pressure decline period following a proppant-free injection. The primary benefit from these applications is the determination of reservoir transmissibility that is central to specifying the fracture length and conductivity for optimizing field-development economics.
The transmissibility is obtained from the after-closure pseudo-radial flow period. In the examples this transmissibility is compared with that calculated from conventional well testing. In one example, the well-test derived fracture half length is compared to the optimized length predicted from a fracturing simulator. Simulated versus actual production results are also compared.
The after-fracture closure period of an unpropped fracture injection potentially contains the reservoir pseudo-linear flow and pseudo-radial flow periods. Analysis of the linear-flow period enhances the standard calibration analysis of the pre-closure period (i.e., mini-frac analysis). One enhancement is the potential determination of spurt loss that can not be obtained from the pre-closure decline because spurt loss ends as the fracture extension stops. Another enhancement is the reservoir behavior's perspective of closure time and fracture's length that permits validating the values of these parameters from the pre-closure analysis. This definition of length is obtained from combining the linear and radial flow analyses.
The field examples are for a moderate permeability, normally pressured, dry-gas Morrow sandstone reservoir located in Hemphill County of the Texas panhandle. The selected testing sequence, and synergy of information from independent pre-frac tests, are reviewed as well as operational and theoretical constraints. A logical application procedure is developed for general field use in similar environments.
Reservoir Management Using Production Data
Authors: Soeriawinata T. , Kelkar M. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
This paper presents a methodology to effectively use the production data to improve the performance of the existing water flood. Using simple statistical procedures and method of superposition (e.g., one producing well could be affected by several injection wells), the injection wells which are affecting the production of oil and water from individual producing wells are determined. The connection or the lack of connection between injection and producing wells based on the previous step can be utilized in optimizing water flood process and in modeling the reservoir. The method is tested in a synthetic water flood field and in a mature water flood field in West Texas.
Aircraft-Mounted Forward-Looking InfraRed Sensor System for Leak Detection, Spill Response, and Wildlife Imaging on the North Slope of Alaska
Authors: Pierre Bruce St. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
ARCO Alaska, Inc. (AAI) at the Kuparuk Oilfield on the North Slope of Alaska recently initiated the use of an airborne Forward-Looking InfraRed (FLIR) Sensor System to enhance environmental protection in the arctic. Oil flows from the ground into production pipelines with temperatures in excess of 100 degrees F. If a leak were to occur in a pipeline, between the outer pipe wall and the surrounding insulation, a FLIR should be able to detect the leak. The efficiency of the aircraft-mounted FLIR system allows for the entire Kuparuk field, with over 700 miles of pipeline, to be surveyed in less than three flight hours. Not only has the airborne FLIR unit proven its ability to be an effective tool in the surveying of pipelines for potential corrosion due to water-soaked insulation, but it is also very effective in imaging a spill site and returning pertinent information to an Incident Command Team for spill response. Finally, the FLIR systems have been used to image wildlife in their habitat when visual methods produce inconclusive results. Wildlife surveys of caribou and polar bears have been conducted using the aircraft FLIR systems at Kuparuk. The FLIR sensor system is an innovative technology proving to be a good tool to ensure pipeline integrity and enhance protection of a sensitive arctic environment.
Environmental Lessons Learned in Privatizing a Government Oil Field
Authors: Garrison E. Grant , Maillett Edward J. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
In February, 1998, as mandated by Congress, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) completed the U.S. Government's largest divestiture ever, the sale of the Naval Petroleum Reserves Number 1 (NPR-1) in Kern County, California to Occidental Petroleum for $3.65 billion dollars. Before that sale could take place, under the National Environmental Policy Act and the California Environmental Quality Act, DOE had to examine the environmental impacts of the privatization and assess their severity. NPR-1 is the seventh largest oil field in the U.S. It contains habitat critical to a number of endangered species, as well as National Historic Register eligible cultural resources. Thus, the transfer from government to private operation had the potential to significantly impact the environment.
The paper will summarize the methodology and conclusions of DOE's Environmental Impact Statement/Environmental Impact Report on the differences between government and private development of NPR-1, which was prepared for the government by ICF Kaiser's Consulting Group. The paper will also summarize the government's conclusions on the expected environmental impacts of the differences in future development. The paper will summarize the mitigation measures that the government and the new owner agreed to adopt in order to reduce the expected environmental impacts of privatization. Included in this summarization will be a discussion of the unique terms and conditions for the protection of threatened and endangered species at NPR-1 required to be undertaken by the new owner. Finally the paper will draw possible lessons learned from the environmental analysis that might have implications for future private oil and gas operations on or near government owned lands.