bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ultrasonic Instrumentation Principles
Authors: Lynnworth Lawrence C. 
Published: August 2008

AbstractUltrasonic principles are the basis for sensing solutions that work in many difficult applications. Early uses in the 1960s and 1970s did not always provide enough measurement performance to be practical in industrial processes. Today, system performance can be predicted by computer models and monitored with self‐testing diagnostics. Sophisticated constructions make use of microprocessor‐based electronic circuitry. Ultrasonic process control equipment is mature, robust, and metrologically acceptable, and is often the technology and product of choice that can be used in the harshest of environments.
Ultrasonic Instrumentation Design
Authors: Lynnworth Lawrence C. 
Published: August 2008

AbstractUltrasonic instrumentation design combines one or more electroacoustic transducers, means for making ultrasonic propagation and/or noise measurements, and means for interpreting such measurements so that the sought characteristic can be determined accurately, quickly, easily, and without significant interference from parameters other than the one of major interest. Ideally, one strives to make the measurement while disturbing the medium's boundaries or the medium itself as little as possible. Judicious choice of wave mode, frequency, coupling, path, and other parameters often leads to a satisfactory solution. But sometimes the medium or its enclosure, or other environmental restrictions, preclude obtaining a totally adequate solution. The present sensor and measurement examples are from industry (process control, NDT). Different, but sometimes analogous examples, may be found in the medical ultrasound literature. High‐power ultrasonics as used in cleaning, welding, and sonochemistry form a different part of ultrasonic instrumentation design and are beyond this section's scope.
Humans in the Real World
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Emphasizing the interrelation and interaction between humans and machines lays a firm foundation for proposing an overall model describing these aspects of measurement systems. It also allows an evaluation and comparison of the human sensing and machine sensing systems. A human and information machine model is proposed so that this crucial and central measurement link becomes clear. The two problems of measurement, namely direct and inferential measurement are described.
Substructure of Human–Machine Systems
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract

A boundary perspective of human–machine systems is described. It is shown that the main impact on these systems are resources, information, and contaminants or influence effects. This view is emphasized by a system model called an
information/energy tetrahedron
. Subsequently, it is shown that human–machine systems have a substructure consisting of a management system, a support system, a process system, and a measurement system.
Setting the System Boundaries
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
The ‘whole‐life‐whole‐system’ approach of the systems engineering method is used to propose a boundary perspective of measurement systems. Extrinsic and intrinsic boundaries are proposed to separate impacts from outside a measurement system from internally arising effects. The important subdivision of measurement technology is used as a topical context to illustrate the application of the boundary view of measurement systems. Finally, the influences on a real system are described.
Hierarchical Aspects of Measurement Systems
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
A measurement system can be considered as part of a systems hierarchy. Using a classification of the physical and life sciences allows the classification of measurement systems as one of the four information machines. The secondary functions of acquisition, communication, and distribution always supported by computation are described by functional features. Formal data measurement components in the form of analog, analog‐to‐digital, and digital elements are described and classified. A boundary view of the four information machines highlights the similarity between measuring, calculating, and communicating machines and the highlighting of the difference between them and the controlling machine.
Typical Measurement Systems Architectures
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
A generalized architecture of a measurement system is given. Since microcontrollers/microprocessors/computers are widely applied, a typical structure of a microprocessor‐based instrumentation system with the various possibilities at the data acquisition end of these systems is considered. The importance of measuring instrumentation is emphasized through the descriptions of the typical instrumentation structures used in systems in diverse applications such as process control systems, petroleum/gas process systems and supervisory control and data acquisition systems.
Principles of Sensor Science
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

AbstractThe contributory disciplines of sensor science are briefly outlined. It is shown how systems engineering with its tools of reticulation and recursion play a central role in sensor science. Classification in sensor science is emphasized as a primary tool in the analysis of sensor systems as information machines for measurement. Brief outlines of holistic design, maintenance engineering, and sensor modeling are provided. The distinction between parametric and nonparametric models is described. The relevance of materials science, knowledge engineering, and artificial intelligence are highlighted.
Structure and Energy in Sensor Systems
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract

This article first describes the application of the systems engineering boundary perspective to sensor systems, which provides the basis for explaining the terminology and definitions for sensors and transducers as well as their representation using the energy/signal notation. Classification of sensors by information and energy is explained together with various schemes of energy classification. Spatial modeling of transducers is introduced and described for two‐dimensional and three‐dimensional representations. The three‐dimensional space used is called the
transducer space
. The article concludes with a description of the sensor effect tetrahedron and its application to modulating and self‐supporting cross‐converting sensors. The tetrahedron spatial model includes in its scheme of description the possible energy forms of contaminating/interfering sources. It is an important extension of the other spatial methods of modeling sensors.
Fundamentals of the Stored Program Digital Computer
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
The distinction between data and information is emphasized in the module. A common basic architecture for stored program computers is given and explained through its main elements. These consist of the central processing unit, its instruction set, and its memory. Primary and secondary memory is described. The basis of the fetch‐and‐execute sequential operation is described. Macroinstructions and their formats are explained.
Internal Operation of the Microprocessor
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
The internal operation of microprocessors, which is fundamental to all stored program computers, is explained in this module. This operation is based upon FETCHING instructions from memory and EXECUTING them in a strictly timed sequential manner. Control state timing is described and illustrated using the Z80 op‐codes. Register‐to‐register transfer logic, which is the basis of the fetch/execute cycle, is considered in some detail using the notation now widely used in hardware description languages. Once again, the op‐codes of the Z80 processor are used to illustrate: (a) instruction fetch, (b) memory‐to‐register read, (c) write‐from‐a‐register, (d) arithmetic operations and (e) conditional microoperations.
External Operation of the Microprocessor
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
In this module, the two types of input and output for a microprocessor, together with their programming, are considered. This concerns the requirements and means for effective data transfer. Interrupt generation and handling, using special signals, which are central to proper management of these processes, are shown to be preferable to polled input/output. This is especially true for (i) unsynchronized input/output (ii) randomly occurring input/output and (iii) multiprocessing cases. The various program requirements for the different kinds of interrupt processes including interrupt masking are described. Overcoming the speed limitations associated with processor controlled transfers requires the use of the direct memory access method, which is described.
Memory Management in the Microprocessor
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Memory management, one of the most important aspects of computer organization, is described in this module. It is based upon the principles of overlay management as used in microprocessors running under MSDOS. For more complex systems, especially where large programs are involved, it is necessary to use more sophisticated memory management techniques, which apply a combination of hardware and software approaches. All relevant approaches are described in the module. This includes word block transfers from primary to secondary memory, software replacement algorithms, and segmented systems. All of the techniques are described with the aid of suitable diagrams.
Data Acceleration in Computers
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
To obtain the fastest operation from a given hardware it is useful to use some appropriate methods to accelerate data handling operations. Acceleration can be accomplished at the architectural level by using the methods described in the module. One of the most important techniques described uses cache memory to achieve acceleration because of its locality.
Operation of the cache is described together with memory fetch policies and the various cache mapping schemes.
Microcontroller Systems
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Single chip microprocessors are outlined so that microprocessor‐based data acquisition can be described in the module. It is then pointed out that microcontroller units contain all the functions of a microprocessor‐based data acquisition system on a single chip. The Motorola 68HC11A8, which is used as an example of an MCU, is described in some detail. The module continues by describing other special purpose digital processors including bit‐slice devices and elements. The AMD 2901 is used as the means of showing the typical structure of contemporary bit‐slice processors.
Local Area (
LANs
) and Wide Area Networks (
WANs
)
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
A basic description of local area networks is first given. Token passing and CSMA/CD approaches are introduced. Manufacturing automation protocol and ETHERNET are introduced. The two main standards, the IEEE 802.4 and the PROWAY are described and compared. Optical communication systems for use in LANs are described. Star, bus, and hub topologies are considered. Wide area networks are also introduced to show the outward use of local area networks.
Comparison of Analog and Digital Signal Handling
Authors: McGhee Joseph 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
In this article, analog and digital signal handling are compared. The comparison uses models of analog and digital signal propagation/transmission/storage. It is shown in the analog case that the system designer can do little to minimize the influence of noise or interference apart from the use of a conditioning filter at the output. By contrast, the digital case has increased complexity through the inclusion of sampling, quantization, conversion, and encoding at the channel input. Reconstruction of the signal at the receiving end also has a commensurate increase in complexity by the necessary inclusion of decoding, DAC, and filtering. Restoring noisy digital signals provides the concluding part of the article.
Optical Measuring Instruments
Authors: Sydenham Peter H. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Optical measuring instruments have been extensively used for making extremely precise and reliable measurements in many disciplines of science and technology. This article gives a brief description of basic types of such instruments. They are arbitrarily grouped under the names of the commonly used types, namely, refractometers, curvature measurement, autocollimators, focometers, microscopes, telescopes, projectors, spectrophotometers and miscellaneous optical instruments, opto‐medical instruments, and laser‐based instruments.
Fieldbus Systems
Authors: Eren Halit 
Published: August 2008

Abstract

Progress in digital control systems, advances in communication methods, and improvements in the functionality of modern sensors and controllers has resulted in development of sophisticated communication systems for automation, manufacturing, and the process industries. These industrial communication systems, called
fieldbuses
, contain hardware, software, and protocols for interconnecting field devices used in the process plant environment. The variety of systems offered is outlined.
Modeling with
Lab
VIEW
™
Authors: Tłaczała Wiesław 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Virtual instrumentation based on LabVIEW™ is used worldwide in industry, research, and education. It is widely adopted as a standard for data acquisition, instrument control software, and analysis software. LabVIEW as a tool for the virtual instruments building is presented. Also, some LabVIEW features, useful for the virtual instrumentation, like the VI customizing, data transfer inside and outside the VIs, the application–user communication, and the data flow principle, are discussed.
Large‐Scale Metrology
Authors: Kyle Stephen 
Published: August 2008

AbstractLarge‐scale Metrology is concerned with techniques for accurate, three‐dimensional measurement of manufactured objects, which have dimensions typically of a few meters to several 10s of meters. This article concentrates on the geometric methods and optical equipment, which constitute the major part of this field. Much of this technology has its origins in map making and is inherently portable, enabling the on‐site measurement of car body components, aircraft parts, and ship sections, all of which are mentioned.
Virtual Instrumentation in Physics
Authors: Tłaczała Wiesław 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Virtual instrumentation based on LabVIEW in performing real nuclear physics experiments is presented in this article as a case study. Basic features used for building applications, which simulate real‐world instruments operation or animate measuring systems execution, are presented. Some features used in the virtual instrumentation are discussed. Physics is a scientific discipline where this VI toolset has successfully been used to perform physics experiments, support teaching process in the physics laboratories for student training, and also as a tool in e‐learning.
Calibration Process
Authors: Eren Halit 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Calibration of instruments and processes is discussed, showing it provides consistency in readings and reduces errors, thus validating the measurements universally. Carefully designed sequential activities are discussed in detail to achieve good calibration results that comply with standards set by the relevant authorities. Trends in calibration are covered including electronic calibration, use of smart sensors, and calibrations made over the Internet.
Alcohols, Polyhydric
Authors: Werle Peter , Morawietz Marcus , Lundmark Stefan , Sörensen Kent , Karvinen Esko , Lehtonen Juha 
Published: August 2008

AbstractThe article contains sections titled:1.General Aspects2.Diols2.1.1,5‐Pentanediol2.2.1,4‐Butanediol2.3.1,3‐Propanediols2.3.1.2,2‐Dimethyl‐1,3‐propanediol (Neopentyl Glycol)2.3.2.Hydroxypivalic Acid Neopentyl Glycol Ester2.3.3.2‐Methyl‐2‐propyl‐1,3‐propanediol and 2‐Butyl‐2‐ethyl‐1,3‐propanediol2.3.3.1.2‐Methyl‐2‐propyl‐1,3‐propanediol2.3.3.2.2‐Butyl‐2‐ethyl‐1,3‐propanediol2.3.4.2‐sec‐Butyl‐2‐methyl‐1,3‐propanediol2.3.5.1,3‐Propanediol2.3.6.2‐Methyl‐1,3‐propanediol2.4.1,6‐Hexanediol2.5.Hexynediols2.5.1.3‐Hexyne‐2,5‐diol2.5.2.2,5‐Dimethyl‐3‐hexyne‐2,5‐diol2.6.1,10‐Decanediol2.7.1,12‐Dodecanediol2.8.2,2‐Bis(4‐hydroxycyclohexyl)propane2.9.1,4‐Bis(hydroxymethyl)cyclohexane2.10.Tricyclodecanedimethanol2.11.2,2,4‐Trimethyl‐1,3‐pentanediol2.12.Vicinal Diols by Hydroxylation of Olefins with Peracids2.12.1.1,2‐Pentanediol2.12.2.Other 1,2‐Diols2.12.2.1.2‐Ethyl‐1,3‐hexanediol2.12.2.2.2,4‐Diethyl‐1,5‐pentanediol3.Triols3.1.Trimethylolpropane3.2.Trimethylolethane4.Tetrols4.1.Ditrimethylolpropane4.2.Pentaerythritol5.Higher Polyols5.1.Dipentaerythritol5.2.Tripentaerythritol6.Toxicology
Nematicides
Authors: Hartwig Jürgen , Sommer Herbert , Müller Franz 
Published: August 2008

AbstractIn Chapter 1 Introduction the historical background of nematology and nematicides is briefly described, and the different nematodes are mentioned. Chapter 2 Plant‐Parasitic Nematodes covers the characteristic properties of plant‐parasitic nematodes, including classification, morphology, anatomy, life cycle, mode of parasitism, and damage caused to plants. Chapter 3 Nematode Management deals with nematode management by nonchemical and chemical measures. Nonchemical measures are the use of resistant plants, if available, cultivation practices, biological control, and hygiene measures. The chemical measures, i.e., the individual nematicides, are presented in Chapter 4 Individual Nematicides together with some physical properties, a brief description of their synthesis, the main uses, formulation types, trade names, and their stability in different environments. The mammalian and environmental toxicological properties of the nematicides are given in Chapter 5 Toxicology. The references (Chap. 6 References) list publications accessible in the public domain.The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Plant‐Parasitic Nematodes2.1.Characteristics of Plant‐Parasitic Nematodes2.2.Plant Damage3.Nematode Management3.1.Nonchemical Measures3.2.Chemical Measures4.Individual Nematicides4.1.Antibiotic Nematicides4.2.Carbamate Nematicides4.2.1.Oxime Carbamate Nematicides4.3.Organophosphorus Nematicides4.3.1.Organophosphate Nematicides4.3.2.Organothiophosphate nematicides4.4.Unclassified Nematicides5.Toxicology5.1.Antibiotic nematicides5.2.Carbamate Nematicides5.2.1.Oxime Carbamate Nematicides5.3.Organophosphorus Nematicides5.3.1.Organophosphate Nematicides5.3.2.Organothiophosphate nematicides5.4.Unclassified Nematicides6.References
Scale‐Up in Chemical Engineering
Authors: Zlokarnik Marko 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Dimensional Analysis

2.1.

The Fundamental Principle

2.2.

What Is a Dimension?

2.3.

What Is a Physical Quantity?

2.4.

Base and Derived Quantities, Dimensional Constants

2.5.

Dimensional Systems

2.6.

Dimensional Homogeneity of a Physical Content

2.7.

The Pi Theorem

3.

The Determination of a Pi Set by Matrix Transformation

3.1.

The Establishment of a Relevance List of a Problem

3.2.

Determination of the Characteristic Geometric Parameter

3.3.

Constructing and Solving of the Dimensional Matrix

3.4.

Determination of the Process Characteristics

4.

Fundamentals of the Theory of Models and Scale‐Up

4.1.

Theory of Models

4.2.

Model Experiments and Scale‐Up

5.

Further Procedures To Establish a Relevance List

5.1.

Consideration of the Acceleration Due to Gravity
g

5.2.

Introduction of Intermediate Quantities

5.3.

Scale‐up Procedure at Unavailability of Model Material Systems

5.4.

Partial Similarity

6.

Short Summary of the Essentials of the Dimensional Analysis and Scale‐Up

6.1.

Advantages of Dimensional Analysis

6.2.

Area of Applicability of Dimensional Analysis

6.3.

Experimental Methods for Scale‐Up

6.4.

Carrying Out Experiments under Change of Scales

7.

Treatment of Variable Physical Properties by Dimensional Analysis

7.1.

Dimensionless Representation of the Material Function
µ
(
T
)

7.2.

Standard Representation of Particle Strength σ of Different Materials in Dependence on Particle Diameter
d
p

7.3.

Pi Set for Variable Physical Properties

7.4.

Material Function in Non‐Newtonian Liquids

7.4.1.

Pseudoplastic Flow Behavior

7.4.2.

Viscoelastic Flow Behavior

7.5.

Pi Space in Processes with Non‐Newtonian Fluids

8.

Dimensional Analytical Treatment of Heat‐Transfer Processes

9.

Dimensional Analytical Treatment of Mass‐Transfer Processes

9.1.

Dimensional Analysis of Mass Transfer in the System G/L

9.2.

Dimensional Analysis of Mass Transfer in the System S/L
Analytical Voltammetry and Polarography
Authors: Henze Günter 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Techniques

2.1.

Direct Current Polarography

2.2.

Pulse Techniques

2.3.

Alternating Current Polarography

2.4.

Linear‐Sweep and Cyclic Voltammetry

2.5.

Chronopotentiometry

2.6.

Stripping Techniques

3.

Instrumentation

4.

Evaluation and Calculation

5.

Sample Preparation

6.

Supporting Electrolyte Solution

7.

Application to Inorganic and Organic TraceAnalysis
Chromatographic Reactors
Authors: Fricke Jörg , Schmidt‐Traub Henner , Schembecker Gerhard 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Chromatographic reactors integrate chemical reaction and chromatographic separation in one apparatus. This offers potential for process intensification, especially in the case of equilibrium reactions. Different types of discontinuous and continuous processes as well as modeling of chromatographic reactors are described. Synthesis and design of this processes is very much influenced and often restricted by the type of reaction and the operating window which is set by the individual operating conditions for chemical reaction, mass separation, and equipment design. Integrated chromatographic reactors should be considered if chromatography is the favored separation process for a conventional sequential process design. Preparative chromatographic reactors are known for liquid‐ and gas‐phase processes. Laboratory‐scale applications are described. Analytical chromatographic reactors are used to determine reaction rate constants and kinetics, and to screen chromatographic systems and operating conditions for preparative applications.

1.

Introduction

2.

Types of Chromatographic Reactors

3.

Modeling of Chromatographic Reactors

3.1.

Adsorption Isotherm and Reaction Kinetics

3.2.

Modeling the BCR

3.3.

Modeling Simulated Moving Bed Chromatographic Reactors

3.4.

Process control

4.

Synthesis of Preparative Chromatographic Reactors

4.1.

Process Principles

4.2.

Type of Reaction

5.

Design of Preparative Chromatographic Reactors

5.1.

Design of the Process

5.2.

Choice of Operating Conditions

6.

Preparative Chromatographic Reactors

6.1.

Applications of Gas Chromatographic Reactors

6.2.

Application of Liquid Chromatographic Reactors

7.

Analytical Chromatographic Reactors

7.1.

Determination of Rate Constants

7.2.

Enzymatic Reactions

7.3.

Characterization of the Stationary Phase

7.4.

Examination of Fast Equilibrium Reactions

7.5.

Examination of Solvent Effects
Quasicrystals
Authors: Maciá Enrique , Marie Dubois Jean‐ , Ann Thiel Patricia 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Structural Aspects

3.

Preparation of Quasicrystalline Phases

4.

Chemical Composition

5.

Electrical Conductivity

6.

Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity

7.

Mechanical and Surface Properties

8.

Potential Applications

8.1.

Composites

8.2.

Coatings

8.3.

Catalysis

8.4.

Other Applications

9.

Acknowledgement