bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Altered Siliceous Volcanics as a Source of Refractory Clay
Authors: Sand L. B. , Ames L. L. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractIn the intermountain states, a region deficient in kaolinite and alumina clays, there is an increasing demand for refractory clay. In this arid region residual kaolins are not developed in quantity from feldspathic intrusives. Glassy, siliceous extrusives alter commonly to mont-morillonite of the montmorillonite-beidellite series. Zeolites, principally analcime and heu-landite, often are alteration products. Under certain conditions kaolinite, halloysite, or saponite will form; several tuffaceous deposits were investigated in an attempt to determine these environmental conditions, especially the physico-chemical environment necessary to produce kaolin clay.Zeolites are developed where the pyroclastics are deposited in an alkaline lake; saponite is formed locally in this environment as a result of hot-spring activity. On river slopes and spurs the siliceous volcanics alter to kaolinite and montmorillonite; where associated with calcareous hot-spring activity in a fresh-water lake, halloysite results. Montmorillonite-beidellite develops where these special conditions do not obtain.The prospects of finding a residual kaolinite deposit developed from siliceous volcanics are not good. Hydrothermal alteration appears to be the only means by which a siliceous volcanic will be converted to a sizeable refractory clay deposit in this region.
Filtration Theory for Oil-Well Drilling Fluids
Authors: Oakes D. T. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractIn the oil industry it has been customary to describe water loss or filtration from benton-ite drilling fluids by adaptation of Darcy’s law to the filtration process. Thus, the rate of filtration varies directly with the differential pressure and permeability and inversely with the filtrate viscosity and the thickness of the deposited filter cake. Since the thickness of the filter cake is variable, however, it is necessary that the rate of deposition of the filter cake be related to the volume of filtrate. In establishing this relation certain workers have made questionable allowance for the water adsorbed on the bentonite particles with the result that the filtration equation is not valid in certain instances (Larsen, 1938; Rogers, 1953, p. 268).Other workers have indicated the significance of the adsorbed phase in their presentation of experimental techniques for relating the filter cake and the filtrate (Williams and Cannon, 1938; von Englehardt, 1954).The filtration relationship may be derived analytically by the simultaneous use of Darcy’s law and mass and volumetric balances on the filtration process. Such a derivation is here presented. The validity of the filtration relationship presented is experimentally confirmed using three groups of unlike systems—Wyoming bentonite suspensions, low-yield clay suspensions, and sodium carboxymethylcellulose suspensions—as well as four sets of clay filtration data from the literature.
High Temperature Phases in Montmorillonites
Authors: Kulbicki Georges 
Published: August 2006

AbstractThe formation of siliceous phases in montmorillonites at temperatures up to 1500°C has been studied by high temperature continuous x-ray diffraction techniques. Oriented clay aggregates on platinum slides are heated in a small platinum-wire resistor furnace placed on an x-ray spectrometer unit. The intensity of the main diffraction lines of each phase is noted versus the temperature. The nature and the temperature of formation of the different phases are closely related to the structure and composition of the sample. The important role of some cations in exchange position is emphasized.
A Discussion on the Origin of Clay Minerals in Sedimentary Rocks
Authors: Weaver Charles E. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractX-ray analyses of the clay minerals from thousands of sediments indicate that any of the major clay minerals can occur in abundance in any of the major depositional environments and there is no consistent coincidence between specific clay minerals and specific depositional environments. It is concluded that the great majority of clay minerals in sedimentary rocks are detrital in origin, strongly reflect the character of their source material, and are only slightly modified in their depositional environments.The most common process acting on the clay minerals in marine environments is cation adsorption. The modifications produced by this process are secondary but because of the overemphasis of names rather than processes, they have been considered fundamental changes and the process has been called diagenesis. From the geologist’s viewpoint, the basic clay mineral lattice, which is inherited from the source material, is the most significant parameter of the clay minerals and modifications caused by the adsorbed cations are secondary, derived parameters reflecting the character of the depositional environment. This concept of dualism is essential to the understanding of clay genesis, and the significance of the two parameters must be understood before a genetic classification can be constructed and before clays can be used for geologic interpretation.
Statistical Relationships of Minor Constituents of Some Nontronites
Authors: Kornfeld Joseph A. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractReplacement of alumina by ferric iron in the lattice structure features the nontronite member of the montmorillonite group. Chromium, in significant amounts, replaces ferric iron in the lattice structure of some nontronites.Effect of migration of clay minerals under colloidal suspension and the transfer of true solutions complicate correlations of the chemical composition. Moreover, many nontronites are secondary and occur in fracture zones associated with kaolinitic and halloysitic clay. A tendency of certain nontronites to form lathlike crystals is well known.Chemical composition of 15 selected nontronites from the United States of America, Germany, and Russia indicate a range of 30 to 60 percent SiO2, and a range of from 25 to 40 percent Fe2O3. Minor constituents are the oxides of magnesium, titanium, ferrous iron, and calcium, and the alkalis, potassium and sodium.Magnesium percentages found in nontronites are proportional to the value of sigma for octahedral coordination. Ferrous iron is proportional to titanium in montmorillonite, and a similar relationship is observed in the nontronites.A deficiency in alkalis typifies the composition of montmorillonite and this condition is likewise true in most nontronites. Potassium is limited to a narrow statistical range of between 0.5 to 0.6 ions of Al in tetrahedral coordination against an extreme deficiency of ferric iron and magnesium (combined) of less than 0.05 ion in octahedral coordination. Thus calcium occurs as the principal large cation and is present in nearly all the nontronites studied.
Clay Mineral Distribution in the Hiawatha Sandy Soils of Northern Wisconsin
Authors: Brown B. E. , Jackson M. L. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractMineralogical analyses were made of the day, silt, and sand fractions of the Podzols Hiawatha loamy sand and Hiawatha sand. The layer silicates show chemical weathering as a function of depth in both soils. A high charge dioctahedral montmorillonite was dominant in all fractions (−5µ) of the A2 horizon and its origin was attributed to weathering of an interstratified vermiculite-chlorite similar to that in the B2 horizon. The 2 to 0.2µ fraction of the Hiawatha loamy sand B2 horizon contains 14 percent chlorite and 18 percent vermiculite with no montmorillonite, and the Hiawatha loamy sand A2 horizon contains 33 percent montmorillonite with little interstratified chlorite-vermiculite. Quartz also showed a soil depth function in the fine silt. It is higher in amount in the A2 than the B2 horizon, attributable to its relative stability in the Podzol A2. Below the B2 it drops markedly in amount, attributable to a difference in silt deposition.The similarity of ratios of resistant heavy minerals (greater than 2.95 sp. gr.) in different horizons indicates uniform origin of the sand fractions of these soils. Light mineral contents in the sand fractions for all analyzed horizons are also similar. However, particle size data indicate silt and possible clay addition to both the A2 and B2 horizons.Depth functions in these soils are developed to a marked extent, apparently owing to (1) low amount of fine fraction originally present for weathering, (2) greater amount of water cycled through the A2 than the B2 horizon, (3) rapid and frequent cycling of available water owing to coarse texture, and possibly (4) effects of podzolization. The Omega, Ahmeek, and Iron River soils of northern Wisconsin also showed a similar though not so marked tendency to accumulate montmorillonite in the A2 horizon.
Clay Mineralogy of Recent Sediments from the Mississippi Sound Area
Authors: Milne I. H. , Shott W. L. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractRecent mud sediments of Mississippi Sound, Mobile Bay and contributory rivers contain a clay mineral assemblage composed essentially of kaolinite and montmorillonite. Illite is present as a minor component.The montmorillonite in these sediments appears to be at least partially complexed with organic material. This association is particularly evident in river and river mouth deposits and seems to be modified or partially destroyed in sea water. Organic material has been leached from river sediments with a sodium hydroxide solution and combined as a clay-organic complex with montmorillonite from Clay Spur, Wyoming.The clay mineralogy of sediments from Mobile Bay and areas outside of the barrier island chain is very similar to that of the river sediments. Within Mississippi Sound an apparent increase in the montmorillonite-illite content of the sediments relative to kaolinite from east to west is attributed to the invasion of mud from the Mississippi Delta into the western part of the Sound.Chemical analyses of these sediments along a section from fresh water to Mississippi Sound localities have shown a progressive increase in magnesium, potassium, and sodium, and a decrease in calcium.
A Kinetic Study of the Dehydroxylation of Kaolinite
Authors: Brindley G. W. , Nakahira M. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractWhen dehydroxylation of kaolinite powder is carried out in the usual way, the linear relations anticipated for first-order kinetics and for the Arrhenius plot of log k versus 1/T are satisfied only very approximately. Factors relating to the form of the specimen, (shape, size, compaction, container, etc.) are shown to be very important. A method is developed for obtaining data for a specimen in the form of an infinitely thin disc. The first-order kinetic relation and the Arrhenius relation are then linear, and the latter gives an activation energy of 65 K cal./mol. The dehydroxylation process is shown by x-ray analysis to proceed crystal by crystal and this leads to an interpretation of the first-order kinetics. The x-ray method is used to study the distribution of reacted and unreacted material throughout a disc of material. Although isothermal conditions are employed, large differences are found between the interior and exterior of a partially dehydroxylated disc. These effects are attributed to the influence of a water vapor atmosphere within the heated disc.
Experimental Structure Factor Curves of Montmorillonites
Authors: Jonas Edward C. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractDiffraction from oriented flakes of four montmorillonites that had been treated with an excess of four glycols was obtained. Peak areas for the 00l diffraction from each of the treated clays were plotted against sin θ/λ.It was assumed that the observed diffraction intensity for the complexes was equal to that of the clay plus or minus that of the organic part of the complex. By assuming also that the contribution from the organic part of the complex is the same for each clay at any one value of sin θ/λ, a systematic consideration of all the possible levels of contribution by the organic interlayer material could be made. At values of sin θ/λ where intensity data were closely spaced, it was found that only one of the possible levels of contribution by the organic interlayer material would allow a residual intensity (attributable to the clay) that fit on smooth curves.Curves of the diffraction intensity attributable to each of the clays resembled, in their gross features, the calculated structure factor curve of mica. Displacements of the nodes along the sin θ/λ axis and differences in loop heights are sufficient to make this experimental structure factor curve for each of the five clays quite distinctive.
Surface Areas of Clay Minerals as Derived from Measurements of Glycerol Retention
Authors: Diamond Sidney , Kinter Earl B. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractThe use of glycerol retention measurements to calculate surface areas of clay minerals is described. Assuming that the glycerol retained on external surfaces is monomolecular in thickness, and that both this layer and the monomolecular glycerol layers adsorbed on internal surfaces of montmorillonite, vermiculite, and halloysite are of the density of liquid glycerol, it is calculated that each percentage of glycerol retained corresponds to an area of 17.6 square meters per gram on external surfaces and 35.3 on internal surfaces. The corresponding figures for ethylene glycol retention under these conditions are 22.3 and 44.6, respectively. For nonexpanding clays, surface areas calculated from glycerol retention values agree well with published figures derived from Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (B.E.T.) gas adsorption measurements. For montmorillonites, surface areas agree reasonably well with published determinations based on B.E.T. treatment using polar adsorbates. Values of surface area are also presented for samples of vermiculite and endellite and for the nonexpanding clay minerals—illite, kaolinite, halloysite, and allophane.Calculations of the surface area as a function of particle size for montmorillonites of hypothetically uniform particle sizes show that montmorillonites dispersed into very thin flakes must have an appreciable external surface. The ratio of internal to total surface is shown to furnish an estimate of the thickness of the individual montmorillonite flakes. Glycerol retention data for a Wyoming bentonite saturated with a number of different cations are interpreted as indicating particle thicknesses varying from 3 unit cells (about 30A) for Na+ saturation to about 20 unit cells for saturation with a number of polyvalent cations.
Temperature Stabilities of Montmorillonite- and Vermiculite-Glycol Complexes
Authors: Bradley W. F. , Rowland R. A. , Weiss E. J. , Weaver C. E. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractStabilities of Mg-, Ca-, and Na-montmorillonite- and vermiculite-glycol complexes are compared by heating experiments with the oscillating-heating x-ray powder diffraction method. In the course of expulsion of glycol from the 17A two-layer glycol complexes of the Mg-, Ca-, and Na-montmorillonites, a 14A one-layer complex is encountered which is substantially the same as the 14A one-layer vermiculite-glycol complex. One-dimensional Fourier methods are utilized for analysis of interlayer liquid distributions.
X-Ray Study of the Structure of Sepiolite
Authors: Preisinger Anton 
Published: August 2006

AbstractSepiolite is a valid mineral with the following chemical formula: $8MgO\, \cdot \,12Si{O_2}\, \cdot \,n{H_2}O.$$Its unit cell characteristics are: $a\, = \,13.4{\AA};\,b\, = \,26.8{\AA};\,c\, = \,5.28{\AA};Z\, = \,2;\,D_{{2^h}}^6\, - \,P\frac{{{2_1}}}{n}\,\frac{2}{c}\,\frac{2}{n}.$They were determined on the sepiolite from Ampandrandava (Madagascar). Its structure was determined by means of the “trial and error” method and the observed and calculated intensities rendered a good agreement.The formula of the structure is: $\mathop 1\limits_\infty {[{H_2}O]_n} \cdot \mathop 1\limits_\infty \{ {(Mg,F{e^{3 + }},F{e^{2 + }},\,Al)_8}{({H_2}O)_4}{(O,OH)_4}[{(Si,Al)_{10}}{O_{30}}]\} \cdot n\, \leqslant \,8.$The mineral contains zeolitic, crystal- and constitution-water. A good agreement was achieved between the chemical, thermal, and morphological qualities and the x-ray data. The mineral remains stable up to about 350°C and begins to change into an “anhydride” above this temperature.The formula of the structure of sepiolite. “anhydride” is: $\mathop 1\limits_\infty \{ {(Mg,F{e^{3 + }},F{e^{2 + }},\,Al)_8}{(O,\,OH)_4}[{(Si,\,Al)_{10}}{O_{30}}]\}.$Its unit coll characteristics are: $a\, = \,10.9{\AA};\,b\, = \,23.3{\AA};\,c = 5.28{\AA};\,a \approx \,{90^ \circ };\,Z = \,2;\,C_{{2^h}}^5\, - \,P_n^{{2_1}}\,11.$The minerals xylotile, mountain wood and gunnbjarnite are isotypical with sepiolite.
Frequency Distribution of Clay Minerals in Major Great Soil Groups as Related to the Factors of Soil Formation
Authors: Jackson M. L. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractThe frequency distribution or relative abundance of minerals in soils varies with the five principal classes of factors that govern soil formation. The characteristics of the minerals of the parent material, the time factor, climatic factors, relief factors and biotic factors each can be shown to have important independent effects on clay mineralogy of soils under proper circumstances. The soil parent material exerts a control over the frequency distribution of minerals in soils by introduction of the clay minerals into the soil directly, by controlling the course of chemical weathering in the soil through the relative susceptibility of its minerals to weathering, by furnishing abundant divalent metallic cations, by impediment of drainage, or by acceleration of leaching when highly permeable. The time factor is conspicuous as long times give an advanced degree of weathering even in temperate climates. Climate is important, since highly weathered materials inevitably occur as a result of intense leaching in warm tropical and equatorial climates. Relief is important in concentrating leaching water and metallic cations, in affecting oxidation or reduction. The biotic factor affects minerals conspicuously where an A0 horizon develops and resulting cheluviation moves R2O3 out of the A2 horizon.Inherited minerals such as illite, quartz, feldspars, ferro-magnesian minerals, carbonates and gypsum are most abundant in clays of little-weathered parent materials and soils of the zonal Desert, Brown, Chestnut and Tundra soils as well as intrazonal Mountain groups and azonal Regosols and Lithosols. Secondary layer silicate minerals such as vermiculite, secondary chlorite, montmorillonite, kaolinite and halloysite are most abundant in clays of moderately weathered parent materials and soils of the zonal Chernozem, Prairie, Gray—Brown Podzolic, Podzol, Red—Yellow Podzolic, and Low Humic Latosol groups as well as intrazonal Planosol, Rendzina, Dark Magnesium soil, and Wiesenboden groups. Secondary sesquioxide minerals such as hematite, goethite, allophane, gibbsite and anatase and residual resistant primary minerals such as ilmenite and magnetite predominate in the more highly weathered parent materials and soils of the zonal Ferruginous Humic Latosols, Hydrol Humic Latosols, Latosolic Brown, and Ando soils and Laterites, as well as the intrazonal Tropical Savannah and Ground Water Podzol ortstein soils.
The Clay Petrology of Sediments
Authors: Weaver Charles E. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractStudies of the Recent indicate that, at the most, somewhat less than half the clay minerals are altered to any extent in a marine environment. Probably most of this alteration is in the form of cation adsorption or reconstitution of slightly weathered illites and chlorites to their original form. There appears to be little if any evidence that the detrital basic lattice is being altered to a measurable extent in Recent marine sediments. In the near-shore environments there is usually a coincidence of clay mineral suites and environments.A major change in the clay mineral composition of sedimentary rock occurs within the Mississippian. Illite is the dominant clay mineral of the pre-Upper Mississippian sediments. Post-Lower Mississippian clay suites are more variable in composition; illite becomes less abundant and montmorillonite and kaolinite more abundant. This change is best related to a change in regional tectonics. The clay minerals seem to have no preferred lithologie associations, although owing to epigenetie alterations porous sandstones commonly have different clay mineral suites from those of adjacent shales and carbonate rocks.In many instances clay mineral facies coincide with environmental facies. As the clay mineral criteria for distinguishing any given type environment are extremely variable, it is thought that segregation of clay mineral suites by sorting is usually more effective than by diagenesis.Expanded clay minerals appear to be partially contracted by the time they have been buried to 10,000–15,000 ft. It remains to be proved whether this is caused by chemical modification of the basic lattice with burial or if the detrital clay lattice has the inherent ability to contract, without chemical rearrangement, when buried to a sufficient depth.
Flow Properties of Dilute Montmorillonite Dispersions
Authors: Granquist W. T. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractA viacomotrio study of dilute montnioritlonite dispersions, using lor tho most part dilution-typo capillary viscometers supplemented by a falling-head capillary viscometer, has involved a determination of the concentration dependence of viscosity of such dispersions in both distilled and electrolyte-containing water. The resulta of the study have been interpreted in terms of a theory of incremental viscosity, and of the Solmlz—Rlaschke (1941) equation. Use of this equation yields good extrapolations to zero concentration for the determination of limiting viscosity number, and permits calculation of “interaction indices” which are considered, for reasons discussed in detail, to be a measure of paitiele-particle interaction. These indices are related to the cationie heat of hydration of the electrolyte used, and relationship is demonstrated between the yield stress of a 3 percent montmorillonite—eleetrolyte—water system and such interaction indices. The recent work of Paekter (1956, 1957) is discussed, and the relation of the results of this investigation to the data of van Olphen (1956, p. 204) is noted.
Further Observations on the Morphology of Chrysotile and Halloysite
Authors: Bates Thomas F. , Comer Joseph J. 
Published: August 2006

AbstractElectron microscope studies of chrysotile show that tubes are present in bulk specimens and that these tubes commonly have fuzzy, amorphous-looking material on both the inside and outside. Similar material is associated with synthetic chrysotile and has been noted previously in halloysite specimens. The existence of such material between and within the tubes, together with apparent irregularities in size, shape and packing of tubes, explains the apparent discrepancy between the measured density of bulk samples and the calculated density of a hypothetical sample consisting of close-packed, regular, hollow capillaries.Replicas of fractured surfaces of halloysite (2H2O) from various localities reveal that the particles occur as curved to flat laths commonly possessing “hexagonal” terminations and surface features indicative of a higher degree of crystallinity than tubes of halloysite (4H2O).It is suggested that a complete morphological series from plates through laths to tubes exists both in platy to fibrous serpentine and in kaolinite to halloysite (4H2O). In each series a number of structural varieties are to be expected between the morphologically distinct “end members.”