bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A map of Belfast for the engineering geologist
Authors: Bazley R. A. B. 
Published: November 2007

T
he geological map
should be consulted at an early stage in any project analysis, but in view of the limitations of the standard map we in the Geological Survey of Northern Ireland have felt the need to orientate the product more towards the requirements of the engineer. The first result, the Belfast Three-Inch-to-One-Mile (1:21120) Map—Engineering Edition—is scheduled for publication in 1970. The choice of scale was limited to that of the only suitable topographic base-map available, but as the base is reduced from the six-inch map the topographic detail allows sites to be precisely located. The topographic map is overprinted with a conventional coloured geological drift map, and the front of the sheet also bears a horizontal section. On the reverse side is a table of rock and soil characteristics, a brief account of the geology, a rock-head contour map of the city area and a selection of borehole records.

Although a geological map is, of necessity, always an interpretation and not strictly a record of fact, Belfast is a suitable area to attempt a new approach. Here a wealth of borehole and excavation evidence, and recent geological remapping of most of the area, make possible a higher degree of accuracy than is normally possible.
The main foundation engineering problem in the city of Belfast is the widespread occurrence of soft post-glacial Estuarine Clays which have a very low bearing strength. Isopachytes for these deposits are superimposed on the geological map, and show that thicknesses of over 15 m occur
Assessment of reservoir feasibility
Authors: Knill John Lawrence 
Published: November 2007

Summary
The value of geological information to an engineering project is at its greatest during the design phase and this situation is most clearly illustrated by the methods adopted in the location and design of reservoirs. The principles which determine watertightness are outlined and illustrated with regard to specific case histories. Attention is drawn to the differences between mass seepage through a reservoir flank and leakage through a defect in the rock structure over a more limited area. The methods which can be used to prevent or control groundwater flow are reviewed in relation to dam design and foundation geology. Apart from the question of watertightness, which arises in all cases of reservoir construction, the additional factors which determine reservoir feasibility, such as reservoir loading and seismic activity, and valley-side stability are examined. The geological information obtained early in project development and often at very limited cost may, therefore, be critical to fundamental engineering decisions which can influence the whole viability of the scheme.
Some aspects of reservoirs in chalk and acid volcanic rocks
Authors: Newbery J. 
Published: November 2007

This discussion deals with some aspects of geological defects arising in soluble rocks and volcanic terrain. As either of these settings would require an entire session to cover them at all adequately the remarks are limited to chalk and acid volcanic rocks.
As the principal speaker has said, it is common practice to relate reservoir feasibility to rock type and condition and, on this basis, chalk sites have in the past been avoided as a matter of principle. In the U.K. there are no reservoirs in chalk to my knowledge, though one site is currently being investigated at Great Bradley in East Anglia. Much of this site is mantled by a blanket of boulder clay in places over 100 ft thick—the reason for its selection in the first place. In Cyprus, however, two reservoirs have been completed in the last five years in chalk valleys without the benefit of low permeability blankets. The dams are Polemidhia, 147 ft high, completed in 1965 and Yermassoyia, height 136 ft completed in 1968 (Fig. 1). Currently several other sites are being investigated, including one on the largest river in the country, the Kouris River, for which the proposed height of dam is 300 ft. For reservoirs in chalk, the main geological defect is not the occurrence of large karstic voids, for caves are rare or absent, but the presence of fissures which have been widened by solution. Groundwater conditions at sites generally fall in the main speaker's category 3 i.e. both the water
Geology of motorways and the role of the Institute of Geological Sciences
Authors: Evans Wyndham Bowen 
Published: November 2007

Abstract

T
he
I
nstitute of
G
eological
S
ciences
is increasingly being asked to provide geological information along the lines of proposed motorways and major road improvements. It is rare, however, for such requests to be received before the line survey is completed, as was suggested in the then Ministry of Transport's Technical Memorandum T1/67. Consequently, advice tends to be limited to comment on likely difficulties along a route already established. This procedure works well in areas where geological sequences and structures are simple and consequently where geological factors are greatly outweighed by social factors. As motorways push into more difficult geological terrain, however, geological factors become increasingly more significant and an early approach to the Institute correspondingly more desirable.

It is general for the Institute to re-survey proposed road lines on request and bring older mapping up to modern standards. Moreover, collection of geological data in any regional study is necessarily selective and by up-dating the mapping with a specific project in mind, observations pertinent to that project can be made that might otherwise be considered too time-consuming to be justifiable, and the less obvious implications of the mapping can be clarified.
This sort of work can clearly be best done by the Institute with its pool of experienced field staff and its comprehensive back-up facilities. In contrast, many of the problems that arise during construction are essentially local ones and could be dealt with adequately by a site geologist using the Institute staff only where necessary. If geology is to be properly used at this stage some such arrangement must be made, for the field staff of the Institute is not large enough to deal with such matters on a general basis.

However close co-operation is between geologists and engineers, there is still a significant difference in approach between the two disciplines. The engineer requires quantification of rock properties so that he can calculate the effects of the interplay between his constructions and his site; the geologist doubts the validity of many such quantifications, at least in non-isotropic material intersected by a variety of differently inclined weakness planes, and would prefer to use an empirical approach, anticipating likely results by studying the history of comparable constructions in similar geological environments. To do this properly much more geological research is needed into the stability of natural slopes and established cuttings and embankments, whether or not these have histories of failure, and into devising with the engineer effective experiments on
in situ
rocks. In any such work the field staff of the Institute should be fully involved, so that the results obtained can help in making its primary route assessments more meaningful to the engineer.
Road Note 29: Revision
Authors: Thompson P. D. 
Published: November 2007

Mr P. D. Thompson of the Road Research Laboratory, Ministry of the Environment introduced the Third Edition of Road Note 29 (
Road Research Laboratory 1970
) and discussed the main design recommendations.

Road Note No. 29 was first published in 1960 to provide a guide to the structural design of roads carrying medium and heavy traffic. The 1965 revision widened the scope to include lightly trafficked roads, such as those used in housing estates. Otherwise only relatively minor changes were made to the earlier edition.
Since 1960 the annual expenditure on the construction of new roads has increased fourfold. This alone provides sufficient reason for a detailed re-examination of all the recommendations given in the last edition. The growth rate of commerical traffic on many of the roads recently built has proved to be more than the 4 per cent annum allowed for 10 years ago; this means that there are on some roads daily flows of commerical traffic already exceeding the 6000-8000 vehicles that the original drafting committee had in mind as a maximum after 20 years. The size of the commerical vehicles in use has also tended to increase, and this has resulted in a greater proportion of heavier axle loads.
The present revision was drawn up within the Ministry of Transport in close consultation with a Panel set up by the Laboratory's Research Committee on Design and Construction. The Panel included county surveyors and consulting engineers.
This note deals solely with the construction of new roads and not
The relation of soil structure to the engineering geology of clay soil
Authors: Barden Laing 
Published: November 2007

Summary
The microstructure of a number of undisturbed clays has been studied in the scanning electron microscope. These clays represent well known deposits from various parts of the world and can be classified under the following groupings: post-glacial marine clays, post-glacial brackish and freshwater clays, overconsolidated stiff fissured clays, and collapsing partly saturated soils. The object of the study is to relate the geological history of the soil to the observed engineering behaviour. It is seen that in general the most important factor governing microstructure is the chemical and physical environment obtaining during deposition, although the conditions resulting in flocculation and dispersion during natural sedimentation are not yet fully understood. Subsequent stress changes and weathering play an important role in modifying the microstructure, and particularly in developing macro-structural features such as fissures. In certain soils it is this macrostructure which dominates engineering behaviour in the mass; but in many cases such as sensitive clays and collapsing soil it is the microstructure which provides the important features.
Tunnels for roads and motorways
Authors: Wood Alan Marshall Muir 
Published: November 2007

Summary
Geology is an important determinant affecting the planning, design and construction of a road tunnel. A road tunnel has to satisfy certain geometrical criteria and the achievement of the best economic route for a tunnel may be a complex operation, where the related geology offers any considerable choice.
In this paper examples are given of the principal characteristics of three recent road tunnels in Britain, explaining the degree to which the wide variations in tunnelling cost depends upon the nature of the ground.
It has generally been assumed that, where topography so allows, a road may be set underground by cut-and-cover construction at less cost than in a bored tunnel. In ground particularly favourable for economic tunnelling this is no longer necessarily true on direct engineering costs and, in an urban setting, other indirect costs tend to favour the case for a bored tunnel. Reference is made to the pattern of variations of cost with depth below surface for each of these types of tunnel.
The site investigations for a tunnel should be designed to determine the properties of the ground relevant to the selection of tunnelling method and the estimation of constructional difficulties. A highly mechanised system of tunnelling is particularly sensitive to geological variation and calls for an appropriate effort to eliminate, within reasonable limits, the risk of encountering an insuperable or disproportionately costly difficulty.

The problem of tunnel design relates directly to the competence of the ground. The concept of a
competence factor
is introduced in this respect. In soft ground, a principal problem is one of the adequacy of immediate support. In somewhat more competent ground, the extent of the need for immediate support depends on the knowledge of the stress/strain characteristics of the ground. For competent rock, the main problem concerns the means for determining the behaviour of the ground en masse. The method of excavation is also a factor affecting the behaviour of the rock around a tunnel.

Over the last 15 years or so there has been considerable experience in the use of rock bolts and shotcrete in providing support to the rock as an alternative to more traditional methods. The behaviour of such expedients is discussed in relation to the nature of the rock and of its discontinuities.
In soft ground, surface settlement may be important in determining the scheme for an urban tunnel. Settlement is not only largely dependent on the system of tunnelling but also upon the use of special expedients in relation to tunnelling in poor ground.
Foundation problems of motorway construction
Authors: Rogers Samuel Harry 
Published: November 2007

Summary
In presenting a broad review of motorway foundation problems, the paper deals not only with bridges and other structural works but also with embankment and carriageway construction. The site investigation requirements are indicated and the design processes outlined. Reference is made to mining and the special difficulties encountered where motorways are located through the coalfields.
Illustrations of design and construction problems are given from various motorways in England and Wales.
Some observations on swallow holes and mines in the Chalk
Authors: West Graham , Dumbleton Michael John 
Published: November 2007

Summary
The paper records some observations on swallow holes and mines in the Chalk and their effects on road construction, drawing examples from recent motorway construction for the M4 and M40 in Berkshire and Buckinghamshire. The forms and modes of origin of swallow holes are discussed and it is shown that percolation of rainwater can dissolve enough chalk to account for the formation of the smaller examples. Besides ground survey, air photographs are effective for locating swallow holes having surface expression of some kind, but no method has so far been generally successful in detecting those that have no surface expression. The engineering significance of swallow holes is the necessity of securing carriageways and bridges against possible subsidence caused by them. Various methods that have been used are mentioned and it is suggested that in areas at risk the completed road should be kept under surveillance against the appearance of new swallow holes. The paper concludes with an account of the discovery and inspection of an old unrecorded mine in the Chalk and the engineering measures that were taken to deal with it.
The geotechnical characteristics of a spoil heap at Yorkshire Main Colliery
Authors: Taylor Roy Kenneth , Spears David Alan 
Published: November 2007

Summary
The physical and mechanical properties of 100 mm samples extracted from two boreholes through a spoil heap at Yorkshire Main Colliery are considered in order to determine whether or not degradation is taking place within the body of the heap. There is evidence that the aerial ropeway tip evolved in three phases and that the small variations in material properties are more readily attributable to these stages of development, rather than being a consequence of systematic degradation with the age of the spoil. Statistical treatment of consolidated-drained triaxial data and comparison with ‘fabricated’ samples (made up in the laboratory) of unweathered parental rock-types from underground imply that the shear strength of the tip samples is not changing with time. The zone of instability within which superficial movements can occur is considered to be of the same order as the depth of the erosional run-off channels, namely 3 m. Permeability tests, together with the chemistry of the groundwater show that there is restricted water movement through the body of the tip. The detailed nature of the investigations has facilitated certain preliminary conclusions to be drawn about the representability of samples.
The hydrological and electrical anisotropy of the Bunter Sandstssone of Northwest Lancashire
Authors: Barker Ronald David , Worthington Paul Francis 
Published: November 2007

Summary
Investigations of horizontally and vertically oriented specimens have indicated a distinct anisotropy of intergranular permeability and apparent formation resistivity factor, although true formation factor seems virtually isotropic. It is suggested that this is the result of a preferred orientation of conducting minerals. There is, therefore, a need for caution in quantitative electrical surveys for groundwater in these formations.
Weathered granite at the Turlough Hill pumped storage scheme, Co. Wicklow, Ireland
Authors: Kennan PÁdhraig S. 
Published: November 2007

Summary
Unsound weathered granite presented engineering problems during construction of the Turlough Hill Pumped Storage Scheme. Some geological properties of the rock are described and a mode of origin outlined. An empirical means of predicting, during reconnaissance investigations, potential occurrences of similar rock to considerable depths is suggested.
A Study of the strength, compressibility, and density trends within the chalk of South East England
Authors: Carter Paul G. , Mallard David J. 
Published: November 2007

Summary
The voids ratio, compressibility, and strength characteristics of intact chalk samples collected from exposures encountered along several traverses across the outcrop of the Chalk in South-east England are described. The results are shown to be related to the age of the Chalk from which the samples were collected, with the younger Upper Chalk samples having lower density and strength characteristics than samples collected from the older Lower Chalk. These relationships are shown to be uniform for the majority of the Chalk outcrop in South-east England, with the Norfolk area showing a marked disparity with the remainder of the outcrop.
Engineering geological mapping for civil engineering practice in the United Kingdom
Authors: Dearman William Robert , Fookes Peter George 
Published: November 2007

Summary
A brief review of past British practice in engineering geological mapping is given. The paper follows the recommendations given in the Report on the Preparation of Maps and Plans in Terms of Engineering Geology prepared by a Working Party of the Engineering Group of the Geological Society.
A major division is made into small-scale maps generalised in content and made for regional and planning purposes, and large-scale plans relatively detailed in content and made for specific engineering purposes. Examples from present practice are illustrated and discussed. These include engineering geological maps, and engineering geological plans made at the reconnaissance, site investigation and construction stages of a project. Geotechnical plans, presenting a single engineering design parameter or a combination of a limited number of parameters, are illustrated for both the reconnaissance and site investigation stages of actual engineering projects.
After considering research in engineering geological mapping, likely future trends and desirable developments are discussed. It is considered that increasing use will be made of (i) engineering geomorphological mapping at the reconnaissance stage of investigation; (ii) site investigation mapping as part of conventional site investigations; (iii) geotechnical plan mapping for specific investigations and designs; (iv) engineering geological maps and plans specifically for use in urban situations by planners concerned with urban development.
Debris flows originating from soil slips during rainstorms in Southern California
Authors: Campbell R. H. 
Published: November 2007

Debris flows generated during rainstorms present a greater risk of death and injury to southern California residents than all other kinds of slope failure combined. During the years 1962-1971, twenty-three people in the greater Los Angeles area died from being buried or struck by debris flows, all of which probably originated as soil slips. Soil slips and debris flows are recurring major natural geomorphological processes in the region.
Soil slips are reconstituted into debris flows when the initial movement (sliding failure) of slabs of soil and wedges of ravine fill causes remoulding of the saturated moving mass into viscous, debris-laden mud, which then flows down available drainage courses. This change of state results in a marked reduction in resistance to shear, permitting masses to accelerate down the same slopes on which, only moments earlier, the slabs of soil mantle had barely overcome the resistance to sliding. Many flows reach avalanche speeds and do not begin to deposit significant amounts of detritus until they reach lower gradients far from their sources. The deposits form steep ‘alluvial’ fans at the mouths of short, steep drainage basins tributary to broad valleys, and form debris trains in and along narrow trunk canyons below the mouths of short, steep tributaries.
The exceptional storm period of January 18th to 26th, 1969, was accompanied by thousands of soil slips and provided an unusual opportunity to determine the times of occurrence of numerous debris flows, establish their origin from soil slips, and compare the times of those events with rainfall records from an extensive network of continuously recording rain gauges and a sequential set of radar weather maps. An empirical association between soil slips and rainfall suggests that a 10 inch antecedent rainfall is required to bring most of the colluvial soil of the area to field capacity, and 0.25 inch-per-hour is the minimum rate at which surface infiltration exceeds subsoil drainage for most of the colluvial soils of the area so that pore pressures are raised in a zone above the less permeable parent materials. Soil moisture of this level also appears to be sufficient so that most of the colluvial soils of the area will become at least partly liquid when disturbed.