bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Potential Environmental Mining in Impact of Manganese-Nodule the Deep Sea
Authors: Malone T.C. , Garside C.C. , Roels O.S. , Paul A.Z. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
Deep-sea mining operations will result in the removal and redistribution of sediments and benthic organisms and, where airlift or hydraulic lift systems are employed, in the discharge of nutrient-rich, sediment-laden bottom water into the surface layer. The data prescribed here focus on two aspects of the environmental impact problem of manganese nodule mining: the establishment of baseline environmental conditions prior to dredging and the potential effects of the surface discharge of bottom water on phytoplankton populations.
Data on the chemical and biological oceanography of prospective manganese-nodule mining areas are extremely sparse. In general, benthic biomass is low, ranging between 0.01 and 0.05 gm/sq m. Phytoplankton productivity and standing crop in the photic zone are also low (less than 150 mg C/sq m/D and 30 mg cgla/sq m, respectively), probably due to slow rates of dissolved inorganic nitrogen flux into the photic zone above the thermocline.
The results of enrichment experiments conducted in a Mn-nodule area of the western North Atlantic indicate that the surface discharge of bottom water will stimulate phytoplankton productivity and may affect phytoplankton species composition. However, these changes will be small and primarily dependent on the rate at which the effluent is diluted by mixing with surface water. The greater the rate of dilution by mixing, the more rapid will be the phytoplankton growth response, but the smaller will be the actual yield per unit volume.

INTRODUCTION
The mining of ferromanganese deposits from the deep sea will affect benthic and pelagic environments depending, to a great extent, on the methods of retrieval and separation employed. Three mining systems have been proposed, each of which will remove different combinations of water sediment and nodules from the ocean floor. 45 The continuous-line bucket (CLB) system utilizes open-mesh metal dredge buckets to gather and retrieve nodules. The buckets are attached in series by a continuous loop of cable running from the mining vessel to the ocean floor. The system is designed to bring only nodules to the surface. The two remaining systems utilize a bottom collecting device for nodules and vertical transport through a pipe by hydraulic (HP) or airlift (ALP) pumping. Both of these systems will transport large quantities of bottom water and sediments to the surface, where they will be discharged.
The major environmental effects of these mining systems can be grouped into three categories:redistribution of bottom sediments on or near the bottom,redistribution or destruction of benthic organisms and their habitat andintroduction of sediments and/or associated bottom water at or near the surface. The major environmental effects of CLB mining will probably be confined to Categories 1 and 2, while both the HP and ALP systems will, following nodule separation, discharge nutrient rich, sediment-laden bottom water into the surface layer where it will probably remain.
American Petroleum Institude's Work on Oil Spill Prevention, Containment and Cleanup
Authors: Haxby L.P. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
Since 1968, API has supported an extensive research program directed toward improving the industry's capability of'preventing- oil spills and improving response and capability of oilspill cleanup should a spill occur. These efforts have ranged from studies that determined industry's current oil-spill response capability to new equipment demonstrations and basic research on fate and effect of spilled oil Emphasis has also been placed upon the generation of harbor cooperatives to provide firstline defense capability and implementation of studies and organization of insurance plans to provide coverage for the expensive costs involved in an oil-spill disaster.
More recently, API's efforts have concentrated on improvement of oil-spill recovery in high sea conditions. Full-scale sea trials have been conducted on several systems, concentrating most heavily on "new concept" methods for oil-spill recovery under these adverse conditions. 'The paper provides a report of the mostrecent trials of this type of equipment and includes our Ocean Design and Engineering, BF Corp., and Reynolds projects.
In addition, the status of some of our fate and effect work, such as that being conducted by Texas A&M U., U. of California, and Battelle Memorial Institute's Pacific Northwest Laboratory, is detailed.

TEXT
Since 1966, the major environmental effort at API has been directed by the Committee on Environmental Affairs (CEA). At present, CEA consists of representatives from some 25 API member companies - men chosen for their experience not only in environmental research, but also in medicine, refining, marketing, transportation, production and public affairs CEA formulates basic industry policy on conservation matters and sponsors a broad program of environmental research. The current annual budget for CEA research is approximately $3 million.
One of the major subcommittees within CEA is the subcommittee on Oil Spills Prevention and Cleanup. The Institute has been concerned with the problem of oil spills for many years. But it is fair to say that the need to develop the capability to deal with a massive oil spill, such as the Torrey Canyon spill, or with a well blowout as unusual as the one in Santa Barbara Channel, was not widely recognized until these two unprecedented incidents occurred. Since then (in response to other incidents, increased public attention, and new legal requirements) our capability has improved markedly.
API did recognize that there was a hazard of smaller oil spills in harbors and along waterways where the petroleum industry and others operate terminals. In addition to encouraging each company to have equipment and materials available to cope with small spills at their own facilities, API has (since 1967) urged its member companies to work together to form local cooperatives to contain and clean up oil spills whenever they occur. Like volunteer fire departments, these groups purchase and pool equipment and resources, establish a system of communications, and adopt emergency plans.
The Approaching Maturity of Deep Ocean-Mining The Pace Quickens
Authors: Rothstein Arnold J. , Kaufman Raymond J. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
Major advances by several independent efforts have taken place in the last few years to develop the nodule resource. A synopsis of this activity is presented. A summary and comparison of the available schedules and cost and investment estimates of several programs is presented. An analysis is made of the predicted achievements through the decade of the 1980's.
The world markets for the principal products from the nodules are scoped. The competitive production from today's sources are summarized and the impact on these sources of future ocean production is assessed.
The principal conclusions drawn are:There are up to ten prospective entrants to the deep ocean nodule mining race.A few are ready now to move rapidly to commercial production.The mine sites, mining equipment, processing plants, and markets are in-hand, and designed.Nevertheless, because of technical, commercial, and financial realities, in the late 1970's only a few units will come on-stream and, in the 1980's, less than ten units.Commercial success will not be realized by monopolizing world commodity markets but by competing with traditional sources and technologies in the world markets for a demand expanding at a pace well matched by the realities of this source of supply.

INTRODUCTION
About four years ago, there were many who predicted that the nodule' mining business was just a flash in the pan. At the other extreme, there were those who claimed that vast riches were to come from the deep ocean billions of dollars' of profit in a short while. There were others who claimed that land mining was a thing of the past and the future of all nickel, copper, and manganese mining was in the sea (1) (2) (3) (4). None of these extremes are true (5). Today there are very few who adhere to anyone of these extreme position.
The three or so companies that were sincerely active in the 1968-1969 time period continue to be active today. They have been joined by a half a dozen more companies representing interests in today's three principal Free World metal markets Japan, North America, and Europe.
There have been many publications in the past several years that identify the nodule resource sufficiently to permit anyone with the funding and know-how to start on a prospecting program that has a reasonable probability of success. Prototype mining equipments have been tested and larger sized equipments have been built and are getting ready for testing. Metal, ready for market, has been produced from the nodules and further scale-ups of several processes are in the works.
Dredging FeasibiIity of Low Value Iron Sands
Authors: Frazier D.M. , Ayer R.D. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
This study of mining low value iron ore sands in coastal Quebec indicated that economic viability was marginal considering present market values for iron. The depth and detail of the feasibility investigation, and the small margin of decision emphasizes the importance of the thoroughness of such investigations. The implications were that mining low grade ore by dredge can be competitive if total circumstances are favorable.

INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic dredging for placer minerals is certainly not new. Most operations employ equipment and techniques which are similar to those employed in land fill and harbor construction. However Similar, mining by dredge involves capital costs and risks which are unique to the extraction industries. Construction dredging is characterized by projects of short duration with relatively fixed costs and sales prices. The viability of mining by dredge involves not only the dredging function but beneficiation of the ore, transportation of the mineral to market, processing for the market, and marketing. The life of mining ventures is usually in excess of 20 years; labor and other operating costs normally escalate and the long term market value of the product is to some degree unpredictable.
There is a dearth of reliable published data on marine mining costs. Mining feasibility studies and actual field cost information are either proprietary or obscured with accounting procedures so that little of value can be gleaned by the researcher. The expanding interest in marine mining has generated some hypothetical studies. Unfortunately, these can be no more valid than the assumptions used, and frequently they have no relation to reality. If mining feasibility studies are to have authority each relevant fact must be individually examined and fitted appropriately into the cost picture. Generalities and areas of gross assumption must be eliminated.

PROJECT
Sidbec is a Montreal based steel manufacturing firm which is substantially financed by the Quebec Provincial Government. It had prepared a detailed study on the costs of mining low grade magnetite sands located on near shore and upland areas on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in Duval Township, Quebec. The investigation was terminated at the end of 1970. The 13% profitiability was less than had been previously estimated, capital costs were higher, and the in depth investigation of the deposit showed that the iron ore reserves were considerably less than had been indicated by previous studies.
It is believed that the costs determined, the depth of the investigation, and the mining and transportation systems evolved are of interest to the marine mining industry. Sidbec has graciously consented to the publication of detailed information developed by their study.
Dredging at Sea
Authors: Donkers J.M. , de Groot R. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
Dredging at sea can take many forms, determined by the purpose of the dredging job and the sea and weather conditions in the dredging area. The main problems are connected with the movement in waves and swells of the surface vessels supporting the dredging equipment. For a number of sea-dredging operations, satisfactory methods and equipment have been developed; other applications still are waiting for the economical solution. This paper describes some concepts that could lead to the development of both technically and economically feasible equipment.

SCOPE OF PAPER
Dredging can be defined as raising material from the bottom of a water-covered area to the surface and moving it over some horizontal distance. This simple definition covers a very wide range of activities, both with respect to the geographical place and ambient conditions in which a dredging operation can take place and with respect to the goal or purpose of the activity. Dredging jobs can be as simple and straightforward as making or deepening drainage canals in a flat landscape, or as tricky and hazardous as dredging for diamonds in the sea offshore the notorious Southwest African coast. They can range from a 50-cycle/hr operation to a multimillion Yd/annum venture.
It will be clear that no standard solution is available for such widely varying problems. It is safe to say that dredging is one of the most complex technologies of modern man and that dredge design and construction are among the most challenging jobs any engineer could possibly wish for.
The scope of this paper does not permit a comprehensive treatment of all problems that face the dredge designer and dredge operator, when a dredging operation at sea is contemplated. The authors, therefore, limit themselves to a discussion of' the principal applications and types of equipment, the areas where sea dredging is different from inland dredging, and possibilities to design for the additional difficulties.

WHY DREDGING AT SEA?
Let us first consider the reasons why people want to undertake the difficult task of dredging at sea. One good reason f'or dredging is the fact that the sea is not deep enough for our purposes. This is a frequent occurrence in this era of increasing world traffic of many commodities, transported in ships of ever increasing size. To provide access to ports, channels have to be deepened and the increased depth has to be maintained. A typical example of this type of dredging job is the creation of a tanker channel in the North Sea, running over a distance of' 40 miles from the port of Rotterdam and requiring the removal of many millions cuyd of soil.
Bioactive Substances from Marine Sources
Authors: Attaway David 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
The sea is a source of novel organic molecules of importance as bioactive agents in medicine, physiology, pharmacology and biochemistry. Groups of plants and animals which occur primarily or exclusively in marine waters probably contain new and unusual compounds and these groups have received little chemical study. Selected marine hormones, antibiotics, toxins, insecticides and novel organic molecules are reviewed.

INTRODUCTION
This limited review treats of some bioactive substances from marine sources; it is not comprehensive. Many drugs now in use occur naturally or are modeled after natural substances. Gosselin (1) found that almost half of all new prescriptions contained a drug of natural origin. Most of these drugs were discovered in terrestiral organisms (2) and many more are synthetics based on natural terrestrial molecules, such as the following examples in Der Marderosian's comprehensive review of marine pharmaceuticals (3): vasoconstricting drugs based on ephedrine, local anesthetics based on cocaine, and analgesics based on opium derivatives.
Because four-fifths of Earth's animal life lives in or on the water (4) as does a significant portion of the planet's plant life, and because the organic chemistry of few marine organisms has been studied, an unexploited natural resource of organic molecules may await development. There are several phyla and major groups of organisms which occur only or primarily in the marine environment. For example--red and brown algae, zooxanthellae, sponges, echinoderms, molluscs, tunicates, anthozoans, and brachiopods. Included in these groups are kelp, starfish, clams, brittle stars, sea cucumbers, sea squirts, sea whips, and corals. The chemical composition of these groups certainly differ from those of terrestrial organisms, yet less than 1% of marine animals have been examined for biological activity and of these, thousands are known or thought to contain toxic compounds (5). Schwimmer and Schwimmer (6) give hundreds of references to toxic properties of marine and fresh water algae. Toxins, venoms, and poisons are substances which can cause deleterious physiological changes in man and other animals, but when administered in proper dosage, may act as beneficial drugs. Poisonous and venomous marine organisms, therefore, offer logical starting points for finding marine pharmaceuticals and yet less than six have been evaluated to the point of determining their chemical and pharmacological properties (5). Most species of poisonous fishes and a large proportion of other poisonous animals are found in the coral-reef belt. This is perhaps the major reason why Hoffman La-Roche, a Swiss-based drug firm, is establishing a laboratory in Australia for the biochemical study of organisms of the Great Barrier Reef.
The belief that exclusively icthyophagus peoples were free of disease but short lived is reported in F. Adam's translation (7) of The Seven Books of Paulus Aegineta and may indicate the unknowing use of marine drugs in antiquity.
Platform Riser Repair and Protection
Authors: Maciceke Larry V. , Keprta Don F. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
Risers on offshore structures are exposed to both corrosion and mechanical damage. Atlantic Richfield Company has developed a technique of riser replacement and protection that minimizes the cost of repair and the frequency of corrosion problems.
Replacement of the risers by use of a hydraulic couple for underwater connections worked successfully and considerable savings were realized when compared to the alternate method of flowline pick-up, surface welding and resetting of the line.
The new risers were neoprene coated for corrosion protection. Neoprene has proven to be an excellent splash zone coating. Epoxy was used to coat field joints and repair coatings. The epoxy which cures in air or water is easily applied and effective in corrosion protection.

DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
Atlantic Richfield Company operates an oil and gas field (primarily gas) about seven miles off the coast of Texas in the High Island Area. The water depth is approximately 40 feet. Production is gathered from 18 individual caisson well structures and processed through two platform complexes. Submarine flowlines, 3 1/2" diameter 5000 psi working pressure, transfer the (1500-4500 psi) gas and oil from the caisson well completions to the platform production facilities. The flowlines are buried to a depth of 6 feet and protected by sacrificial aluminum anodes. There are 60 risers connecting the flowlines from the wellheads to the platform production manifolds and all the risers were originally welded to the flowlines. In the initial construction of the field facilities, the first 40 risers were coated with an extruded plastic (polypropylene) having a thickness of 35 mils. The other 20 risers were protected by a 250 mil thickness of neoprene. Deterioration of one of the polypropylene coated risers required a replacement of this well's riser and a study into the cause of the problem.
Laboratory analysis of the riser confirmed that the problem was a result of corrosion following the breakdown of the polypropylene coating and not the result of a metallurgical defect. Inspection of the remaining plastic coated risers indicated corrosion and coating damage on several risers. The decision has made to replace these risers to insure there would be no danger to the environment and to minimize the possibility of deferred production. The neoprene coated risers were in excellent condition with only minor corrosion occurring at the field joint above the neoprene.

SPLASH ZONE CORROSION
In tests begun in 1946 at the Francis L. LaQue Corrosion Laboratory of International Nickel at Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina, the greatest rate of metal loss occurs just above the mean high tide (16 mils per year).1 The rate of metal loss is far less in permanently submerged areas and in the atmosphere.
HydroWeld Underwater Welding Process
Authors: Mohr Harvey O. , Kluttz Marvin O. , White Bill E. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
A new underwater welding process has been under continuous development since 1968. It permits the welder/diver to work in-the-wet while the actual welding is performed in a dry gaseous environment using a specially-developed portable miniature habitat. The actual welding, done by a metal-inert-gas (MIG) process, consistently produces API 1104 Code welds in all welding positions in a large range of steel types and grades. Successful welds have been made to depths of 95 feet possible applications include new construction and repair of virtually any steel subsea structure with surface-quality welding. It is believed that the process will be adaptable to aluminum and any other weldable material.

INTRODUCTION

Early Welding Developments
Welding underwater has been done with varying degrees of success from the beginning of the arc welding process. The achievement of quality underwater welds has always been hampered by the quenching effect of the water on the heat-affected zone and the deposited weld metal. Prior commercial attempts, as well as those used by the various navies of the world,1 have attempted to remove this unfavorable quenching effect by using a stick electrode with a special coating that generates a gas bubble around the arc as illustrated in Figure 1.
Additional efforts to achieve quality welds have been made with the MIG process generating a large free bubble around the arc for the same purpose. All such attempts with both processes have, until recently, produced a marginal weld which rarely approached acceptable standards.
This is attributed to such factors as the size of the bubble which, being too small, allowed a rapid quench. With increasing water depths, the size of the bubble is compressed further, with still more unfavorable results. In unfavorable welding positions, the free bubble becomes even more difficult to control.
These and similar factors lead to welds with an uneven deposit of weld metal containing entrapped gas and/or slag material. The quenched metal in the heat-affected zone becomes too brittle resulting in an inferior weld.

Recent Welding Developments

Stick Electrode
A recent process which was the subject of a previous paper2 has been commercially introduced in this country and used in some locations overseas. This process is thought to use a stick electrode with a special coating to give a larger, more controllable, free bubble. A similar process currently under development in England has been used on at least one commercial job. Although little has been published about the technical aspects of this process, it is believed to represent the best efforts with an optimum coating on the rod combined with rigorous and continuous training of the welder/diver to an acceptable weld under many conditions. It is known that special must be used with each different type of metal. Further, inferior results have been reported when welding high carbon, high strength steels.