bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hyperspectral Imaging for Upstream and Downstream Operations
Authors: Prelat A. E. , Wieser J. D. , Gazzani R. O. , Re Kuhl G. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Hyperspectral remote sensing involves the collection of reflected and emitted solar energy from the earth's surface in a large number of bands or channels. Typically, this wavelength range extends from the ultraviolet (UV) through the visible (VIS), infrared (IR) and microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Since all exposed ground materials have a characteristic spectral response or "signature" to the incident radiation, hyperspectral imaging allows for more precise identification and evaluation of the targeted land cover.
Alto Technology Resources has developed an airborne hyperspectral imaging spectrometer that circumvents many of the problems associated with current sensors. This state-of-the-art scanner collects data in a very large number (&gt;200) of channels throughout the UV, VIS and IR portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, taking special advantage of the thermal IR and an integrated synthetic aperture radar (SAR). This provides unparalleled spectral resolution and interpretation capabilities. All spectrometer band centers and bandwidths are selected for specific applications and the spectral data are fully calibrated. The system control uses an on-board workstation to provide real-time data monitoring and georeferencing. The imaging spectrometer is mounted on a fully stabilized platform. The recording system is flexible and expandable.
The Alto hyperspectral sensor has been successfully tested and used in several missions involving upstream and downstream operations. This paper briefly discusses the fundamentals of the various types of remote sensing and presents examples of the application of hyperspectral imaging in hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation operations. Among the upstream examples to be discussed include identification of structural traps and outcrop lithology and onshore and offshore oil seep detection. In downstream operations, it has been used to monitor an underground pipeline for hydrocarbon leaks, perform environmental assessments at refineries, pipelines and oilfields, monitor a remediation site and assist in pipeline routing.
Government and the Mineral Industries: Rationalizing the Relationship
Authors: Eads George C. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Any significant shortages that this Nation will face during the next quarter century — and probably for generations thereafter — will not be caused by finite limits on the quantity of resources within the earth's crusts or by our slowly growing dependence on overseas mineral sources but by short-run shocks that produce shifts in demand or supply large and abrupt enough to exceed the immediate adjustment capabilities of the materials-producing and materials using industries. While certain of these abrupt shifts lie outside human control, a surprisingly high proportion of them are likely to be related either directly or indirectly to the actions of governments our own included. Government policies have come to exert a major if not a dominant influence over key industry decisions at each stage of the materials cycle. It is critical that the Government take steps to improve its understanding of how its policies impact on industry so its influence policies impact on industry so its influence can be exerted in a constructive rather than a disruptive manner. The recommendations made by the National Commission on Supplies and Shortages are designed to help bring about such an improvement
There is a well known story about how to tell an optimist from a pessimist. Take a quart jar and put a pint of water into it. When shown this combination, the pessimist will remark, "Too bad, it's half pessimist will remark, "Too bad, it's half empty." The optimist will say, "oh good, it's half full."
Press coverage relating to our Commission's report has generally put us into the "oh good, it's half full" category. "World Resources Will Last, U.S. Panel Says," was the page l headline in the Los Angeles Times the day our report was released. "Resources Aren't Running Out, Report Says," was the headline on the January 16 Detroit News story describing our report.
I don't like to be the one responsible for throwing water on this sense of euphoria, but I do think it is important to put our findings and recommendations into proper perspective. This is what I hope to do today.
The National Commission on Supplies and Shortages was created in the wake of the first widespread period of commodity shortages since the Korean War.
An Examination of the Concept of Coverage in the Evaluation of Financing in the Extractive Industries
Authors: Andrews Horace , Everitt John W. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The cost of projects in the extractive industries has soared in recent years. At the same time companies are asking commercial banks to finance more of the total costs of the projects. Banks have been obliged to recognize projects. Banks have been obliged to recognize project financing as a special discipline and project financing as a special discipline and to augment their staff and use new techniques to analyze risk.
Lenders and equity owners evaluate project risks from different vantage points. project risks from different vantage points. This paper explores these differences by focusing on the concept of coverage as used by banks in evaluating risk. Coverage analysis is contrasted with rate of return analysis used by companies.
The general areas of risk in project financing are enumerated and several of these are discussed. Finally, this paper deals with the level of coverage that is acceptable to banks and why it is difficult to quantity. Coverage is a reference point from which a lender may make a judgment about a project's ability to service debt.
One of the most important economic restraints on the mineral industry is the ability to finance future capital requirements. We would like to focus our discussion on the nature of the financing needs and the process of evaluating financing proposals.

For a Perspective
The Bank has seen a change in the financing needs of natural resource companies. During the post war period up until the mid 1960's a large portion of the western world's mining capacity was financed by corporate entities. Although these mining projects were large rarely was a single project so large that it could damage a corporation's credit standing if it were not successful. Internally generated funds - that is, cash flow from operations - provided the major portion of the financing requirements. To the extent that there were external borrowings, they were predominantly for short-term working capital predominantly for short-term working capital needs.

Today's Financing Challenge
Today things are quite different in the extractive industries. The future capital requirements are huge. In 1974 Morgan Guaranty roughly estimated the capital required to develop the capacity needed to meet demand for the remainder of this century for a group of selected minerals. We projected that cumulative requirements could be as high as $750 billion for the western world, excluding capital needed to replace existing capacity. Perhaps more challenging for the mining companies than the aggregate investment is the fact that today individual projects are larger and more complex.
Downhole Upgrading Athabasca Tar Sand Bitumen Using THAI – SARA Analysis
Authors: Xia T. X. , Greaves M. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Downhole upgrading of virgin Athabasca Tar Sand bitumen has been investigatede in a series of 3-D experiments using THAI - ‘Toe-to-Heel Air Injection'. The process uses direct line drive, or a staggered arrangement of horizontal producer wells; in combination with either horizontal or vertical wells for gas injection (HIHP or VI2HP). The 3-D tests involved THAI as a primary process, steam injection aslo as a primary method using a new steam flood process, THSF (Toe-to-Heel steamflood), and THAI on a secondary recovery mode, post-THSF. Except for THSF, very high oil recoveries were achieved: THAI primary: 80% OOIP, THSF: 23% OOIP and THAI secondary: 66.7% OOIP. The low THSF recovery is attributed to the low steam temperature, because of the low cell opersting pressure. Very significant upgrading of the Athabasca bitumen occurred during the air injection tests for the majority of the experimental period. The API gravity of the produced oil increased by 8 API points and the viscosity decreased to 50 to 1000 mPa.s, compared with the original bitumen viscosity of 1,000,000 mPa.s. There was also a substantial decrease in sulphur, nitrogen and heavy metals content of the produced oil. The quality of the in-situ upgraded oil was investigated using SARA analysis (Saturates, Aromatics, Resins, Asphaltenes). This revealed that there was a dramatic increase in the saturates content of the produced oil, up to 62% to 72%, compared with 15.5% for the original bitumen.
Application of 2,000 Hydraulic Horsepower to Rotary Drilling
Authors: Watson Ralph A. , Sullins R.S. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Increases in pump hydraulic horsepower from 500 to over 1,500 have, with adequate bit weights, resulted in penetration rate improvements exceeding 100 per cent in drilling 12–1/4 and 8–5/8-in. holes in south Louisiana.
Indications are that further increases in drilling rates may be effected with pump output horsepower increased to 2,000. However, improved methods of generating cuttings are needed to take full advantage of the continuing trend of increasing available mud pump horsepower. For proper power utilization during deep drilling, operating surface pressures of 5,000 psi should accompany development of 2,000 pump horsepower. Drill pipe diameter should not be less than 5 in.
Although hydraulic horsepower increases benefit penetration rates with weighted muds as well as with muds of normal weight, loss of returns, more prevalent with heavier muds, may necessitate reduction in circulating rates and horsepower in some instances.

Introduction
During recent years drilling rates generally have been improved by the combination of increased bit weights and hydraulic horsepower used. Whilehard West Texas drilling, the benefits have been obtained from great increases in bit weight with lesser emphasis on more hydraulic horsepower, as formations become more drillable greater hydraulic horsepower increases are necessary to reap the improvements possible with increased bit weights.
Formations penetrated in South Louisiana are predominantly of soft material and can be drilled rapidly. In these formations, bit weights which can be carried are usually limited by the ability of the hydraulic system to keep the bottom of the hole and the bit clean and to remove bit cuttings from the hole. Although in the past, drilling rates with low hydraulic horsepower appeared to be adequate; recent experiments with greatly increased mud pump horsepower have shown that with adequate bit weight, penetration rates increase markedly.
To date increases in pump hydraulic horsepower from 500 to values approaching 1,600 have made possible penetration rate improvements exceeding 100 per cent in South Louisiana drilling in normal pressure areas. indications are that further increases in drilling rates may be effected with even greater hydraulic horsepower provided it can be properly utilized.

Discussion
As this paper is composed of [1] the theoretical application of 2,000 hydraulic horsepower to rotary drilling and [2] the actual field experiences in utilization of 1,500 and smaller hydraulic horsepower, the discussion has been divided in two parts.
Evaluation Of Gas Injection In The Fyzabad Syncline Field
Authors: Ramkissoon Martin B. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Partial maintenance of reservoir pressure through gas injection has been successful in the FS/LC/ 438/III Reservoir in the Gyzabad Syncline Field. This paper discusses the actual and predicted performances of paper discusses the actual and predicted performances of the reservoir.
The Fyzabad Syncline Field is one of the few cases of hydrocarbon accumulation in a Syncline. The reservoir is a sandstone matrix with highly variable characteristics. It is located at 7200 ft., subsea, and consists of four distinct sand beds the uppermost being the most extensive and comprises the gas cap.
Rapid decline from the initial reservoir pressure of 4915 psig coupled with the availability of produced gas, resulted in a gas injection program being undertaken to partially maintain reservoir pressure. On initiation of partially maintain reservoir pressure. On initiation of injection, the reservoir pressure had fallen to 2080 psia with a recovery of 27.4% of the original oil in place. Present reservoir pressure is 900 psia with a corresponding Present reservoir pressure is 900 psia with a corresponding recovery of 38.97% of the original oil in place.
Downhole Blowout Preventer
Authors: Andersen A. , Sivertsen A. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
A downhole blowout preventer (DHBOP) for improved well control while drilling has been developed and tested. The tool is not meant to replace the traditional BOP, but to be an additional barrier when the mud is out of control. The tool is located in the bottom hole assembly. The wellbore can be sealed off in case of an influx or lost circulation. Mud of adequate density is circulated through the drillstring and into the annulus just above the downhole seal until wanted wellbore pressure is achieved. The field test has demonstrated the functions of the tool, but also identified needs for improvements. Tool modifications may also introduce additional functions like multi-operational circulation port, drillstring choke and test plug for traditional BOPs.
The Effects of Petroelum Production Operations on the Environment In Trinidad
Authors: Jaggernauth Deonarine D. J. , Seeram Basdeo 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Trinidad is unique in its natural resources. Since the discovery of the first oil well, on land, in 1857 the country has seen an emergence of land operations in the petroleum industry. Drilling operations from 1902 to present continue to impact on the environment, but the adverse effects have been surpassed by production operations. Wells remain on production for many years and while initially they presented no threat to the environment, maintaining integrity of aging infrastructure is an increasing challenge. Leaks from wellheads, leaks from pipelines, and overflows at gathering stations, among others have contributed negatively on the terrestrial environment.
Petrotrin, a state owned company in Trinidad, which has several production operations throughout the south of the country, has inherited production operations and their liabilities from predecessor companies. Over the past few years and continuing into the future, a new approach has been taken in which a "win-win" situation has emerged and will continue to emerge. For example, in the area of wellhead and pipeline leaks, which have effluents from which weathered in the environment, rendering them chronically polluted sites, bioremediation is employed. To avoid leaks from corrosion, a preventative maintenance is in place. The basal sediments are being recovered from tanks and taken to a designated site for treatment and remediation. Case studies show the effect of a proper environmental management system on the current infrastructure and installations and the necessary steps being taken to prevent any adverse effect that production operations may have on the terrestrial environment.
An Integrated Safety and Enviroment Information System
Authors: Pereira Azevedo Miguel Francisco , Constantino Roberto , Maida Fernando 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
This paper presents the development criteria and implementation steps of a Corporate System of Information on Safety and Environment ("Sistema Corporativo de Informações de Segurança e Meio Ambiente" - SISIN) implemented in PETROBRAS-Petróleo Brasileiro S.A as a strategic management tool. The Systran in reference involves some 40 units, including main offices and operating units, encompassing a universe of 35,000 (May/2001) employees of the Company, almost 60,000 Contracted employees and totals 70,000 records approximately in the period from 1985 to 2001 (May), including records of accidents resulting in personal injuries and records of incidents.
The engineering adopted for the development of the data bank employed the concepts recommended in the ISO-9000 series Quality rules, with reference to a wider application of the definition of "non conformity". The criteria set forth in the Brazilian Standard of Accident Recordings NBR-14.280, issued by the Brazilian Technical Standards Association ("Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas"-ABNT) were also taken into consideration, as well as the international rules on which the charts included in the Systran were based.
The purpose of this paper is to evidence the managerial importance of an Information Systran of such dimensions, since the basic assumptions adopted for its development, such as the processing speed of data input, data availability in real time, concepts and national and international indicators were employed and are strategically necessary within a globalization scenario, in which information quality and productivity are increasingly needed elements, as well as fundamental factors of corporate survival.
Visualisation of Oil Recovery by Water Alternating Gas (WAG) Injection Using High Pressure Micromodels - Oil-Wet & Mixed-Wet Systems
Authors: Sohrabi M. , Tehrani D. H. , Danesh A. , Henderson G. D. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
In reservoirs that have been waterflooded or gas injected, it is still possible to recover a significant amount of the remaining oil by water-alternating-gas (WAG) injection. WAG injection has been successfully implemented in some waterflooded reservoirs. However, the physical processes underlying the complex three-phase flow in WAG have not been well understood.
A series of WAG experiments has been conducted, using high-pressure glass micromodels, with high quality images of the oil recovery processes being video recorded. The experiments were performed using water-wet, oil-wet and mixed-wet micromodels. The authors presented the results of the experiments of water-wet models in SPE ATC&E 2000 (SPE 63000)1. This paper presents experimental results of oil-wet and mixed-wet models and demonstrates the difference in flow mechanisms of the WAG process under different wettability conditions.
Pore level fluid flow and distribution were studied and fluid saturations at different stages of the experiments were measured. The results showed that oil recovery was higher for WAG injection than for water or gas injection alone, under any of the wetting conditions. It was also observed that WAG recovery was higher for strongly oil-wet or mixed-wet models than for strongly water-wet one. Experimental results on water-wet models had highlighted the importance of corner filament flow of water in oil recovery process, with the initial water flood residual oil being trapped in the majority of pore space mainly surrounded by layers of water, and not in only large pores. The successive WAG cycles redistributed the fluids, creating fresh pathways for gas to enter the pores occupied by oil, hence, some of the oil which otherwise would not have been mobile under either gas or water injection alone was mobilised and produced. In a strongly oil-wet micromodel the flow resembled a piston type of displacement. The residual oil was only the amount staying in form of films on the pore surface, the filaments in the corners and some trapped in patches of pores surrounded by small throats. During gas injection following water injection, gas was observed to avoid entering most of the water-filled pores and preferentially invaded oil-filled pores. This is due to a much lower value of gas/oil interfacial tension than oil/water IFT. The mixed-wet model contained pores of varying degrees of wettability; from strongly water-wet and pores of intermediate wettability to strongly oil-wet pores. The displacement process in the mixed-wet model was a combination of those observed in the two extreme wettability conditions.
Field Performance of Propellant / Perforating Technologies to Enhance Placement of Proppant on High Risk Sand-Control Completions
Authors: Folse Kent C. , Dupont Richard L. , Coats Catherine G. , Nasse David B. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The combined use of propellants and perforating for production enhancement is not new to the petroleum industry, especially for natural completions in competent formations. When used together, the propellant is shaped in the form of a cylindrical sleeve that is positioned over a typical scalloped perforating carrier to combine the perforating and stimulation processes into one step. The perforating event is performed in either an under-balanced or balanced condition, followed immediately with the extreme over-balance or rapid-gas pulse generated from the propellant burn. This technique provides an effective method to ensure that all perforations are sufficiently broken down with the fracturing to accept either produced or injected fluids.
This paper will review a new application for the combined propellant / perforating technique that has been successfully used in unconsolidated formations in the Gulf of Mexico. The propellant / perforating technique was used to enhance the placement of proppant during frac-and-pack treatments while perforating in a balanced condition. The propellant / perforating technique was used on several formation types; i.e., long intervals, highly deviated, and highly laminated with extreme permeability contrasts, that would traditionally be deemed as high risk for proper sand placement. The propellant sleeves are positioned across the lower quality portions of the intervals with low permeability and resistivity to ensure that the perforations performed in these intervals are broken down to accept fracturing fluids and proppant during the fracturing treatment consistent with the entire treated interval.
Two case histories from a major gulf-of-Mexico operator will be presented and will discuss the steps that led this operator to use this propellant/perforating technique to overcome sand placement problems (screenouts).
In the case histories presented, it will be shown that that this technique is effective in both underbalanced and overbalanced perforating situations. With the trend in the industry to reduce cycle time, the elimination of the underbalance/surge process to ensure clean perforations and all the associated rig time in obtaining control of the well following the surge are seen as opportunities for rig-time savings. It has now been proven that combining propellant/perforating in a balanced scenario can also offer cost efficiency and safety when used as a near wellbore clean up tool for pre-frac preparation.