bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Polystyrene and Styrene Copolymers
Authors: Maul Jürgen , Frushour Bruce G. , Kontoff Jeffrey R. , Eichenauer Herbert , Ott Karl‐Heinz , Schade Christian 
Published: August 2007

AbstractThe article contains sections titled:1.Polystyrene1.1.Introduction1.2.Production1.2.1.Bulk Polymerization1.2.2.Suspension Polymerization1.3.Properties1.3.1.Chemical Properties1.3.2.Physical and Processing Properties1.4.Processing and Uses1.5.Quality Specifications1.6.Storage and Transportation1.7.Recycling1.8.Environmental Aspects2.Styrene – Acrylonitrile (SAN) Copolymers2.1.Production2.2.Properties2.3.Processing2.4.Uses and Economic Aspects2.5.Blending of SAN3.Barrier Resins4.Other Copolymers4.1.α‐Methylstyrene – Acrylonitrile Copolymers4.2.Styrene – Methyl Methacrylate Copolymers4.3.Styrene – Maleic Anhydride Copolymers4.4.Styrene – Maleimide Copolymers4.5.Styrene – Acrylate Copolymers5.Acrylonitrile – Butadiene – Styrene (ABS) Polymers5.1.Definition and Structure5.1.1.Historical Aspects5.1.2.Structural Principles5.1.3.Synthesis of the Two‐Phase Structure5.1.4.Properties of the Resin Matrix5.2.Structure – Property Relationships5.3.Production of ABS Polymers5.3.1.ABS Production by Emulsion Polymerization5.3.2.Production of the Matrix Copolymer5.3.3.ABS Production by Bulk Polymerization5.3.4.Process Combinations5.3.5.Other Processes5.3.6.Additives5.4.Quality Assurance and Standardization5.5.Properties5.6.Special Product Modifications5.7.Legal Aspects5.8.Storage and Transportation5.9.Uses5.10.Economic Aspects5.11.Recycling5.12.ABS‐Analogous Systems5.12.1.ASA, AES, and ACS Polymers5.12.2.MBS and MABS Polymers5.13.ABS Blends
Optical and Laser Scanning Technology
Authors: Beiser Leo 
Published: August 2007

Abstract
This article consolidates optical and laser scanning technology and its utilization. The dominant scanning devices and techniques are appraised, including the polygon and holographic scanners, galvanometer and resonant scanners, fast steering mirrors, acousto‐optic and electro‐optic deflectors, and new agile beam steering methods. Also addressed are their application, classification, architecture, symmetry factors, image rotation, duty cycle, scanned resolution, optical power transfer, and cross‐scan error reduction.
Two complementary fields are presented: (Active) Laser Scanning and (Passive) Remote Sensing. While scanning devices may appear interchangeable, significant distinctions relate to the filling of their optical apertures and the use of spectrally dispersive optics. Laser scanning, having a controlled intensity distribution, projects moving illumination on very small portions of an area with functionally coherent radiation, allowing the use of diffractive optics. In contrast, remote sensing transfers spectrally broad radiation scattered from a distant object field, imaged and collected through a scanning aperture that directs the sampled radiation to a fixed detector. The scanner, intimately associated with its objective lens, is developed as oriented within a conjugate optical imaging system. Active laser radiation is thereby transferred selectively to its image. In passive sensing, ray directions are reversed, representing the conjugate transfer of radiation from remote object points back to the detector.
Astronomical Telescopes and Instrumentation
Authors: Fried Josef W. 
Published: August 2007

Abstract
Optical and mechanical designs of ground‐based astronomical telescopes for the visible region are reviewed, including special‐purpose telescopes and planned new designs for very large telescopes. The efforts to increase the angular resolution by adaptive optics are described. An overview is given of the instrumentation that is attached to telescopes to analyze and register the light collected by the telescope.
Spectroscopy, Atomic
Authors: Bonin Keith , Happer William 
Published: August 2007

AbstractAtomic spectroscopy is the study of the interaction of atoms with electromagnetic radiation of various wavelengths (or frequencies). Its fundamental use has been as an aid to understanding the structure of atoms, but atomic spectroscopy has expanded to include many diverse applications such as monitoring trace impurities in steel mills and determining the elemental composition of stars.The structure and energy levels of an atom are determined by the interactions between the positively charged nucleus and the surrounding, negatively charged electrons (and the interactions between the electrons themselves). The Coulomb potential dominates all other terms in the Hamiltonian of an atom. The spin–orbit interaction is next in importance and it can be quite large for atoms of high atomic number Z. Smaller terms in the Hamiltonian include the hyperfine interaction and the isotopic shifts due to nuclear mass differences of atoms with the same atomic number Z.The simplest atoms (ions) are those with one electron whose energy levels and wavefunctions can be calculated analytically. The most widespread and useful model for many‐electron atoms assumes that the electrons move independently of each other in a central, self‐consistent potential, which represents the mean Coulomb energy of an electron due to the attraction of the nucleus and the repulsion of the other electrons. Residual Coulomb interactions between the electrons and other interactions neglected in the single‐particle model are accounted for with perturbation theory to provide estimates for the energy levels of the atoms. Selection rules on the allowed changes of atomic quantum numbers predict which pairs of levels can give rise to strong emission or absorption of light.A typical spectroscopic measurement requires a light source, some optics for transporting the light, an atom source in the case of absorption spectroscopy, a spectroscopic instrument, and a detector. Some common light sources in spectroscopy are lamps, discharges, flames, lasers, and natural sources such as the sun and the stars. Atoms for absorption spectroscopy can be provided by cells, flames, furnaces, and various types of atomic beams. The most common spectroscopic instruments are prism and grating spectrometers, Fabry–Perot interferometers, and light filters. In addition to the human eye, the most widely used detectors are thermal detectors, wherein thetotal incident energyof the absorbed light causes an increase in the thermal motion of electrons in the material; and photon detectors, wherein thenumber of incident photons(and not their total energy) determines the size of the detector's response. Thermal detectors discussed here include thermocouples, bolometers, and pyroelectric detectors. Common photon detectors are photomultiplier tubes, channeltrons, photodiodes, and charge‐coupled device (CCD) arrays.
Biomedical Imaging Techniques
Authors: Hendee William R. 
Published: August 2007

AbstractBiomedical images are used extensively for noninvasive exploration of the internal anatomy, physiology, and metabolism of patients suffering from virtually every disease and injury known to humankind. These images are a prototypical example of “high‐tech” medicine and are produced in many different ways, from receipt of X rays transmitted through the patient to detection of radio‐frequency signals emitted from tissues subjected to intense magnetic fields. In the past three decades, major advances in medical imaging have occurred, including X‐ray and emission‐computed tomography, real‐time, gray‐scale and Doppler ultrasound imaging, computer and digital projection radiography, and magnetic resonance imaging. Several additional imaging techniques are under exploration, including laser optical imaging, electrical impedance tomography, infrared and microwave thermography, acoustothermometry, and electrical and magnetic source imaging. Whether these or a completely new imaging technique may emerge as a significant imaging modality remains to be seen. In the meantime, additional applications of existing medical imaging methods continue to be identified, such as the use of functional magnetic resonance and emission‐computed tomography for planning and monitoring radiation treatments for cancer.
Display Technology
Authors: Theis Dietmar 
Published: August 2007

Abstract
Displays are the visual interface between human and electronically generated signals. Since the advent of the cathode ray tube, many other technical solutions for displays have been investigated and optimized to specific user requirements. This article attempts to structure the complexity of display categories and is focused on technology, that is, the engineering and material science aspects of electronic display devices. The fundamental technical features of cathode ray tubes (CRTs) are outlined. The larger part of the article, however, deals with flat‐panel technologies that have been developed to overcome two of the major drawbacks of CRTs, bulkiness and high weight. Flat panel displays are distinguished as either light‐generating or (external) light‐modulating devices. In the first group, the underlying basic technologies are light generation from gas discharge, cathodoluminescence, and electroluminescence. The exploitation of gas discharge for display purposes has led to the flat, direct‐view large‐area plasma displays. Cathodoluminescence—light generation through electron impact on phosphors—is used in CRT and flat‐panel devices such as vacuum fluorescence displays and field‐emission displays. Electroluminescence is the light emission caused by the action of electronic fields in solid inorganic or organic material. In the group of light‐modulating devices, the dominating technology is based on the unique optical properties of liquid crystal material. In conjunction with additional enabling thin films (e.g., orientation layers and polarizers), these devices are used in reflective, transmissive, or transflective modes. For high performance, they rely on a matrix of active switches associated with each pixel. Other technologies in the light‐modulating group make use of a variety of microparticles, which could give way to the eventual realization of electronic paper. The article ends with a short survey on projection display technologies.
Electrodynamics
Authors: Jackson J. David 
Published: August 2007

Abstract
The classical theory of electromagnetism is surveyed, with some emphasis on optics‐related topics. A brief historical introduction and summary is followed by a compilation of units and conventions in Sect. 2. Section 3 presents the Maxwell equations in differential and integral form. Section 4 treats the macroscopic Maxwell equations, constitutive relations, and the boundary conditions on these field variables at an interface between two different media. It also treats the simple dielectric and magnetic properties of matter. The causal nature of the response of matter to applied fields leads to the useful Kramers–Kronig dispersion relations, which can be generalized to nonlinear susceptibilities. Sections 5 and 6 are devoted to electromagnetic energy, its flow and conservation, and also to electromagnetic momentum. Section 7 concerns harmonic sources and their radiation fields. Section 8 is devoted to the properties of plane waves—transversality, phase and group velocities, linear and circular polarization, Stokes parameters, and the Fresnel formulas for reflection and refraction at an interface. Section 9 treats the theory of diffraction, first through the scalar theory of Kirchhoff and its improvements, and then with an example of a vector theory. Finally, Sect. 10 summarizes special relativity and shows how Maxwell's theory can be expressed as a covariant theory of electrodynamics.
Electron Diffraction
Authors: Cowley John M. 
Published: August 2007

AbstractThe diffraction of high‐voltage electrons (with energies of a few hundred keV) by small particles or thin films of solids shows many interesting analogies with diffraction phenomena for visible light and X rays. The electron wavelengths are about one hundred times smaller than the interatomic distances so that electrons show mostly forward scattering. The strong interaction with matter makes the scattering from single atoms detectable, and multiple scattering effects are common. In conjunction with electron microscopy, electron diffraction allows a detailed study of matter at the atomic level. Electron‐diffraction structure analysis, analogous to X‐ray crystallography, and studies of defects or local structural variations, may be applied to small particles or crystalline regions having dimensions in the nanometer range. High‐precision studies on electron distributions in bonds in small crystals are also possible. Many determinations have been made of the structures of the surface layers on crystals, and the diffraction by gases has added greatly to the knowledge of molecular structure.
Electro‐optic Devices
Authors: Maldonado Theresa A. 
Published: August 2007

AbstractElectro‐optic devices can be designed to modulate various properties of a light wave, including phase, polarization, amplitude, frequency, and even its direction of propagation. Research over the years has focused on developing materials and complementary device geometries that together can yield desirable device performance for a large number of applications. This chapter provides an overview of the fundamental modes of operation for devices that alter the optical properties of materials in a controlled way for achieving light modulation. A mathematical treatment of light propagation in anisotropic and electro‐optically active media is presented to enable the device designer to quantify the modulation of light as well as the effects of slight misalignments of the structure on polarization and energy flow. Various classes of materials investigated for electro‐optic devices are presented; these include inorganic crystals, organic crystals, liquid crystals, semiconductors, and dye‐doped polymers. Possible device geometries include bulk, integrated optical waveguides, and optical fibers. In addition, performance criteria are defined, and a wide range of applications for these devices are summarized.
Electrophotographic Copying and Printing (Xerography)
Authors: Hays Dan A. , Ossman Kenneth R. 
Published: August 2007

Abstract
In the electrophotographic process for copying and printing documents, the image content controls the amount of light that selectively discharges a uniformly charged photoreceptor material. The electrostatic image is developed with a charged, pigmented powder that is transferred and bonded to paper with heat and pressure. Over the years, a variety of optical devices and systems have been used as electrophotographic technology has evolved to higher levels of performance and image quality. The earlier copiers utilized a light source and lens optical system to project the document image onto the charged photoreceptor. The imagers for copying use either optics with moving components or flash exposure systems. Electrophotographic printers do not use direct optical imaging but use a digital stream from an external source to generate a printed document. These printers were enabled by advances in digital electronics and light sources that exposed the photoreceptor with a scanning laser beam modulated by digital signals. Alternatively, many electrophotographic printers in recent years utilize a Light Emitting Diode (LED) array and optical lens array to imagewise expose the photoreceptor. An electrophotographic printer combined with an image input scanner becomes a digital copier that provides image editing, multiple copies from a single document scan, and digital image processing for high‐quality color documents. The advances in imaging devices over the last half century have played an important role in the current achievement of high‐quality color electrophotographic documents.
Fiber Optics
Authors: Nakahara Tsuneo , Tanaka Shigeru , Nishimura Masayuki 
Published: August 2007

AbstractThe optical fiber is one of the most important key technologies that support the current information technology (IT) era. Optical fibers are now widely used not only as an excellent transmission medium for optical communication but also as optical functional devices, such as optical amplifiers. Both optical fibers and their manufacturing technologies have evolved dramatically toward higher performance and improved productivity. Their applications have also been expanded from optical communication to a variety of fields, such as optical sensors. This article reviews various aspects of optical fibers: structures & materials, fabrication techniques, optical characteristics & reliability, and applications.
Fourier and Other Transform Methods
Authors: Bracewell Ronald N. 
Published: August 2007

AbstractThe Fourier transform is a basic tool for optical diffraction, interferometry, sky mapping, laser resonance, tomography, and other fields. Chemical analysis using Fourier transform spectroscopy and optical signal processing are traditional one‐dimensional applications, while in fiber‐optic transmission and optical analogue computing, the fractional Fourier transform is a new tool. Applications of other transforms (Abel, Hankel, Hartley, Radon) are also described. Mathematical definitions and properties are tabulated for reference.
Imaging Detectors
Authors: Blouke Morley M. 
Published: August 2007

AbstractCharge‐coupled devices (CCDs) were first introduced in 1970 with the demonstration of an eight‐bit linear shift register. The concept of charge coupling was novel in the integrated circuit arena in that information was represented by discrete charge packets, which were manipulated in the device and, only at the output, converted to a voltage that could be measured. By operating in the charge domain, the charge‐coupled device is a true integrated circuit; it is impossible to make such a device from a collection of discrete components.The serious development of Active Pixel Sensors began in the early 1990s, though their heritage hails from work done in the 1960s. Active pixel sensors get their name from the nature of the structure that makes up the pixel: a charge collection site and readout circuitry are provided within each pixel.This article provides an overview of charge‐coupled devices and active pixel sensors, their design, structure, operation, and performance.
Interferometry
Authors: Hariharan Parameswaran , Creath Katherine 
Published: August 2007

Abstract
This article reviews the field of interferometry. It begins by outlining the fundamentals of two‐beam and multiple‐beam interference. The rest of the article discusses the applications of interferometry for measurement of length, optical testing, fringe analysis, interference microscopy, interferometric sensors, interference spectroscopy, nonlinear interferometers, interferometric imaging, space‐time and gravitation, holographic interferometry, Moiré techniques, and speckle interferometry. Each section provides a referenced (and cross‐referenced) overview of the application area.
Lasers, ExtremeUVand SoftX‐ray
Authors: Nilsen Joseph 
Published: August 2007

AbstractTwo decades ago, very large sources such as the building size ICF lasers were used as the energy sources to drive the first X‐ray lasers. Tremendous progress has been made over the last two decades to produce tabletop, high‐repetition rate X‐ray lasers that can be used as tools for applications. With the use of high‐reflectivity multilayer mirrors, many of the standard optical techniques such as interferometry can be extended to the soft X‐ray regime between wavelengths of 10 and 50 nm. The dominant X‐ray laser schemes are the monopole collisional excitation lasers either driven by chirped pulse amplification (CPA) laser systems or capillary discharge. The CPA systems drive lasing in neon‐like or nickel‐like ions, typically in the 10‐ to 30‐nm range, while the capillary system is currently limited to driving neon‐like ions at a longer wavelength near 50 nm. Most researchers use nickel‐like ion lasers near 14 nm because they are well matched to the Mo:Si multilayer mirrors, which have peak reflectivity near 13 nm, and are an essential component of applications such as X‐ray laser interferometry.
Linear Optics
Authors: Dorsel Andreas 
Published: August 2007

AbstractThis article gives a condensed overview of the key areas of linear optics, addressing fundamental aspects of light propagation and their application. After first principles like the speed of light and the laws of reflection and refraction, as well as the Fresnel formulas for transmission and reflection, total internal reflection, and linear absorption, geometric optics is briefly covered with the basic descriptions of imaging using simple mirrors and lenses. As examples of simple optical instruments, the single‐lens eye, the magnifier and microscope, as well as astronomical and terrestrial telescopes are included. Subsequently, phase‐dependent phenomena like interference and diffraction are described, including examples of a few basic cases that can be used to address more complex cases. Anisotropic media and polarization effects are covered next, including brief notes on electro‐optic, magneto‐optic, and acousto‐optic effects. Finally, examples of recent developments are described as an outlook to contemporary optics work.
Magneto‐optical Devices
Authors: Castera Jean Paul , Suzuki Takao 
Published: August 2007

AbstractThe history of magneto‐optical effects is first introduced. Then the types of magneto‐optical effects are described, which include the varieties of the interactions of electromagnetic waves with magnetization or spins in solids. The physical origin of the magneto‐optical effects is phenomenologically discussed. Both magnetic circular/linear birefringence and dichroism, and Void and Cotton–Mouton effects are discussed. Then, some representatives of magneto‐optical materials of transmission (Faraday effect) and reflection (Kerr) types are described. Finally, the applications of magneto‐optical effects are presented, which include the isolators, circulators, modulators, deflectors, magneto‐optical imaging, field sensors, magneto‐optical sensors, and magneto‐optical recording and microwave waveguides. In particular, a recent development of magneto‐optical recording is summarized, which highlights the various novel methods of increasing recording density.
Optical Communications
Authors: Kogelnik Herwig 
Published: August 2007

AbstractThis article discusses the fundamentals of optical fiber transmission technology and its basic building blocks. It aims to explain the principal characteristics of optical fibers, such as chromatic dispersion, of optical‐fiber amplifiers, including the noise they generate, and of semiconductor lasers. Also included is a discussion of optical receivers and their sensitivities, of nonlinear phenomena in optical‐fibers, of solitons, and of various transmission network architectures such as passive optical networks (PONs).
Optical Fabrication
Authors: Yi Allen Y. 
Published: August 2007

Abstract
Traditional optical fabrication processes utilize abrasive grinding, lapping to shape the glass optics and polishing to achieve an optical surface finish. The introduction of numerical control technology has resulted in higher productivity and better quality for glass optical fabrication. For medium‐ to high‐volume production, injection molding of aspherical plastic lenses is more economically feasible. Very recently, compression molding process has also emerged as a possible solution to high‐volume glass aspherical lens manufacturing. For low‐volume applications that include optical molds and high‐precision optics, special polishing techniques have been developed.