bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Computer Games
Authors: Li Frederick W.B. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractA computer game is an interactive entertainment running on a computers, game consoles, or some electronic devices, such as mobile phones and PDAs. Typically, a computer game accepts input from game players through a keyboard, mouse, joystick, or various types of game controllers to let the players control and interact with game objects. On the other hand, a computer game offers game players different forms of feedback, including visual, audio, and tactile, which are revealed through a computer or TV monitor, speaker, and force‐feedback game controllers, respectively. Technically, developing a computer game is very challenging as it involves not only tremendous artwork furnishings from animators or artists, but more critically, it demands the hard core support from different disciplines of computer science to address various technical issues. In this article, we will review the development in computer games. In particular, we will discuss the technical issues in game development. The rest of the article will present a brief history of computer games; elaborate the development of 2‐D and 3‐D games, multiplayer online games, and the handheld and mobile games; show the details of the critical elements involving game development; elaborate the details in developing a game engine; discuss modern game design issues; and conclude by depicting the future trend of computer games.
Warping and Morphing
Authors: Yamazaki Shuntaro 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThis article describes the techniques of warping and morphing images and other graphical objects used in computer graphics. Warping is a geometric deformation of a single object. Morphing is the combination of image warping and blending and interpolates two objects into a novel object. The state‐of‐the‐art techniques of two‐dimensional image morphing are explained. Some morphing techniques for other graphical objects are also introduced.
Collaborative Virtual Environment: Applications
Authors: Lin Qingping , Zhang Liang 
Published: December 2007

AbstractRapid advances in networking technology in the past decade have offered the potential of achieving real‐time collaborative applications via network connections, in which people are able to interact with each other and the virtual surrounding environment in a way that they experience in real life. Collaboration is part of basic communication form in human society. If a virtual environment or a cyberspace is connected by computer network to allow real‐time sharing and exchanging of information by multiple users, efficient remote collaboration can be realized. Collaborative Virtual Environment (CVE) has been developed for such purposes. With the capability to support multiple geographically dispersed human‐to‐human and human‐to‐machine communication and interaction in a shared virtual environment, CVE opens a door to a broader spectrum of potential applications in various areas ranging from academic study to collaborative engineering to military war‐game simulation applications. In this article, we discuss the CVE applications in the following four main categories: military applications, social interaction and entertainment, collaborative learning, and collaborative design and group work.
Wi
MAX
Networks
Authors: Tsao Shiao‐Li , Lin Yi‐Bing 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
IEEE Std 802.16‐2004, or Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), is a broadband wireless system that offers packet‐switched services for fixed, nomadic, portable, and mobile accesses. The first specification, i.e., IEEE, Std 802.16‐2004, that was ratified by the IEEE in 20014 targets on fixed and nomadic accesses in both line‐of‐sight (LOS) and non‐line‐of‐sight (NLOS) environments. With the IEEE 802.16e amendment, i.e., IEEE Std 802.16e‐2005, the IEEE 802.16e system, also called Mobile WiMAX, further provides handover, sleep‐mode, idle‐mode, and roaming functions to facilitate mobile accesses. Besides the PHY and MAC layer specifications, IEEE working groups and technical forums have also defined management and networking protocols for WiMAX, With these efforts, WiMAX has become a complete solution for broadband wireless access beyond 3G. This article provides an overview to WiMAX from an end‐to‐end perspective. The architecture and entities of a WiMAX network and the design of fixed/mobile WiMAX PHY and MAC layers are first presented, and then protocols and procedures for the network entry, connection management, mobility management, sleet‐mode and idele‐mode operations, and security management are introduced.
Software Cybernetics
Authors: Cangussu João W. , Cai Kai‐Yuan , Miller Scott D. , Mathur Aditya P. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractSoftware cybernetics explores the interplay between software and control. Although the concepts of software and cybernetics are well known when considered in isolation, the definition and scope of software cybernetics is sometimes blurred because of its novelty. A definition of software cybernetics and the delineation of its scope are the major goals of this article. Also presented here is a brief description of some applications of software cybernetics.
Electronic Calculators
Authors: Byrne Diana K. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
People use electronic calculators for a variety of applications, from simple arithmetic operations for balancing a checkbook to complicated programs for collecting temperature samples from remote weather stations. Calculators are used in business and technical applications, and they are used by students and professionals. Engineers and scientists use calculators in their work to check on initial results, convert measurements, and analyze data. Many banking, finance, and real estate professionals keep a financial calculator handy to calculate compound interest, loan and mortgage payments, and depreciation. Students use calculators for their mathematics and science homework, and more and more teachers are incorporating graphing calculators into their lessons. Calculators are very useful for quick, back‐of‐the‐envelope types of problems. Even with the increasing use of computers in the workplace and in homes, people continue to buy and use calculators because they are handy, convenient, portable, and dedicated to performing a few mathematical functions well.
Non‐Randomized Trial
Authors: Li Zhengqing 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
To determine whether a new intervention has the postulated effect in a population of interest, one typically conducts a clinical trial comparing the intervention against a control. When assigning qualified subjects to the control or the intervention groups, a formal randomization process is preferred in order to remove the potential bias in subject allocation, to produce comparable groups in terms of both known and unknown prognostic factors at baseline, and to establish the validity of statistical tests of significance. This type of studies, so called randomized control study, is the standard by which all other studies are judged. Nonrandomized clinical trials arise from situations in which it is impossible or difficult to assign subjects to treatment by chance. Unlike randomized control studies, nonrandomized trials are vulnerable to bias because of the inability to control the balance of prognostic factors between the treatment groups. Because of this limitation, nonrandomized trials are primarily used for exploratory purpose. In this paper, a tutorial description of nonrandomized trials is provided. Basic features of study designs, statistical methods for analysis, and their limitations are discussed.
Large Simple Trials
Authors: Foulkes Mary A. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractTrials that are both very large and simple are often needed to provide reliable answers to important clinical questions. Large, simple trials can demonstrate or exclude clinically meaningful, moderate treatment effects. The large sample size is necessary to overcome moderate biases and moderate random errors. The simple structure and conduct is necessary to make such trials feasible and practical. The various characteristics of large, simple trials will be illustrated with published examples.
Composite Endpoints in Clinical Trials
Authors: O'Brien Peter C. , Tilley Barbara C. , Dyck Peter J. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe primary analysis plays a key role in clinical trials to determine efficacy. By providing a singleP‐value, the primary analysis provides the basis for controlling the overall type I error rate. However, it is often desirable to consider multiple important patient outcomes in the primary analysis in order to use the most comprehensive and most clinically meaningful assessment of the patient. These properties also tend to increase the power of the resulting statistical tests. Composite endpoints are an effective way of combining the information from multiple endpoints when identification of a single primary outcome is not possible. We discuss a variety of ways for forming such composites. The ideal is an existing composite that has been extensively studied, validated, and used in clinical practice, and where a meaningful effect size has been identified. Statistical alternatives that may be useful when such an existing composite is not available include a rank sum approach and least squares methods and other methods described in global assessment variables.
Publication Bias
Authors: Rothstein Hannah R. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractPublication bias is defined as the problem that results from systematic differences between the results of all the completed studies on a topic and the results of the subset of those studies that are published. The consequences of this problem include the danger that readers and reviewers will reach the wrong conclusion about what the evidence shows, leading at times to the use of unsafe or ineffective treatments. The role of meta‐analysis in highlighting the existence of publication bias is explained, after which a brief summary of the evidence that publication bias exists in the biomedical trials literature is provided. In addition to “classic” publication bias (bias due to selection on the basis of statistical significance), other potential information suppression mechanisms that represent a threat to the validity of research reviews are explained, including language, citation, availability, cost, outcome, and duplication biases. After this, ways of preventing publication bias are introduced, including universal prospective registration of trials, and design of prospective meta‐analyses. The role of thorough information search in reducing the impact of publication bias on meta‐analytic results is explained, and suggestions of what to search are made. The major procedures for assessing publication bias are summarized, including file drawer (failsafeN) analysis, the funnel plot, the Begg and Mazumdar test, the Egger test, and the trim and fill method. Differences in the various procedures' specific hypotheses about the distribution of study results as well as their limitations are noted. Finally, results of surveys of the impact of publication bias on health‐care meta‐analysis are described and their implications discussed.
Algorithm‐Based Designs
Authors: He Weili , Liu Jun 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
First, we describe the traditional algorithm‐based A + B designs and the modifications of A + B designs, along with the advantages and drawbacks of these designs. Accelerated designs and a modification of the accelerated designs are delineated in the next section, then we introduce a model‐based approach in the estimation of the maximum tolerated dose following an algorithm‐based design. Finally, design properties for commonly used and less commonly used algorithm‐based designs are provided.
Control Groups
Authors: Green Stephanie 
Published: December 2007

AbstractUse of appropriate control groups is a critical principle in clinical research methods. The modern randomized controlled trial is the most convincing and reliable method for minimizing bias and demonstrating effectiveness of treatment. Control groups for randomized trials may be patients randomized to no treatment, a placebo, or standard active therapy with or without a placebo. Due to practical and ethical constraints not all clinical questions can be addressed with a well‐controlled randomized trial. Non‐randomized trials can have specific comparator groups or be controlled in the sense that carefully chosen historical information from the literature is used for reference.
Designs with Randomization Following Initial Study Treatment
Authors: Dunger‐Baldauf Cornelia 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Clinical study designs with randomization after the initial study treatment have been used in diverse disease areas such as arrhythmia, Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia, migraine, headache, cancer, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, and irritable bowel syndrome. They are useful in situations where the placebo‐controlled parallel group trial would be difficult to perform, such as in the investigation of long‐term efficacy of a drug when long‐term placebo treatment is not feasible, to address specific scientific questions, or to evaluate complex treatment schemes. Clinical studies with randomization after the initial study treatment are conducted in at least two stages. In the first stage, patients might either commence with a single treatment in an open‐label fashion, or they might be randomized to several treatments, possibly including a control. A treatment‐free interval might follow. Depending on the scientific question addressed by the trial, entry in the second trial stage might depend on the patient's benefit from the initial treatment. Further randomized trial stages can be added in the same fashion. The application of the approach will be discussed in detail for randomized withdrawal designs, randomized delayed start designs, and randomized retreatment designs.
N
of 1 Randomized Trial
Authors: Avins Andrew L. , Neuhaus John 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
“N‐of‐1 clinical trials” are randomized, multiple‐period crossover trials carried out in individual patients. Most clinical trials are conducted for the purpose of producing information generalizable to a larger population, but N‐of‐1 trials are usually conducted to inform a single patient and a clinical‐care provider about the effects of a specific therapy for that patient. Generalizing beyond that patient is usually not the intent of an N‐of‐1 study, though multiple N‐of‐1 trials may be combined to produce results with greater external validity. Like all crossover studies, there is a limited range of conditions and treatments that are amenable to investigation with an N‐of‐1 design, and practical barriers often exist to wider implementation of these studies in the typical clinical setting. Nevertheless, N‐of‐1 trials provide a potential means for providing more evidence‐based individualized therapeutic decision‐making in clinical practice.
PhaseIVTrials
Authors: Day Simon 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThis article places phase IV trials in context with other phases (most typically phase III). The design and objectives of phase IV trials may often be very similar to those of phase III trials, but some much broader aims and objectives such as postmarketing surveillance, quality of life, broad acceptability of treatments, and health economics may also be studied. Trials with different purposes may need different design considerations.
Robust Two‐Stage Model‐Guided Designs for Phase
I
Clinical Studies
Authors: Potter Douglas M. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The standard rule‐based cohorts‐of‐three phase I design, originally proposed for dose‐finding studies of chemotherapeutic agents in cancer patients, has well‐known limitations; these include treating a large fraction of the patients accrued at low, presumably ineffective doses. Model‐guided designs, such as the continual reassessment method, attempt to address some of these limitations. Such schemes can work well if the initially specified range of doses to be investigated brackets the true maximum tolerated dose (MTD); however, if this condition is not met, and additional doses must be added as the study progresses, these schemes can find an MTD in the absence of the observation of any dose‐limiting toxicity (DLT). In first‐in‐human studies, the latter situation is a particular concern. Robust two‐stage model‐guided designs use a rule‐based first stage that ends upon observation of the first DLT, and a second stage that uses a flexible model that is initialized with the initial DLT data. These designs have the robustness of rule‐based designs and the advantages of the model‐guided designs. Three such designs are reviewed and compared.
Min Test
Authors: Laska Eugene M , Meisner Morris J 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe Min test is a statistical tool used to test a null hypothesis such asHoi: νi≤ 0 for at least oneiversus the alternative H1: νi > 0 fori = 1, 2,…,K. This is sometimes called the sign‐testing problem. If every α‐level test of Hoi: νi≤ 0 individually rejects thei‐th null hypothesis at the α level, then the global null hypothesis is rejected according to the Min test. No adjustment for multiplicity is required. Such hypotheses arise in many clinical trials when it is desired to establish that a set of inequalities on the parameters simultaneously holds. Examples include testing whether an identified treatment is best on single or multiple endpoints; whether one treatment is equivalent to or noninferior to a control; and whether a dose of a combination is synergistic.
Ethical Issues in International Research
Authors: Lie Reidar K. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
This article discusses four recent controversies in international collaborative research: the standard of care controversy, the obligation to provide ancillary care to clinical trial participants, the obligation to continue to provide trial interventions after completion of the research, and the requirement to be responsive to the health care needs of the host country. In each case the central positions and arguments in the debate are presented.
Cover Picture: Nucleation‐Governed Reversible Self‐Assembly of an Organic Semiconductor at Surfaces: Long‐Range Mass Transport Forming Giant Functional Fibers (Adv. Funct. Mater. 18/2007)
Authors: De Luca G. , Liscio A. , Maccagnani P. , Nolde F. , Palermo V. , Müllen K. , Samorì P. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe cover shows a fluorescence microscopy image of solvent‐vapor annealed (SVA) films of an alkylated perylene‐bis(dicarboximide), reported by Vincenzo Palermo, Klaus Müllen, Paolo Samorì, and co‐workers on p. 3791. Upon exposure to tetrahydrofuran vapors, ultrathin films exhibiting needle‐like structures rearrange into millimeter‐long fibers, which have a sub‐micrometer cross section. The SVA growth was found to be a nucleation‐governed process leading to the formation of birefringent fibers on various substrates. (The result was obtained in the framework of the ESF‐EUROCORES‐SONS2‐SUPRAMATES project.)The use of solvent‐vapor annealing (SVA) to form millimeter‐long crystalline fibers, having a sub‐micrometer cross section, on various solid substrates is described. Thin films of a perylene‐bis(dicarboximide) (PDI) derivative, with branched alkyl chains, prepared from solution exhibit hundreds of nanometer‐sized PDI needles. Upon exposure to the vapors of a chosen solvent, tetrahydrofuran (THF), the needles re‐organize into long fibers that have a remarkably high aspect ratio, exceeding 103. Time‐ and space‐resolved mapping with optical microscopy allows the self‐assembly mechanism to be unravelled; the mechanism is found to be a nucleation‐governed growth, which complies with an Avrami‐type of mechanism. SVA is found to lead to self‐assembly featuring i) long‐range order (up to the millimeter scale), ii) reversible characteristics, as demonstrated through a series of assembly and disassembly steps, obtained by cycling between THF and CHCl3 as solvents, iii) remarkably high mass transport because the PDI molecular motion is found to occur at least over hundreds of micrometers. Such a detailed understanding of the growth process is fundamental to control the formation of self‐assembled architectures with pre‐programmed structures and physical properties. The versatility of the SVA approach is proved by its successful application using different substrates and solvents. Kelvin probe force microscopy reveals that the highly regular and thermodynamically stable fibers of PDI obtained by SVA exhibit a greater electron‐accepting character than the smaller needles of the drop‐cast films. The giant fibers can be grown in situ in the gap between microscopic electrodes supported on SiOx, paving the way towards the application of SVA in micro‐ and nanoelectronics.
Photografting polymerization of polyacrylamide on poly(3‐hydroxybutyrate‐co‐3‐hydroxyvalerate) films. II. Wettability and crystallization behaviors of poly(3‐hydroxybutyrate‐co‐3‐hydroxyvalerate)‐graft‐polyacrylamide films
Authors: Wang Yingjun , Ke Yu , Ren Li , Wu Gang , Chen Xiaofeng 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe wettability and crystallization behaviors of poly(3‐hydroxybutyrate‐co‐3‐hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)‐graft‐polyacrylamide (PAM) films were studied. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses illustrated that about 62 atom % of the total polar functionalities on the grafted film with 17% grafting percentage (GP) was amide groups. Wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction results suggest that grafted PAM induced defects in PHBV crystals and influenced their crystal structure. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) spectra showed the two melting regions, 60–90 and 145–170°C, of the imperfect PHBV crystals of the grafted films. Grafted PAM could suppress the recrystallization of PHBV, which was consistent with the polarizing optical microscopy results, in which the maximum PHBV spherulite diameter decreased from 350 μm for the PHBV film to 50 μm for the film with 53% GP. In addition, DSC studies revealed that the crystallinity of the grafted films decreased with increasing GP, which facilitated the diffusion of water into the films. The water contact angle of grafted films decreased and the water‐swelling percentage increased as GP went up. These results demonstrate the potential of PHBV‐g‐PAM for wettable surface constructs in tissue engineering applications. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 2008
Comparison of surface energies using various approaches and their suitability
Authors: Deshmukh R. R. , Shetty A. R. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe surface chemistry and surface energies of materials are important to performance of many products and processes—sometimes in as yet unrecognized ways. This article has been written for the researchers who wish to calculate solid surface energy (SE) from contact angle data. In this article, we describe various methods of calculations and their assumptions. The theoretical and experimental approaches for understanding the solid surface free energy using various methods are discussed in this article. Researchers concerned with many fields such as printing, dyeing, coating, adhesion, pharmaceuticals, composite materials, textiles, polymers, and ceramics should have interest in this topic. SE calculated by various methods for polyethylene surface treated in air plasma is discussed. Using contact angle data, the values of surface roughness using Wenzels equation, have been obtained and correlated to surface roughness calculated from AFM data. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 2008