bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Desert of the Best Qualified
Authors: Mason Andrew 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines the most obvious way of developing a meritocratic account, one in terms of the idea of desert. According to this approach, the best-qualified candidates should be appointed to advantaged social positions because they deserve to be, provided there is fair access to qualifications. David Miller's version of this approach is examined. He maintains that the best-qualified applicants for jobs deserve them because they are the most likely to come to deserve the rewards attached to them, at least when the market is functioning properly. Against this approach, it is argued that ordinary judgements about economic desert are sensitive to effort-making, not just achievement, and the degree of effort that people make corresponds in a highly imperfect way to their qualifications.
Counteracting Circumstances
Authors: Mason Andrew 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the neutralization approach and raises a difficulty inherent in it. In particular, it argued that the aim of neutralizing the effects of differences in people's circumstances runs counter to some widely held moral intuitions. For if we suppose that justice or equality of opportunity requires the neutralization of these effects, then it would seem that each of us has a reason to refrain from behaving in any way that would advantage our children relative to others. Yet that, in turn, would entail that we have a reason (even if that reason is inconclusive) not to pass on our skills and experience to our children, or even spend ‘quality time’ with them, when we know that doing so would advantage them. This is strongly counter-intuitive. In place of the neutralization approach, justice requires us to mitigate the effects of differences in people's circumstances.
Marriage, Celibacy, and Heresy in Ancient Christianity
Authors: Hunter David G. 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
In the later years of the fourth century the monk Jovinian was condemned at Rome and Milan for teaching that all baptized Christians were equal in God's sight and that all would receive an equal reward in heaven regardless of ascetic merit. This book is the first study in English devoted to Jovinian and the controversy sparked by his teaching. In chapter 1 I offer a reconstruction of Jovinian's teaching, uncovering its strong anti‐heretical emphases, exposing its biblical foundations, and relating it to fourth‐century baptismal practice. Subsequent chapters place Jovinian in a variety of contexts: the rise of a Christian aristocracy in the fourth century (chapter 2); the development of an anti‐heretical tradition in the first three centuries (chapter 3); the proliferation of this heresiological discourse in the fourth century (chapter 4); and the history of Marian theology, especially on the matter of Mary's perpetual virginity (chapter 5). In the final two chapters I distinguish the different approaches to marriage, celibacy, and clerical life evinced by Jovinian's opponents (chapter 6), and highlight the ways in which one of these opponents, Jerome, became the object of criticism and accusations of heresy. If there is a single conclusion to be drawn from this study, it is that Jovinian stood much closer to the mainstream of the Christian tradition than previous critics (including his ancient opponents) allowed.
4 Jovinian, Heresy, and Fourth‐Century Asceticism
Authors: Hunter David G. 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
Both radical and moderate forms of encratism proliferated in the fourth century, encouraged by the spread of monasticism and Manichaeism. Anti‐heretical responses followed, both in literary works and in imperial legislation: the labels ‘Manichaean’ and ‘Encratite’ were applied to all types of ascetics, thereby blurring the boundaries between ‘orthodoxy’ and ‘heresy’. Heresiologists, such as Epiphanius and Filastrius of Brescia, also indiscriminately mixed Manichees, Encratites, Montanists, and even the followers of Origen. Thus they prepared the way for the kind of polemics articulated by Jovinian.
Hegel's Suspicion: Kantian Critique and Subjectivism
Authors: Bristow William F. 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter argues that Kant's articulation of norm-governed agency that we find nearly explicit in the transcendental deduction of the categories and more fully explicit in his account of the structure of human practical reason in his practical writings, is already implicit in the epistemological project of a critique of pure reason. Hence, Kant's subjectivism is but an expression of his revolution in philosophical methodology. The epistemological demand expressed in Kant's critical project is to validate the authority of the norms of reason in a process of reflection on our cognitive faculties. This demand already implies a highest principle of reason, namely, the conformity of externally given content to the principle expressing the formal self-relating activity of the subject.
The Return to Kantian Critique: Recognizing the Rights of Ordinary Consciousness
Authors: Bristow William F. 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter argues that Hegel's return to the standpoint of Kantian criticism turns on his belated recognition that the epistemological demand expressed in that project — namely, that we establish the possibility of metaphysical knowledge in a subjective reflection on our cognitive criteria as a condition of the possibility of metaphysics itself — is grounded in the independence (Selbständigkeit) of the knowing subject. Whereas Hegel earlier rejects distinctively modern epistemological projects — prominently Kant's criticism — as inherently subjectivistic, he comes to recognize that the epistemological demand expressed in these projects cannot be dismissed, insofar as it is backed by a distinctively modern self-discovery, the discovery of the individual subject as self-standing. Kant contributes essentially to this discovery with his articulation of the knowing and acting subject as the author of the highest principles of its epistemic and practical activity. With this recognition, Hegel comes to see that modern dualisms and subjectivism cannot be evaded by returning to an ancient model of epistemology that is yet innocent of these.
The Instruction in the Ancient Near East
Authors: Weeks Stuart 
Published: May 2007

AbstractInstructions arose in Egypt, and perhaps independently in Mesopotamia and elsewhere, as a type of poetic literature. They take the form of a testamentary speech, in which an individual passes on his knowledge and experience, usually to his son, at the point when he must hand over to the next generation. Beyond that convention, instructions have no fixed form or content. Classic texts in the genre were perceived as culturally significant, and were read in schools, which may have influenced certain developments in the genre, but which does not suggest that they were ever composed expressly as pedagogical textbooks.
Proverbs 1–9 as an Instruction
Authors: Weeks Stuart 
Published: May 2007

AbstractApart, perhaps, from the Egyptian instruction of Amenemope, it is doubtful that many foreign instructions would have been accessible to a Jewish writer. The genre was represented in Israel, however, and was surely known to the author of Proverbs 1-9. That work exploits its conventions in new ways, borrowing structural elements and the elevated style of instructions, and thereby offering clues to its own unity and structure, but also introducing multiple voices and characters alongside the conventional figure of the father.
Theme and Imagery in Proverbs 1–9
Authors: Weeks Stuart 
Published: May 2007

AbstractProverbs 1-9 uses figurative language intensively, and certain themes or motifs occur throughout. In particular, the work seems to develop an imagery based on competing characters, who invite the uninstructed to turn in their direction. Wisdom's invitation, with its genuine promise of benefits, can be distinguished from more dangerous ones (especially that of the ‘foreign woman’) only by those who have accepted instruction. This motif is linked to a figurative use of paths and ways through life.
Charles Wesley and the Struggle for Methodist Identity
Authors: Lloyd Gareth 
Published: May 2007

AbstractCharles Wesley has been a problem figure for church historians. The great hymn‐writer's contribution to Methodism and the 18th century Evangelical Revival has frequently been seen primarily in terms of his poetic work. His vital role in other aspects has been undervalued and often seen through a filter imposed by denominational historians who have Charles's brother John Wesley as the main focus of attention.This book examines Charles's relationship with his brother and role in Methodist affairs. In particular, Charles has often been portrayed as being isolated and out of touch with the needs and wishes of the Methodist people during the last thirty years of his life. This book shows that this view is a distortion and that he was in fact representative of a considerable body of opinion within the Wesleyan societies. The Church‐Methodist viewpoint that he championed against those who wished to separate from the Anglican Church had as great an impact on Methodist evolution as the better‐known opinions of his opponents. Out of this struggle came a denomination with an identity that was rooted in its Anglican past but with an evangelical dynamic that produced one of the great success stories of the 19th century Christian Church. Extensive use is made of neglected primary sources to present a substantial reappraisal of Charles Wesley's ministry, which in turn permits a new interpretation of aspects of the history of early Methodism, the 18th century Church of England and the way that Methodists have viewed their Church's past.
Brothers in Arms: The Early Relationship and Shared Ministry of John and Charles Wesley
Authors: Lloyd Gareth 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe most important relationship of Charles Wesley's life was with his brother John. From their days at Oxford University and involvement with the holy club, John and Charles forged an exceptionally strong bond that was to become one of the most important contributory factors to the success of Wesleyan Methodism. Even though John was the dominant partner until 1749, Charles played an invaluable role in the birth and early years of the Methodist movement and in some aspects of ministry, he was his brother's superior.
Cooperation, Conflict, and Controversy During the Early Years of the Revival
Authors: Lloyd Gareth 
Published: May 2007

AbstractOne of the ways in which the strength of the Wesley brothers' partnership proved of fundamental importance to the future of Methodism was in the controversies that plagued the Evangelical Revival virtually from its beginnings. The Wesley brothers engaged in conflict with other evangelical groups as well as the parent Church of England and it was in this struggle that Wesleyan Methodist identity was forged. The brothers' combined strength of character and combative nature proved decisive in elevating the Wesleyan movement to the forefront of the Evangelical Revival.
Charles Wesley the Paradoxical Anglican
Authors: Lloyd Gareth 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe traditional image of Charles Wesley is that of a loyal Anglican whose attachment to the parent Church of England led to his isolation within Methodism in his later years. There is a contradiction in this viewpoint as Charles Wesley, despite his protestations of Anglican loyalty, contributed a great deal to the establishment of an evangelical popular movement. The more that one examines the activities of Charles Wesley, the clearer it becomes that he was in fact a radical conservative, whose high Sacramental theology was combined with the promotion of new worship practices such as congregational hymn singing and the class meeting. This mix of different elements produced a Methodist movement that was a combination of High Church theology, strict discipline, and innovative forms of structure, devotion, and worship.
Continuing Family Quarrels and the Methodist Opinion of Charles Wesley
Authors: Lloyd Gareth 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe friction between the Wesley brothers reflected rising tensions within Methodism. Points of disagreement included the mutual dislike between Charles and John's wife, disputes over money, and Charles's gradual disengagement from the Methodist itinerancy. Charles also experienced increasingly difficult relations with some preachers, whom he suspected of disloyalty to the Church of England. This rash of problems resulted in Charles Wesley's controversial decision to retire from the Methodist itinerancy in 1756. His withdrawal from the itinerancy did not, however, result in Charles's complete isolation within the Methodist movement. He remained a popular figure with many of the laity and his loyalty to the Church was shared by a substantial body of Methodist opinion.
5 Versailles and Social Justice, 1919
Authors: Clark Ian 
Published: May 2007

AbstractPerhaps the least discussed aspect of the 1919 settlement is its provisions on social justice, and yet an entire section of the Versailles Treaty and an article of the League Covenant were devoted to the international regulation of labour, which resulted in establishment of the International Labour Organization. These developments reflected the activities of the trade union movement, and particularly its Congresses during the war, as well as heightened sensitivity to labour in the context of both the war and the outbreak of the Russian revolution. It is clear that inclusion of a section on labour was sponsored by all of the Big Three powers for various political and instrumental reasons. What was radically new about the structure of the ILO was that it allowed membership from state representatives, but also from business and labour, thereby recognizing world society membership in an otherwise international society forum. The decisive argument was that social justice was properly the business of international society because it was fundamental to achieving international peace.
Alternative method for checking toxicity of hair dyes
Authors: TACHON P. , COTOVIO J. , DOSSOUy K. G. , PRUNIERAS M. 
Published: May 2007

SynopsisWe have compared the in vitro and in vivo toxicities of 19 hair dyes. In vitro, the toxic effect was estimated in Chinese hamster lung fibroblasts (V79), using a cell growth inhibition test. For each compound, the concentration required to reduce 50% of the growth (CI50) was determined. In vivo, compounds were administered by i.p. route to groups of 10 Swiss mice per dose. The LD50 values obtained were used to estimate the acute toxicity. The comparison of the results in vivo and in vitro showed that there is a good correlation between both ranking orders (correlation coefficient r= 0.90 with a first kind error P= 10‐4). These results suggest that the use of cell culture tests is valuable as pre‐screening systems to appreciate the toxicity level of hair dyes, in order to reduce the use of animals in safety evaluation.RésuméLe pouvoir cytotoxique de 19 colorants capillaires (quatre dérivés de la paraphénylène diamine, six dérivés de la 2‐nitro paraphénylènediamine, trois dérivés de la mètaphénylènediamine et six dérivés phénoliques) est comparéà leur potentiel toxique in vivo. In vitro, l'effet cytotoxique est mesuré sur des fibroblastes pulmonaires de hamster Chinois (V79) par un test d'inhibition de la croissance cellulaire. Les cellules, en monocouche, sont traitées pendant trois jours en présence de la substance à tester. La concentration réduisant la quantité de protéines cellulaires de 50% (CI50) est estimée. In vivo, la substance est injectée par voie intrapéritonèale à des groupes de 10 souris Swiss par dose. La dose létale 50 (LD50) est le paramètre retenu pour l'estimation de la toxicité aigue.La comparaison des résultats obtenus in vitro (CI50) et in vivo (LD50) montre une bonne corrélation (r= 0.90, P= 0.0001).Ces résultats suggèrent que les cultures de cellules permettent de prédire le potentiel toxique des colorants capillaires tout en réduisant le nombre d'animaux utilisés.
Study of the re‐oiling process of hair with the replica technique
Authors: COURTOIS MONIQUE , KRIEN PAUL , MEYRONNE LUC , GROLLIER JEAN‐FRANÇOIS 
Published: May 2007

SynopsisIn the case of individuals with oily hair, the sebum excreted to the scalp surface spreads over the hair during the days following hair washing. The migration of sebum from the roots to the ends of hairs creates a gradient which may be measured by making casts on appropriate materials.An optical reading device enables the assessment of the alterations of the material brilliancy as a function of the sebum presence. The following parameters may be assessed from the recording: length of the cast, surface, height and width of the peak. Thus, different types of oily states may be identified according to:— the number of days after the last shampoo;— the characteristics of sebum (e.g. quantity, viscosity);— the features of hair.The casts reflect the oily state of hair as accurately as if it were assessed with a sensory method. Thus, this technique enables the study and comparison of oily states. It can be used to determine the efficacy of products having an effect on the re‐oiling process of hair.RésuméEtude du regraissage des chevelures a I'aide d'une technique d'empreintesChez des sujets à cheveux gras, le sebum excrétéà la surface du cuir chevelu se propage sur la chevelure, au cours des jours qui suivent le shampooing. La migration du sebum des racines vers les pointes des cheveux, crée un gradient qui peut ètre mesuréà I'aide d'une empreinte.La lecture optique de cette empreinte, enregistre I'altération de la brillance du support dûe à la présence du sebum.Sur le graphe édité, les paramétres (surface, hauteur et largeur du pic) permettent de définir plusieurs types d'états gras. Ceux‐ci varient avec:— le nombre de jours écoulés depuis le shampooing— les caractéristiques du sebum = quantité, viscosité…— la nature des cheveux.Les mesures effectuées à I'aide de cette technique sont en relation directe avec la perception des états gras.Ainsi, cette technique permet de suivre et de comparer différents états gras. Elle peut donc être utilisée pour mesurer I'efficacité de produits destinés aux cheveux gras.
Comparison of different instruments for measuring stratum corneum moisture content
Authors: DIKSTEIN S. , KATZ M. , ZLOTOGORSKI A. , BROUN Y. , WILSON D. , MAIBACH H. 
Published: May 2007

SynopsisStratum corneum moisturization was measured by two instruments simultaneously on the same subjects at different body sites. One instrument is based on the 1 GHz focused mirowave dielectric measurement; the other instrument measures impedance at 16 Hz.A linear relationship r = 0.86 was observed between the measurements by the two above‐mentioned instruments. The 1 GHz focused microwave measurement is more accurate in measuring water concentration in the stratum corneum, especially in the upper layers relevant to “moisturization”; it is, however, an expensive research instrument. The low frequency impedance measurement involves a much simpler, cheaper and portable instrument which can be used routinely to evaluate ‘moisturization’ for the purpose of skin classification under field conditions.Comparaison de divers appareils de mesure de I'hydratation de la couche corneeésuméL'hydratation de la couche cornée a été mesurée simultanément par deux appareils sur plusieurs sites de mêmes sujets: le front, la face et les membres. Un appareil est basé sur la mesure par micro ondes, I'autre mesure I'impédance à 16 Hz.On observe une relation linéaire, r= 0.86, entre les mesures effectuées par les deux appareils ci‐dessus. L'appareil à micro ondes est plus précis pour la mesure de la concentration en eau de la couche cornée et plus spécialement dans les couches supérieures qui sont importantes pour I'hydratation, mais cet appareil est onéreux. La mesure des impédances à basse fréquence utilisé un appareil portable, simple et bon marché qui peut être utilisé en routine pour évaluer I'hydratation dans le but de classer des types de peaux sur le terrain.II n'est pas toujours possible de comparer des appareils diffeérents sur les mêmes personnes et dans le même temps et il est encore plus difficile d'obtenir des donneées sur un nombre de personnes de type diffeérent. Nous suggeérons d'utiliser à I'avenir une meéthode de comparaison diffeérente basée sur I'application d'un traitement standard bien défini, qui pourrait par example consister en I'application pendant une heure d'une solution à 2% de glycérine sur I'avant bras, avant la mesure.Ces données, avec la connaissance de la distribution des valeur du prétraitement pour les divers appareils, permettraient également la comparaison et la validation des différentes méthodes.
Skin contact allergy to emulsifiers
Authors: HANNUKSELA MATTI 
Published: May 2007

SynopsisContact allergy to cetyl and stearyl alcohols has been reported for many years. About one per cent of eczema patients are allergic to either alcohol or a mixture of the two. In the present study, 11 of 1374 patients reacted to 20% cetylstearyl alcohol in patch tests. Results of a previous study, suggested that some impurities in commercial cetyl and stearyl alcohols might be responsiblefor the contact allergies.Sorbitan esters are also contact allergens in dermatological preparations. Sorbitan sesquioleate (20% in petrolatum) was patch‐tested in 4469 eczema patients in the present study, with a positive result in 25 (0.56%) of them. Widespread dermatitis from moisturizing creams was seen in two patients, one of whom was treated with peroral corticosteroids and the other with a potent corticosteroid cream.Several other emulsifiers have also occasionally been found to cause contact allergy. Popular emulsifiers are thus potential allergens, especially in preparations commonly used as moisturizersfor dry or slightly eczematous skin.Les allergies cutanees aux emulsifiantsRésuméLes allergies par contact aux alcools cetyliques et stéaryliques ont déjà fait l'objet de nombreux articles. Environ 1% des patients souffrant d'eczéma sont allergiques soit à l'un des deux alcools, soit à leur mélange. Dans cette étude, 11 patients sur 1374 ont réagi àdes patch tests à 20% d'alcool cetostearylique.Les résultats d'une étude précédente laissaient supposer que les impuretés présentes dans les alcools cétyliques et stéaryliques du commerce pourraient être responsables de ces allergies de contact.Les esters de sorbitan sont également des allergisants dans les préparations dermatologiques. Le sesquioleate de sorbitan (à 20% dans la vaseline) a été testé sur 4469 patients souffrant d'eczéma, avec un résultat positif pour 25 d'entre eux (0.56%). Des dermatoses importantes ont été observés chez deux patients utilisant des crèmes hydratantes; l'un d'entre euxa été traité par des corticosteroides par voie buccale et l'autre par une crème corticosteroide puissante. Il a également été démontré que de nombreux autres émulsifiants pouvaient causer des allergies de contact. Les émulsifiants courants sont des allergisants potentiels, spécialement dans les préparations hydratantes pour les peux sèches ou légèrement eczémateuses.