bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
r
RNA
Structure
Authors: Malhotra Arun 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Ribosomal RNAs (rRNA) are essential components of ribosomes which are responsible for protein synthesis in all living cells. rRNA structure can be described at several levels – at the level of their primary sequences and secondary structures, as well as in terms of their tertiary folds of macromolecules within the ribosomal subunits.
DNA Mismatch Repair: Eukaryotic
Authors: Hays John Bruce 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, highly‐conserved mismatch‐repair systems both correct DNA replication errors, by coupling recognition of DNA mismatches to identification and excision of the mutated nascent DNA, and interact with recombination mismatches and a variety of DNA lesions. Evolution of single prokaryotic recognition (MutS) and coupling (MutL) proteins into multiple specialized eukaryotic proteins has accompanied expansion of their genomic‐stability functions.
Eukaryotic Recombination: Initiation by Double‐strand Breaks
Authors: Richardson Christine , Jasin Maria 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A double‐strand break in one deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) double helix, possibly caused by DNA damaging agents such as ionizing radiation or normal metabolic processes, stimulates repair by a pathway of recombination that uses a second unbroken DNA double helix containing homologous sequences as a donor of genetic information to restore the intact DNA structure.
Homologous Genetic Recombination in Eukaryotes
Authors: Sung Patrick 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

In eukaryotes, homologous recombination is mediated by genes of the
RAD52
epistasis group. Several products of the
RAD52
group genes function together to catalyse the homologous DNA pairing and strand exchange reaction that establishes a stable linkage between the recombining chromosomes.
Rec
FOR
Protein
Authors: Sandler Steven J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

In
Escherichia coli
the
recF
,
recO
and
recR
(
recFOR
) proteins interact with DNA, single‐stranded DNA‐binding (SSB) protein and RecA protein to facilitate recombinational repair (also called post‐replication repair and daughter‐strand gap repair) of DNA damage encountered by a DNA replication fork. The
recF
,
recO
and or
recR
genes have been found in 36 different types of bacteria ranging from the kingdoms of proteobacteria to aquificales.
Developmentally Programmed
DNA
Rearrangements
Authors: Fillingham Jeffrey S , Pearlman Ronald E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Developmentally programmed DNA rearrangements are structural reorganizations of the genome that occur reproducibly during the ontogeny of a variety of organisms. In the majority of cases programmed DNA rearrangements function to alter gene expression. However in a few cases no function to large‐scale developmentally programmed DNA rearrangements has yet been ascribed.
Haem Structure and Function
Authors: Vicente Maria da Graça H , Smith Kevin M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Haems are the vital catalysts in a large number of biological processes, including oxygen transport, oxygen storage, electron transport and oxygenation. Haem proteins contain an iron complex of porphyrin, usually protoporphyrin IX, and exist in haemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes, catalases, peroxidases, oxygenases and oxidases.
Glycolytic Enzymes
Authors: Michels Paul AM , Verlinde Christophe LMJ 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Glycolysis, the breakdown of glucose, is a central metabolic
process in all organisms. The ten enzymes of this pathway convert the six‐carbon sugar, glucose, into two pyruvate molecules, a three‐carbon compound, with the concomitant net production of two ATP molecules.
Ground State Destabilization
Authors: Anderson Vernon E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Ground state destabilization is a thermodynamic concept suggesting that there is an increase in energy in going from one state to another. This concept helps to explain the efficiency of enzyme‐catalysed reactions, as when the substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme there is a destabilization of the substrate. The effect of this destabilization is to reduce the activation energy of a reaction, and so make the catalysis more efficient.
Fatty Acid Oxidation
Authors: Morio Beatrice , Yeckel Catherine W , Wolfe Robert R 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe regulation of fatty acid oxidation is multifaceted, but the oxidation of fatty acids can only proceed once fatty acids gave gained entry to mitochondria. The mechanisms of transmembrane and transcellular movement of fatty acids may involve a number of fatty acid‐binding proteins. The gateway into mitochondria may be regulated by carnitine palmitoyltransferase.
G Proteins
Authors: Mesters Jeroen R , Hogg Tanis , Hilgenfeld Rolf 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The G proteins, or GTP‐binding proteins, can be classified into
three major groups: the large mammalian Gαβγ heterotrimers,
the small Ras and Ras‐like GTPases, and the intermediate‐sized GTPases such as
elongation factors Tu (EF1A) and G (EF2). All G proteins function as molecular
switches controlled by a GTPase cycle, shuttling between an active GTP–Mg
2+
‐bound
form (the ‘on’ state) and an inactive GDP–Mg
2+
complex (the ‘off’ state).
Photosystem II
Authors: Whitmarsh John , Govindjee  
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Photosystem II is a specialized protein complex that uses light energy to oxidize water, resulting in the release of molecular oxygen into the atmosphere, and to reduce plastoquinone, which is released into the hydrophobic core of the photosynthetic membrane. All oxygenic photosynthetic organisms, which include plants, algae and some bacteria, depend on photosystem II to extract electrons from water that are eventually used to reduce carbon dioxide in the carbon reduction cycle. The complex is composed of a central reaction centre in which electron transport occurs, and a peripheral antenna system which contains chlorophyll and other pigment molecules that absorb light.
Ribosomal Proteins: Role in Ribosomal Functions
Authors: Stelzl Ulrich , Connell Sean , Nierhaus Knud H , Wittmann‐Liebold Brigitte 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The assignment of individual ribosomal proteins to specific ribosomal functions is difficult due to the enormous cooperativity of the ribosome. However, the role of a few proteins have been clarified using various techniques. In particular, mutations altering ribosomal proteins and mediating resistance against antibiotics have provided important clues.
Polysaccharides
Authors: BeMiller James N 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Polysaccharides are polymers containing from 20 (usually >100) to as many as 60 000 monosaccharide units. Polysaccharides have a range of general structures (from linear to various branched structures) and shapes. They are structural components of cell walls of bacteria, fungi, algae and higher plants, are energy‐ and carbon‐storage substances, and serve various other functions as extracellular materials of plants, animals and microorganisms. They are the most abundant (by mass) of all organic substances in living organisms, comprising about two‐thirds of the dry weight of the total biomass. Some have commercial value as isolated substances.
Polysaccharides: Bacterial and Fungal
Authors: Sutherland Ian W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Microbial exopolysaccharides are the polysaccharides that are produced outside the cell wall by many microorganisms. Some are well‐established biotechnological products that are manufactured commercially from renewable resources to provide biodegradable alternatives to traditional plant and algal gums. Others have potentially useful physical or chemical properties, while a few possess valuable biological properties.
Lipids
Authors: Yeagle Philip L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The lipids of cell membranes are amphipathic molecules, having polar headgroups and hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails. They self‐assemble, according to the hydrophobic effect, to form bilayers, the fundamental architectural element of cell membrane structure. Membrane lipids exhibit a variety of headgroup structures and of hydrocarbon chain lengths (commonly 12 to 26 carbon atoms) and unsaturation (zero to 6 unconjugated double bonds) that determine the influence of these lipids on cell membrane properties.
Neuronal Subtype Identity Regulation
Authors: Reissmann Eva , Brivanlou Ali H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The generation of diverse neuronal cells in the nervous system is achieved through inductive interactions between neighbouring cells. This communication requires, at the same time, both the presence of secreted or membrane‐attached signals and the competence of affected cells to convert these signals into intracellular responses. Patterning events in the developing spinal cord is an example of inductive interactions in the formation of the vertebrate nervous system.
Messenger
RNA
in Eukaryotes
Authors: Kreivi Jan‐Peter , Petersen‐Mahrt Svend , Akusjärvi Göran 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression represents an important level at which eukaryotes can expand the coding capacity of their genomes. The concept that one gene makes one protein does not apply to higher eukaryotes. Thus, a eukaryotic cell can use alternative RNA splicing and alternative polyadenylation to produce hundreds or even several thousands of protein isoforms from a single gene.
Integrin Superfamily
Authors: Krissansen Geoffrey Wayne 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIntegrins are a superfamily of cell‐surface adhesion molecules formed from eight different β chains and 18 different α chains that assemble as heterodimers to mediate cell–cell and cell–matrix interactions. As sensors of the microenvironment, they control vital cellular functions such as cell growth, differentiation, programmed death and motility, and developmental processes; and in the adult they mediate tissue maintenance, blood clotting and immunity.
Allergens
Authors: Aalberse RC , Kapsenberg ML 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Allergens are special types of (otherwise harmless) environmental antigens that elicit allergic reactions in sensitized individuals. One group of allergens includes small environmental or therapeutical chemicals that become allergenic after binding to self‐proteins (contact or drug allergy). Other allergens are inhaled, dietary or insect‐sting proteins that induce, mainly in predisposed individuals, an immune response characterized by immunoglobulin E production (atopic allergy).
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Authors: Siliciano Robert F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a potentially fatal transmissible disease, caused by
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1
(HIV‐1), which has claimed almost 20 million lives and infected over 34 million people. While there is as yet no cure or effective vaccine for AIDS, there are treatments that can forestall the development of overt disease and restore immune function.
Hypersensitivity: Immunological
Authors: Thomas Wayne R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Immunological hypersensitivity reactions are immune responses which lead to tissue damage. Classified into five types according to the mechanism of the tissue damage, they are involved in many important human diseases and disorders, such as anaphylaxis, asthma, food allergies, myasthenia gravis and systemic lupus erythematosus.
Termination of Replication in Bacteria
Authors: Wilce Jackie A , Wake R Gerry , King Glenn F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Termination is the final stage of a round of replication in bacteria during which DNA replication is completed. In the case of a circular chromosome, this occurs when the two replication forks, progressing in opposite directions, meet and fuse in a specific region of the chromosome which is generally diametrically opposed to the site of initiation of DNA replication.
Reoviruses
Authors: Coombs Kevin M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Reoviruses are infectious agents, transmitted by respiratory and fecal–oral routes, that are not major human pathogens. The viruses are distinguished by having a genome of 10 segments of double‐stranded RNA that is located inside a double‐layered, spherical nonenveloped protein capsid. The capsid is incompletely uncoated during viral replication.
Affinity of Antigen–Antibody Interactions
Authors: Goldblatt David 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Antibody affinity is the strength with which antibody binds to its target antigen. It is influenced by a variety of factors including valency and the precise fit of the antigen in the antigen binding groove. Antibody affinity increases over time following contact or repeated immunization with certain types of antigen. The affinity of an antibody may have an influence on its function.
Antigen–Antibody Complexes
Authors: Eggleton Paul 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Antigen–antibody complexes are formed when the body's immune system raises antibodies against antigenic determinants of host or foreign substances that recognize and bind to the unwanted molecules. Normally, the immune complexes that are formed are cleared by the cellular immune system, but when an excess of antibody or antigen is present, the immune complexes are either detected in tissues or involved in the pathogenesis of tissue lesions in a variety of diseases.
Cell Separation Techniques Used in Immunology
Authors: Hunt Simon V 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
General methods for separating subpopulations of cells involved in immune responses include those based on differences in cell density, surface adherence, and the presence or absence of characteristic cell surface molecules, especially those recognized by CD monoclonal antibodies. The choice of technique depends on the scale of the separation; the trade‐offs between starting fraction, purity and yield; and the sophistication and cost of reagents and apparatus. Licensing for clinical use may impose constraints on a method's suitability.
Hypersensitivity: T Lymphocyte‐mediated (Type IV)
Authors: Ampel Neil M 
Published: September 2006

AbstractFive types of hypersensitivity reactions have been described: types I, II, III and V depend on the interaction of antigen with antibody and have been termed immediate; type IV depends on the interaction of antigen with T lymphocytes and has been called delayed‐type hypersensitivity, or DTH.
Kidney Development
Authors: Sariola Hannu , Bard Jonathan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In higher vertebrates, the pronephros and mesonephros are transitory embryonic organs: the permanent functional kidney is the metanephros. The metanephros is derived from intermediate mesoderm, and its differentiation is regulated by reciprocal inductive tissue interactions between the ureteric bud and the nephrogenic mesenchyme.
Histones: from Gene Organization to Biological Roles
Authors: Doenecke Detlef 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Histones are a group of highly conserved small basic proteins that form the major part of the protein moiety of eukaryotic chromosomes. Their function in structuring the nucleosomes as the basal chromosomal deoxynucleoprotein repeat units is modulated by several different types of posttranslational modifications and varied patterns of histone structure variants contributing to the nucleosome structure.
Phagocytosis: Enhancement
Authors: Peiser Leanne , Gordon Siamon 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe phagocytosis of pathogens, tissue debris or apoptotic cells by macrophages and neutrophils may be enhanced by host molecules called opsonins, which allow the recognition and subsequent ingestion of the particles by phagocytic receptors. There are numerous opsonins, including complement‐derived proteins such as iC3b and immunoglobulin G, which are recognized by specialized receptors including complement receptor type 3 and FcγR.
Skin: Immunological Defence Mechanisms
Authors: Nickoloff Brian J 
Published: September 2006

AbstractHuman skin is the largest organ of the body providing a protective coat to ensure that exogenous ‘noxious’ agents do not jeopardize the function of vital internal organ systems. Being situated at the interface between external and internal milieus, a number of remarkable structural and functional characteristics of skin have been delineated that contribute to its effectiveness at maintaining homeostasis.
T Lymphocytes: Helpers
Authors: Kondo Takayuki , Martin Roland 
Published: September 2006

AbstractHelper T lymphocytes are MHC class II restricted CD4+ T cells, and can be divided into several subsets by cytokine releasing patterns such as T‐helper 1 (TH1) and T‐helper 2 (TH2). Helper T cells orchestrate antibody production and cellular immune responses by crossregulating each other, and each THsubset plays a distinct role in host defence and autoimmunity.
Adhesive Specificity and the Evolution of Multicellularity
Authors: Vleminckx Kris 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Most of the cells in a multicellular organism are connected to each other and/or attached to a substrate. Physically this is mediated by adhesion molecules exposed on the cell surface and attached to the cell membrane either by covalent linkage to the lipid bilayer or by a membrane spanning region.
Photosynthesis: Light Reactions
Authors: Bendall Derek S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In plants and cyanobacteria the ‘light reactions’ of photosynthesis use light energy to generate reducing power in the form of nicotinamide–adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and metabolic energy as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which are subsequently used in the ’dark reactions’ to drive the reduction of carbon dioxide and synthesis of carbohydrate. The light reactions, as conventionally defined, are actually a complex series of processes which include not only reactions in which light participates directly, but also closely associated reactions that indirectly depend on light.
Protein–DNA Interactions: Structure and Energetics
Authors: Kerppola Tom K 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
DNA‐binding proteins recognize specific DNA sequences by a combination of molecular interactions. Protein–DNA complex formation is frequently accompanied by conformational changes in one or both components of the complex. Protein–DNA interactions differ in several respects from most other ligand–receptor interactions in cells, and these characteristics place special requirements on the energetics and dynamics of protein–DNA interactions and explain many of the special properties of these complexes.
Checkpoints in the Cell Cycle
Authors: Novák Béla , Sible Jill C , Tyson John J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Surveillance mechanisms stop progression through the cell cycle at specific checkpoints (at the G1 → S, G2 → M and metaphase → anaphase transitions) if certain crucial requirements have not been met. These checkpoint controls are essential for maintaining genomic integrity and balanced growth and division.
Eicosanoid Biosynthesis
Authors: Fernandez Ana Z , Jain Mahendra Kumar , Apitz‐Castro Rafael 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Eicosanoids are the major products derived from the cellular metabolism of arachidonic acid by the enzymes cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase. The eicosanoids comprise prostaglandins, thromboxanes, prostacyclins, leucotrienes and lipoxins.
Lipases: Digestion of Neutral Lipids; Physiological and Pathological Implications
Authors: Hamosh Margit 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Fat digestion is a complex process that starts in the stomach through the action of gastric lipase and continues in the intestine, where colipase‐dependent pancreatic lipase and cholesterol ester lipase complete the process of triglyceride and cholesteryl ester hydrolysis, respectively. Bile salts and partial products of triglyceride hydrolysis are essential for the emulsification of these nonpolar lipids in the aqueous milieu of the intestinal lumen.
Blood Clotting: General Pathway
Authors: Berkner Kathleen L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Haemostasis is the process that maintains blood in a fluid state while retaining the capacity to respond to injury by forming a clot to stem blood loss. This process comprises a complex interplay between circulating and cellular proteins which regulate the formation of fibrin and the fibrin/platelet haemostatic plug at the site of injury, and defects in the individual proteins can lead to bleeding disorders (haemophilia). Several of the proteins that participate in haemostasis require vitamin K for function, and inhibition of vitamin K action is commonly used in anticoagulant therapy.
Immune Deficiency: Severe Combined Immune Deficiency
Authors: Ananworanich Jintanat , Shearer William T 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Severe combined immune deficiency (SCID) represents a diverse group of disorders caused by genetic defects in T‐cell development and signalling pathways, the most common being the mutation of the interleukin‐2 receptor γ chain leading to X‐linked SCID.
Genetic Variation: Human
Authors: Armour John AL 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Many different types of genetic variation can be observed in the DNA of modern humans. Nevertheless, humans have relatively little genetic variation compared with many other species, suggesting a recent common origin for
Homo sapiens
. Some of this variation may have functional consequences, for example in disease states and complex characters such as stature or intelligence, but much variation in DNA appears to be neutral.
Caenorhabditis elegansEmbryo: Determination of Somatic Cell Fate
Authors: Schnabel Ralf 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAlthough embryogenesis appears to be determinate inC. elegansbecause of its stereotype cell lineage, the mechanisms of regional specification typical for indeterminate development are nevertheless used. Early on, blastomere identities are specified by binary decisions, and each blastomere gives rise to a coherent region of the embryo containing different somatic cell fates.
Tunicate Embryos and Cell Specification
Authors: Satoh Noriyuki 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The ubiquitous ascidians (sea squirts) are the most common
tunicates. Cell fate restriction occurs relatively early in ascidian embryos,
which show a mosaic mode of development. Molecular identification of cell
lineage determinants and elucidation of the machinery responsible for the
localization and of the mode of action of the determinants is necessary for
the understanding of cell fate determination in ascidian embryos.
Fossils in Phylogenetic Reconstruction
Authors: Sumrall Colin D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Palaeontologists have begun to adapt mathematical algorithms to phylogenetic reconstruction and interpretation of the fossil record. Whereas most palaeontologists prefer phylogenetic methods that rely predominantly on character evidence, such as that used by most systematists, others have developed methodologies that variously incorporate temporal data, rely strictly upon temporal data, or utilize temporal data in testing phylogenetic hypotheses.
Geological Time: Principles
Authors: Prothero Donald R 
Published: September 2006

AbstractGeologists determine the age of events in the geological past by relative dating (establishing which event comes first, usually by superposition and crosscutting relationships) and by numerical dating (obtaining a numerical age estimate on an event, usually by radioisotopic dating of interbedded or crosscutting igneous rocks). From these dating methods, geologists have determined that the earth is 4.5 billion years old, and that most events in the geological past took place millions to hundreds of millions of years ago.