bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry in Analysis of Chemicals Related to the Chemical Weapons Convention
Authors: Wils Eric R.J. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMass spectrometry in combination with gas chromatography (GC/MS) is at present the most suitable technique for the analysis of chemicals related to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), as GC/MS is capable of providing the required analytical evidence needed to sustain any claim of noncompliance under the Convention. Chemical analysis will be carried out on‐site, during an inspection using mobile GC/MS equipment, or off‐site, in at least two designated laboratories selected by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). GC/MS analysis under the Convention is focused primarily on qualitative analysis (unambiguous identification) rather than on quantitative analysis. Moreover, GC/MS analysis has to be established under a strict quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) program. The two most applied techniques in verification analysis are low‐resolution electron impact (EI) and chemical ionization (CI) GC/MS under full scan conditions. EI is the oldest and still most used ionization technique for the analysis of CWC related chemicals. Therefore, special attention is paid in this article to the fragmentation under EI conditions of a number of chemicals belonging to the CWC Schedule list. The chemicals placed on this list are the target for the verification analysis, especially the Schedule 1 chemicals, which encompass the well‐known chemical warfare (CW) agents such as the nerve agents sarin (GB), soman (GD), tabun (GA) andO‐ethylS‐2‐diisopropylaminoethyl methylphosphonothiolate (VX) and the vesicants mustard gas (HD) and lewisite (L). Sample preparation methods for these chemicals and their degradation products in environmental, synthetic material, and biological sample matrices are described in this article.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Analysis of Chemicals Related to the Chemical Weapons Convention
Authors: Mesilaakso Markku , Niederhauser Andreas 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a valuable analytical technique for the identification of chemicals related to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). One‐dimensional (1‐D) proton, carbon, fluorine, and phosphorus NMR spectra (
1
H,
13
C{
1
H},
19
F,
31
P{
1
H}, and
31
P spectra) (terminology:
1
H, nucleus hydrogen‐1 or proton, experiment hydrogen‐1 or proton observation;
13
C, nucleus carbon‐13;
13
C{
1
H}, experiment carbon‐13 observation with simultaneous
1
H decoupling;
19
F, nucleus fluorine‐19, experiment fluorine‐19 observation;
31
P, nucleus phosphorus‐31, experiment phosphorus‐31 observation;
31
P{
1
H}, experiment phosphorus‐31 observation with simultaneous
1
H decoupling) are recorded from test samples for use in the identification of chemicals. The NMR spectrum of a chemical is like a fingerprint. The chemical is identified on the basis of similar sample and reference spectra. In the case of an unknown chemical two‐dimensional (2‐D) spectra can assist in its structure elucidation. 2‐D NMR is also more suitable than 1‐D NMR for the analysis of mixtures.

NMR sample preparation is simple. A liquid sample can be run as such or the liquid is partially or totally changed to a deuterated solvent. Solid samples are extracted with organic or aqueous solvents for the preparation of analytical samples. The main disadvantage of NMR is the lack of separation methods and the consequent problems of sample background causing occasional resonance overlapping, especially at very low concentrations.
Sampling, Detection and Screening of Chemicals Related to the Chemical Weapons Convention
Authors: Cooper David B. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), which entered into force on April 29, 1997, prohibits the development, production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons (CW). It is administered by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which is based in The Hague.
During the course of inspections, whether routine or challenge, there may be a requirement for the inspection team (IT) to investigate unresolved ambiguities. The IT has the right to request clarification, and if ambiguities cannot be clarified by negotiation then samples may be taken for analysis.
Examples of sampling equipment, procedures and sample management techniques are described, together with a brief description of screening and detection. Some analyses may be performed on‐site by the inspectors, using equipment they bring with them, but for more difficult questions it may be necessary to remove a sample for analysis on an anonymous basis in two or more of a global network of laboratories “designated” by the OPCW. The end result of any sampling and analysis operation must be able to stand up to international scrutiny, and therefore chain‐of‐custody or audit‐trail procedures must be strictly followed. The process should allow the re‐creation of the position or state of the sample at any time during the handling of the sample from cradle to grave.
Gas Chromatography in Screening of Chemicals Related to the Chemical Weapons Convention
Authors: Kostiainen Olli 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Various gas chromatographic methods, which are useful for the screening of Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)‐related chemicals, are described in this section. Proper choice of columns, detectors, and injection techniques are discussed, because they are crucial to the optimization of gas chromatography (GC) as a routine tool. Also various identification methods are described. Retention index monitoring (RIM) is described in more detail than other identification methods because it is the most reliable GC technique to be used in the identification using a retention index (RI) library without the need for an authentic chemical.
Diagnostic Hematology
Authors: Hubbard J. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Hematology, in its pure form, is the study of the red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets during normal and pathological conditions. Quantitative and qualitative evaluation and interpretation of the formed elements of the blood require a whole blood sample to be counted using automated cell counters based on electrical impedance or laser light scatter techniques. A wide range of disease types can be encountered, such as hereditary, nutritional, metabolic, traumatic, infections and inflammatory conditions, and hormonal, immunological and neoplastic disorders. All these disorders can result in changes to the blood cell profile, which can be used to aid in diagnosis. Most important to the diagnosis of hematological diseases is an in‐depth understanding of the different causes of anemia and the pathogenesis of the leukemias.
Electroanalytical Chemistry in Clinical Analysis
Authors: Su Evangeline Y. , Bocarsly Andrew B. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractClinical electrochemistry has historically been limited to the detection of blood gases, physiological pH, and alkali metal cations using ion‐selective electrodes (ISEs). In recent years, current flow techniques have been introduced allowing for the detection and quantification of a variety of proteins and metabolites. Key to this type of analysis is the development of an electrode interface which is both catalytic and selective for the analyte of interest. To this end, a wide variety of chemically modified electrode (CME) interfaces have been developed. Such interfaces are often based on the interaction of a redox enzyme with the analyte of interest. In addition, interfaces composed of immunospecific elements or size specific elements have been examined as selective electrode surfaces.
Planar Chromatography in Clinical Chemistry
Authors: Jain Raka , Sherma Joseph 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPlanar chromatography (PC) like any other chromatographic technique is a multistage distribution process. It is a form of liquid chromatography in which the stationary phase is supported on a planar surface rather than a column. Separations in PC occur because of differential migration velocities through the sorbent layer in a fixed separation time. The sample zones are fixed in space at the completion of the separation, allowing off‐line monitoring. There are two planar techniques: paper chromatography and thin‐layer chromatography (TLC). In recent years, TLC has superseded paper chromatography owing to greater speed, versatility, and reproducibility. Improvements in techniques and equipment as well as the ready availability of high‐quality plates with uniform layers have extended and increased the use of TLC in clinical chemistry and other disciplines, offering quantitative as well as qualitative analysis. High‐performance thin‐layer chromatography (HPTLC), in particular, has developed to the extent that separation and quantitation can provide results that are comparable with other analytical methods such as high‐pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). The widespread application of TLC is also due to the fact that it is simple, robust, and flexible, and has a large sample throughput. Furthermore, coupled spectroscopic methods (TLC/mass spectrometry (TLC/MS), TLC/Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (TLC/FTIR) etc.) have considerably enhanced the reproducibility of TLC.TLC is often critically compared with column chromatography such as HPLC. This is a matter of endless dispute. Each technique has its own advantages and limitations. TLC is only inexpensive when qualitative results are needed. When reliable quantitative data are required, TLC is as expensive as column chromatography. In the authors' opinion, complementary rather than competitive chromatography offers the best solution to analytical requirements.
Urinalysis and Other Bodily Fluids
Authors: Free Helen M. , Free (deceased) Alfred H. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe chemical analysis of urine and other body fluids is an integral part of laboratory medicine today. Clinical chemistry measurements are made in laboratories ranging from large medical research/teaching centers to small rural physicians' offices, and with varying degrees of sophistication in all parts of the world. Indeed, the use of chemical tests at home is currently an important part of monitoring chronic conditions such as diabetes, and this aspect of chemical testing is expected to expand.This article traces the historical methods of urine testing to provide information on health and disease, from crude visual examination in ancient times to modern techniques using sophisticated chemical instrumentation. The information obtained is useful in the diagnosis of disease, in monitoring the course of the treatment of disease, and in helping to maintain wellness in normal populations.The chemical tests most widely used in urinalysis are described in some detail along with a discussion of the development of commercial tests leading to the evolution of the diagnostics industry. Chemical tests on other bodily fluids are briefly summarized.
Infrared and
R
aman Spectroscopy and Imaging in Coatings Analysis
Authors: Urban Marek W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This monograph provides fundamental concepts utilized in infrared (IR) and Raman analysis of coatings as well as applications of attenuated total reflectance (ATR), reflection–absorption (RA), photo‐acoustic (PA), and IR/Raman imaging techniques. This choice of techniques is dictated by the fact that these techniques alone or their combination allow one to obtain a three‐dimensional molecular level representation of polymeric coatings, quantitative or semi‐quantitative analysis, surface/interfacial depth profiling, and determination of structure–property relationships in coatings. As a result, the effect of molecular level interactions/processes on macroscopic properties can be elucidated.
Mechanical Properties of Solid Coatings
Authors: Koleske Joseph V. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Coatings can be liquid or solid materials; they have been known and used from the time of early man and are of major importance for protecting and decorating the myriad of items in use today. These thin protective films are used to coat commercial and residential buildings (architectural coatings) and for many products in use today (industrial coatings). This article is concerned with the formation of coating films and the properties of these films. Static and dynamic mechanical properties, flexibility, toughness, adhesion, hardness, abrasion resistance, slip, chemical resistance, and stress within coatings are discussed and ways to investigate these characteristics are given. Some of the end‐uses and the relationship of coating properties to the uses are detailed.
Microscopy of Coatings
Authors: Rädlein Edda 
Published: September 2006

AbstractFundamental research on films and the development and optimization of coatings are not possible without high‐resolution imaging. This article describes the advantages and disadvantages of the newly introduced scanning probe microscopy (SPM) in comparison with well‐established microscopy techniques with light and particles [e.g. scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM)], which are limited by the diffraction limit, i.e. 200 nm for conventional light microscopy and 4 nm for SEM. This limit does not hold for SPM, which uses near‐field interactions for imaging. Thus, even simple atoms or molecules can be resolved on well‐ordered structures by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) or atomic force microscopy (AFM). Both possess an extremely good height sensitivity of 0.02 nm.1In the constant‐height operation mode, AFM can detect vertical forces as low as 10−15–10−4 N. Atomic resolution is not always possible or not always necessary for many practical applications; a lateral resolution of a few nanometers is sufficient. Besides the capability of achieving this value with ease, simple sample preparation, versatile environmental conditions and observation of reactions in situ are advantages of STM and AFM.Especially AFM has proved to be a useful technique for investigating coatings, because it is independent of conductivity and provides topographic data together with information on structure, local variations of mechanical properties and surface alterations in different media. However, some artifacts and restrictions have to be considered which can differ considerably from customary electron micrographs with comparable resolutions, such as onset overswing and tip convolution.Microscopy helps in solving coating problems according to substrate quality, nucleation, wettability, thickness, roughness, microstructure, crystal phases (texture, orientation), lateral and vertical homogeneity, density, porosity, interfaces, adhesion, hardness, stress, scratch and abrasion resistance, tribology, wear and corrosion. Practical examples of microscopy results on these questions are presented together with suitable preparation methods and interpretation of artifacts.
Thermal Analysis of Coatings
Authors: Meyer Edwin F. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The thermal analysis of coatings involves measuring the response of a material when subjected to a thermal stimulus, sometimes in combination with a mechanical stress. The thermal stimuli used in the thermal analysis of coatings include linear temperature ramps, a sinusoidal modulation around a fixed temperature, the superposition of a linear ramp and a sinusoidal modulation, and a simple isotherm in which some property of the material is monitored as a function of time. The responses measured by the thermal analyst include: melting, crystallization, evaporation, degradation, stress relaxation, softening point, and glass transition, as well as physical properties such as the elastic and viscous moduli. These responses aid in the development, characterization, and determination of the proper application and bake conditions for a wide range of coatings.
In general, thermal analysis techniques are very sensitive and, for many applications, a sample mass of the order of 10 mg is sufficient. However, the assignment of a thermal event to a particular chemistry or morphology requires knowledge of the system being analyzed or another analytical technique. For example, thermal analysis can accurately determine the temperature and enthalpy of a crystalline polymer melt but it does not provide any other information as to the chemistry of the polymer. Assigning a cause to a thermal event becomes increasingly difficult as the nature of the material becomes more complicated. Such is the case with a fully formulated coating which contains a wide range of polymeric and oligomeric materials, as well as various additives. To determine which chemistry is responsible for a particular thermal transition, other analytical techniques are used, frequently in direct combination with the thermal analysis technique.
Airborne Instrumentation for Aerosol Measurements
Authors: Stefanutti Leopoldo , Borrmann Stephan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This paper gives a description of airborne and balloon‐borne instrumentation for the measurement of microphysical properties and the chemical composition of aerosol and cloud particles. Different techniques are described. In particular the instrumentation is subdivided into two broad categories: remote sensing instrumentation and in situ instrumentation. In the first category are instrumentation like cloud RADARs (radio detection and ranging), LIDARs (light detection and ranging), backscattersondes, limb and occultation aerosol detection devices. They can determine the microphysical properties of the aerosols and, only with complex a priori assumptions, their chemical composition. Among the in situ instrumentation, for example, optical particle counters (OPCs), condensation particle counters (CPCs) determine the microphysical properties of aerosols, while their chemical composition is determined by means of mass spectrometers, and the counterflow virtual impactor (CVI) technique associated with tunable diode laser and Lyman‐α spectrometers.
Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy, Air Monitoring by
Authors: Platt Ulrich 
Published: September 2006

AbstractDifferential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) allows the quantitative determination of atmospheric trace gas concentrations by recording and evaluating the characteristic absorption structures (lines or bands) of the trace gas molecules along an absorption path of known length in the open atmosphere. The DOAS technique is characterized by the following: (1) measuring the transmitted light intensity over a relatively (compared to the width of an absorption band) broad spectral interval; (2) high‐pass filtering of the spectra to obtain a differential absorption signal and eliminating broad‐band extinction processes such as Rayleigh and Mie scattering (RS and MS); and (3) quantitative determination of trace column densities by matching the observed spectral signatures to prerecorded (reference) spectra by, for instance, least‐squares methods.DOAS shares the advantages of most other spectroscopic techniques, including inherent calibration, sub‐parts per trillion (ppt) to ppt sensitivity and precision (1–10%), good specificity, wall‐less operation, and the capability for remote measurements. In particular, the concentration of very reactive species such as the free radicals OH, NO3, ClO, BrO, and IO are determined with DOAS. Other species of interest to atmospheric chemistry are also measurable such as SO2, CS2, O3, NO, NO2, HONO, NH3, CH2O, and most monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.A description of the technique is given, and the various modes of operation and light‐path configurations are explained. The emphasis of this article is on the practical aspects of instrument design, components of DOAS systems, operation of DOAS instruments, and state‐of‐the‐art techniques for the evaluation of DOAS spectra and realistic determination of detection limits. Finally some examples of DOAS applications are given.
Diode Laser Spectroscopic Monitoring of Trace Gases
Authors: Tittel Frank K. , Petrov Konstantin P. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Modern diode laser spectroscopy is becoming an important and a more widely used tool for detection and measurement of trace gases. The change is driven by the recent advances in diode laser technology and diode laser frequency conversion techniques, which now push the limits of emission wavelength, output power, operating temperature, miniaturization, and cost. Basic features of the diode laser now find new, interesting, and unique use in well‐established laboratory and field applications related to trace‐gas detection, and in some instances even transform the traditional spectroscopic methods. It is the purpose of this chapter to familiarize the reader with the key elements of diode laser technology and analytical methods used in diode laser spectroscopy.
Laser‐Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, Elemental Analysis
Authors: Yueh Fang‐Yu , Singh Jagdish P. , Zhang Hansheng 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Laser‐induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a laser‐based technique that can provide nonintrusive, qualitative and quantitative measurement of metals in various test environments. LIBS is an emission‐type technology that has been successfully applied to gas, liquid, and solid samples. The major advantages of LIBS compared to other analytical techniques is that no time‐consuming sample preparation is necessary. LIBS uses the plasma generated by a high‐energy laser beam to prepare and excite the sample in one step. It has the ability to perform multielement real‐time analysis. Its major disadvantage is that the excitation condition is sensitive to the fluctuation of environmental conditions as well as the laser energy, which can result in poor measurement precision. The small amount of sample material used in LIBS analysis also gives poorer sensitivity for some metals compared to inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICPAES) and atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS).
The potential of LIBS to detect toxic metals in harsh environments was recognized in the early 1970s. Recent developments towards improving its analytical capability has led to more applications. This article reviews the analytical applications of LIBS with an emphasis on environmental monitoring. A brief review of some fundamental LIBS studies is also given. The analytical abilities of LIBS are compared with some spectroscopic techniques commonly used in the laboratory, such as AAS, ICPAES, and X‐ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XFS).