bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Consumer acceptable risk: how cigarette companies have responded to accusations that their products are defective
Authors: Cummings K Michael , Brown Anthony , Douglas Clifford E 
Published: November 2006

Objective:To describe arguments used by cigarette companies to defend themselves against charges that their cigarettes were defective and that they could and should have done more to make cigarettes less hazardous.Methods:The data for this paper come from the opening statements made by defendants in four court cases: two class action lawsuits (Engle 1999, and Blankenship 2001) and two individual cases (Boeken 2001, and Schwarz 2002). The transcripts of opening statements were reviewed and statements about product defect claims, product testing, and safe cigarette research were excerpted and coded.Results:Responses by cigarette companies to charges that their products were defective has been presented consistently across different cases and by different companies. Essentially the arguments made by cigarette companies boil down to three claims: (1) smoking is risky, but nothing the companies have done has made cigarettes more dangerous than might otherwise be the case; (2) nothing the companies have done or said has kept someone from stopping smoking; and (3) the companies have spent lots of money to make the safest cigarette acceptable to the smoker.Conclusions:Cigarette companies have argued that their products are inherently dangerous but not defective, and that they have worked hard to make their products safer by lowering the tar and nicotine content of cigarettes as recommended by members of the public health community. As a counter argument, plaintiff attorneys should focus on how cigarette design changes have actually made smoking more acceptable to smokers, thereby discouraging smoking cessation.
The temporal relationship between advertising and sales of low-tar cigarettes
Authors: Reed Mark B , Anderson Christy M , Burns David M 
Published: November 2006

Objective and hypothesis:To determine whether a temporal relationship exists between the advertising and sales of low-tar cigarettes. It was hypothesised that increases in the advertising of low-tar cigarettes would precede increases in sales for these cigarettes.Methods:The themes of cigarette advertisements were reviewed and coded for 20 low-tar cigarette brands advertised in 13 widely read magazines in the US between 1960 and 1996. These 20 brands represented most of the low-tar cigarette advertisements and cigarette sales from 1967 to 1996. Cigarette sales data were obtained from the 1994 Maxwell report that summarises all cigarette sales from 1925 to 1990. If the advertisement referred to the low-tar attributes of the cigarette advertised, the advertisement was coded as having a low-tar theme and was included in the analysis.Results:Five different graphical presentations of the relationship between the advertising and sales of the 20 low-tar cigarette brands showed a temporal relationship between low-tar advertising and sales for these brands. This relationship was observed for brands that introduced a low-tar alternative into an existing brand family (eg, Marlboro Light) and for new exclusively low-tar brands (eg, Carlton). Despite large increases in the advertising for the exclusively low-tar brands, sales of these brands remained low relative to sales of the low-tar alternative brands.Conclusions:Increases in print advertising of 20 of the most popular low-tar cigarette brands were followed by increases in sales for these cigarettes. Despite increases in the advertising of exclusively low-tar brands in the mid-1970s and early 1980s, the sales of these brands never matched the sales of the low-tar alternative brands. This suggests that it may have been easier to get smokers to switch to low-tar brands within a brand family compared with entirely new low-tar brands. Over the past 30 years, the marketing of low-tar cigarettes as a healthier alternative to higher-tar cigarettes has resulted in these brands dominating the market, and may have kept concerned smokers from quitting.
Marlboro UltraSmooth: a potentially reduced exposure cigarette?
Authors: Laugesen Murray , Fowles Jefferson 
Published: November 2006

Aim:To compare relative toxic emissions scores (RTE) of the carbon filter cigarette Marlboro UltraSmooth (MUS), against regular Marlboro, Holiday, and British Columbian brands.Method:MUS cigarettes were purchased in Tampa, Florida; Marlboro regular and Holiday were purchased in Auckland, New Zealand, and all emissions tested by Labstat International Inc, Kitchener, Ontario under Health Canada Intensive (HCI) machine-smoking conditions (55 ml puff per 30 seconds, filter ventilation holes blocked) against: (1) previous same brand emissions tested under ISO (International Organization for Standardization) conditions; (2) ISO and HCI average emissions for 16 regular brands sold in British Columbia (BC), the reference standard. Toxicants, selected by toxicological risk assessment, enabled estimation of an RTE per brand, and RTE per mg of nicotine.Results:The BC standard for RTE in both ISO and HCI test modes, including metals and nitrosamines, was set at 100. Hereafter excluding them, RTE in ISO mode for BC was 97, MUS 4, Marlboro 102, and Holiday regular 99; and in HCI test mode BC was 97, MUS 42, Marlboro regular 107, and Holiday 95. From ISO to HCI, MUS total puff volume increased 50%, from 252 ml to 380 ml; nicotine yield increased 2.6 fold. Normalising for nicotine (RTE per mg nicotine), in ISO test mode, the BC standard was 97, MUS 10, Marlboro regular 124, and Holiday regular 107. In HCI mode, however, MUS/nicotine at 104 exceeded the average BC standard of 97; Marlboro regular was 137, and Holiday regular 97; MUS ranked sixth highest among 18 regular brands. MUS contained 103 mg of carbon in its 304 mg filter, which was 55% ventilated.Conclusion:The combined acetate-carbon filter of MUS performed best at low smoke volumes on ISO testing. Under more smoker-realistic intensive machine testing, and correcting for relative nicotine concentration and compensatory smoking, MUS increased the RTE, for all toxicants combined, for carcinogens, and for cardiovascular toxicants, compared with most regular brands. MUS was not a potentially reduced-exposure product (PREP) under smoker-realistic test conditions, and thus would not be expected to reduce overall harm. It is unrealistic to expect that even major design changes, as seen in MUS, or a regulatory framework to enforce such changes, could reduce cigarette smoking mortality risks to acceptable levels.
An uncontrolled trial of cytisine (Tabex) for smoking cessation: Table 1
Authors: Zatonski Witold , Cedzynska Magdalena , Tutka Piotr , West Robert 
Published: November 2006

Objectives:Cytisine (Tabex) has been licensed in Eastern Europe as an aid to smoking cessation for 40 years. Cytisine is a partial agonist with high affinity binding to the α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor believed to be central to the rewarding effect of nicotine. There is insufficient information on effectiveness to warrant licensing by modern standards. To assess whether full-scale controlled trials are warranted, this study sought to obtain an estimate of the 12-month continuous abstinence rates of smokers using cytisine with minimal behavioural support.Design:An uncontrolled, open-label trial.Setting:A smokers’ clinic in an oncology centre in Warsaw, Poland.Subjects:436 consecutive attendees of the smokers’ clinic of whom 191 were male. The mean dependence score (Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence) was 6.1.Intervention:The standard regimen of Tabex (cytisine) was used, involving 25 days of treatment with minimal behavioural support.Main outcome measure:Self-reported continuous abstinence for 12 months; with abstinence verified by carbon monoxide at the final follow up (after 12 months).Results:60 participants (13.8% of the total sample) were abstinent for 12 months. Of the 315 subjects, who had taken the drug, 49 (15.5%) stopped cytisine because of adverse effects (mostly gastric disturbances and nausea), although they were not serious. The frequency of the minor adverse effects, primarily gastric disturbance, was similar to that observed in previous studies with the drug.Conclusions:The long-term abstinence rates were similar to those observed in smokers receiving nicotine replacement therapy. Full-scale randomised trials of cytisine (Tabex), conducted to the standards required by regulatory authorities, are warranted.
Sidestream cigarette smoke toxicity increases with aging and exposure duration
Authors: Schick Suzaynn , Glantz Stanton A 
Published: November 2006

Objectives:To determine the effects of aging on the toxicity of sidestream tobacco smoke, the complex chemical mixture that enters the air from the lit end of burning cigarettes and constitutes the vast bulk of secondhand smoke.Design:Statistical analysis of data from controlled experimental exposures of Sprague Dawley rats to fresh and aged (for more than 30 minutes) sidestream smoke for up to 90 days followed by histological sectioning of the respiratory epithelium. The data were obtained from a series of experiments conducted at Philip Morris’ formerly secret INBIFO (Institut für Biologische Forschung) laboratory in Germany.Results:Using total particulate material as the measure of smoke exposure, aging sidestream cigarette smoke for at least 30 minutes increases its toxicity fourfold for 21 day exposures and doubles the toxicity for 90 day exposures, relative to fresh sidestream smoke.Conclusions:These results help explain the relatively large biological effects of secondhand smoke compared to equivalent mass doses of mainstream smoke.
The US Public Health Service “treating tobacco use and dependence clinical practice guidelines” as a legal standard of care: Table 1
Authors: Torrijos Randy M , Glantz Stanton A 
Published: November 2006

Background:The important factors in evaluating the role of clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) in medical malpractice litigation have been discussed for several years, but have focused on broad policy implications rather than on a concrete example of how an actual guideline might be evaluated. There are four items that need to be considered in negligence torts: legal duty, a breach of that duty, causal relationship between breach and injury, and damages.Objective:To identify the arguments related to legal duty.Results:The Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence (revised 2000) CPG, sponsored by the US Public Health Service, recommends effective and inexpensive treatments for nicotine addiction, the largest preventable cause of death in the US, and can be used as an example to focus on important considerations about the appropriateness of CPGs in the judicial system. Furthermore, the failure of many doctors and hospitals to deal with tobacco use and dependence raises the question of whether this failure could be considered malpractice, given the Public Health Service guideline’s straightforward recommendations, their efficacy in preventing serious disease and cost-effectiveness.Conclusion:Although each case of medical malpractice depends on a multitude of factors unique to individual cases, a court could have sufficient basis to find that the failure to adequately treat the main cause of preventable disease and death in the US qualifies as a violation of the legal duty that doctors and hospitals owe to patients habituated to tobacco use and dependence.
Epidemiology of the third wave of tobacco litigation in the United States, 1994–2005
Authors: Douglas Clifford E , Davis Ronald M , Beasley John K 
Published: November 2006

Objective:To describe the epidemiology of litigation against the tobacco industry in the United States during the years 1994–2005 (described as the “third wave” of tobacco litigation). “Epidemiology” refers to the study of the distribution and determinants of disease in populations. We apply the term “epidemiology” to the litigation context for purposes of characterising qualitatively and, to the extent possible, quantitatively the variety of cases litigated against tobacco manufacturers and allied tobacco interests during the third wave and their impact on the tobacco industry.Methods:The data for this paper come from legal cases identified in the Tobacco Deposition and Trial Testimony Archive (DATTA) collection (http://tobaccodocuments.org/datta), transcripts of testimony and related documents found in DATTA, government-mandated reports filed by tobacco manufacturers with the US Securities and Exchange Commission, investment company reports, reports and analyses published by the news media, a variety of informational documents produced by the Tobacco Control Resource Center at the Northeastern University School of Law, and legal settlement documents provided by the National Association of Attorneys General.Results:The US tobacco industry faced a far greater number of lawsuits, and a greater variety of types of lawsuit, between 1994 and 2005 than it had in previous years. Plaintiffs won 31 (41%) of the 75 cases that were tried to verdict during the years 1995–2005. Seven plaintiffs have been paid awards totalling US$115 million, including interest, following the exhaustion of appeals. Based on an evaluation of litigation brought against US industry leader Philip Morris, the total number of cases pending peaked in 2000, dropping off modestly since then. For example, 36 class actions were pending in 2000, while 33 were pending in 2005. In the same time period, individual actions fell from a total of 3385 to 2863. While the playing field has been levelled to some degree in the tobacco litigation arena with respect to the resources brought to bear by plaintiffs and defendants, tobacco industry defendants continue to employ far greater financial and human resources than their adversaries.Conclusions:The third wave of tobacco litigation has represented a sea change in efforts to hold the tobacco industry in the United States accountable in American courtrooms. While tobacco manufacturers continue to do their utmost to make these cases difficult to pursue, many of the cases that have gone to trial have met with success in recent years, which suggests that plaintiffs’ lawyers are now better equipped to persuade juries of the defendants’ culpability.
Characteristics of Thermally Oxidized-Ti as a High-k Gate Dielectric on SiC Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Devices
Authors: Mahapatra Rajat , Poolamai Nipapan , Wright Nick , Chakraborty Amit K. , Coleman Karl S. , Das K. , Ray S. K. , Coleman Paul , Burrows Paul 
Published: November 2006

We have investigated the structural and electrical properties of thermally oxidized-Ti gate dielectric stacks on 4H-SiC films. In addition, SiO2 films were used as an interfacial layer between TiO2 films and 4H-SiC substrate.	The TiO2 films were grown by oxidising evaporated Ti films at the temperature range of 700-1000 ºC for 1 hour. The films remain amorphous up to oxidation temperature of 900 ºC while oxidation at 1000 ºC transforms the film to be polycrystalline. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirms the formation of stoichiometric TiO2 films. Capacitance-voltage characteristics exhibit the shift of flatband voltage attributing the presence of oxide charges. The TiO2/SiO2 4H-SiC capacitors in which Ti was oxidized at 800 ºC give the less fixed oxide charge density with moderate value of interface state density and less leakage current density.
Electrical Breakdown and Reliability of Metal Gate - La2O3 Thin Films after Post Deposition Annealing in N2
Authors: Molina Joel , Tsutsui Kazuo , Iwai H. , Kakushima Kuniyuki , Sugii Nobuyuki , Ahmet Parhat 
Published: November 2006

We report the electrical characteristics and reliability of Metal-La2O3 stacks on silicon after Post Deposition Annealing (PDA) of La2O3 in N2. MIS capacitors were fabricated and their C-V and I-V characteristics before and after applying a Constant Voltage Stress (CVS) in the substrate injection condition were evaluated. By using 2 different physical thickness for La2O3, the same Equivalent Oxide Thickness EOT ~	1.5nm is obtained for Al-gated and W-gated La2O3 stacks. This is explained by the presence of an already existent Al2O3 interfacial layer IL at the Al-La2O3 interface which results in a lower k for the total oxide stack. It is speculated that the physical thickness of this IL slightly increases after stress, which can be seen as degradation in the C-V characteristics of the Al-La2O3-nSi structure. This can be explained by the use of a modified Reaction-Diffusion (R-D) model, which is based on the Electric Stress-Induced Defect Generation (ESIDG) mechanism (1). Finally, longer lifetimes before breakdown were obtained for W-gated La2O3 MIS capacitors and a 10 years operation is guaranteed by using both the linear or reciprocal Vg models.
Accelerated Testing and Lifetime Modeling for the Development of Durable Fuel Cell MEAs
Authors: Hicks Michael , Pierpont Dan , Turner Pete , Watschke Theresa 
Published: November 2006

Accelerated testing and lifetime modeling are important tools for the development of durable membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) to meet U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) 2010 lifetime target of 40,000 hours for stationary systems.	Several methods were used to model MEA lifetime and make predictions for MEA lifetime at end use conditions. Statistical modeling and initial fluoride release modeling offer the best opportunity for reliably predicting MEA lifetime. Accelerated testing results found that a near OCV load setting has a strong negative impact on fuel cell life and that new 3M membranes improve durability significantly over industry standard membranes. The data suggest a pathway for MEAs to last in excess of 20,000 hours.
Hydrogen Peroxide Formation as a Degradation Factor of Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells
Authors: Inaba Minoru , Yamada Hirohisa , Tokunaga Junko , Matsuzawa Koichi , Hatanaka Aoi , Tasaka Akimasa 
Published: November 2006

20wt.% Pt/C catalyst was loaded at different densities (0.28- 56.7 mgcarbon cm-2) on glassy carbon (GC) disk electrode, and the effect of its agglomeration on hydrogen peroxide formation in oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) was investigated by the rotating ring-disk electrode technique. The formation of H2O2 was enhanced with a reduction in agglomeration of Pt/C. Even in the operating potential range of PEFC cathodes (0.6-0.8 V), 20% of hydrogen peroxide was formed on Pt/C loaded at densities lower than 1.41 mgcarbon cm-2 on GC.	These results revealed that series 2-electron reduction pathway, which is negligible on clean bulk Pt surface, exists on Pt nanoparticles supported on carbon. A large amount of H2O2 formation was observed on Pt nanoparticles deposited not only on GC, but also on Au, which indicated that H2O2 formation is not specific to Pt nanoparticles on carbon support.
Improving the Morphology of Copper Electrodeposits from Halide Media Using Additives and Mass Transport Control
Authors: Free Michael , Bhide Ravindra , Rodchanarowan Aphichart 
Published: November 2006

The extraction and recovery of copper from the most common copper resource mineral, chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), can be performed using halide extraction and electrowinning chemistry in place of the traditional smelting and electrorefining. Electrowinning copper from halide media requires approximately 50 % of the energy needed using sulfate media.	However, one challenge to the implementation of halide chemistry is the deposit morphology relative to that produced using sulfate chemistry. This study presents the effects of mass transport and organic additives on copper deposit morphology associated with halide electrowinning. The results show that appropriate control of mass transport through increased convective fluid flow or pulsing and the addition of some organic compounds can improve the morphology of the deposit significantly.
The Recovery of Metals from Waste Streams by Electrochemical Methods
Authors: Buckle Rachel C. , Roy S. 
Published: November 2006

Tin stripping solution arises from a stage in the manufacture of printed circuit boards. This waste contains copper and tin that could be recovered for reuse. By focussing on this waste stream, a systematic approach has been developed to determine how the metals can be recovered. Pourbaix diagrams have been constructed for the metals and compared to find the pH or potential where the metals can be separated according to their state.	Experiments were carried out to verify the theoretical findings.
The Effect of Cathodic Treatment and Annealing of the Fe76Nb3Cu1Si13.8B6.2 Alloy on Its Electrochemical Behavior
Authors: Pimenova Natalia , Skryabina Natalie 
Published: November 2006

The effect of annealing and cathodic treatment on properties of oxide layer of the solid non-crystalline alloy Fe76Nb3Cu1 Si13.8B6.2 has been studied. Using secondary ion mass spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy the chemical composition of the surface and subsurface layers was investigated. Redistribution of elements in subsurface layer significantly affects the electrochemical corrosion of the alloy.	High amount of oxygen in subsurface layer was detected.
The Effect of LSM Nanoparticles on SOFC Cathode Performance
Authors: Birss V. I. , Fournier Joseph 
Published: November 2006

Nanoparticles of La1-xSrxMnO3{plus minus}¸ (LSM) were developed in the hopes that their high surface area would translate into enhanced oxygen reduction (ORR) kinetics when used as SOFC cathode materials. A novel sol gel derived synthesis was developed to produce both powders and a sol of LSM.	Two distinct cathode fabrication approaches were utilized in this work in an effort to test the effects of sintering temperature. The first involved the pre-calcination of LSM nanopowders at 900 åC that were than subjected to the same high temperatures commonly used to sinter micron-sized LSM:YSZ electrodes. The second made use of a two stage sintering process, where the nano LSM component was introduced into a pre-sintered YSZ matrix by a liquid phase impregnation technique, which was followed by low temperature calcination. A comparison of the electrochemical activities between conventional LSM and LSM:YSZ cathodes has shown that higher ORR rates are obtainable by utilization of LSM nanoparticles.
The Human Striatum is Necessary for Responding to Changes in Stimulus Relevance
Authors: Cools R. , Ivry R. B. , D'Esposito M. 
Published: November 2006

Abstract
Various lines of evidence suggest that the striatum is implicated in cognitive flexibility. The neuropsychological evidence has, for the most part, been based on research with patients with Parkinson's disease, which is accompanied by chemical disruption of both the striatum and the prefrontal cortex. The present study examined this issue by testing patients with focal lesions of the striatum on a task measuring two forms of cognitive switching. Patients with striatal, but not frontal lobe lesions, were impaired in switching between concrete sensory stimuli. By contrast, both patient groups were unimpaired when switching between abstract task rules relative to baseline nonswitch trials. These results reveal a dissociation between two distinct forms of cognitive f lexibility, providing converging evidence for a role of the striatum in f lexible control functions associated with the selection of behaviorally relevant stimuli.