bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
High‐temperature Superconductivity—Magnetic Mechanisms
Authors: Norman Michael R. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractA brief history concerning the relation of magnetism to superconductivity and the possibility that magnetic correlations are responsible for certain types of superconductors is given. The central focus is on high‐temperature cuprate superconductivity and the important question of whether its d‐wave pairing is caused by antiferromagnetic or singlet correlations. Connected with this question is the much debated relation of the pseudogap phase to the superconducting phase, and whether lattice degrees of freedom are relevant or not.
Quantum Computing with Spins in Solids
Authors: Coish William A. , Loss Daniel 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The ability to perform high‐precision one‐ and two‐qubit operations is sufficient for universal quantum computation. For the Loss–DiVincenzo proposal to use single‐electron spins confined to quantum dots as qubits, it is therefore sufficient to analyze only single‐ and coupled double‐dot structures, since the strong Heisenberg exchange coupling between spins in this proposal falls off exponentially with distance and long‐ranged dipolar coupling mechanisms can be made significantly weaker. A scaled‐up quantum computer could then be constructed from many single‐ and double‐dot elements. This scalability of the Loss–DiVincenzo design is both a practical necessity for eventual applications of multiqubit quantum computing and a great conceptual advantage, making analysis of the relevant components relatively transparent and systematic. We review the Loss–DiVincenzo proposal for quantum‐dot‐confined electron‐spin qubits, and survey the current state of experiment and theory regarding the relevant single‐ and double‐quantum dots, with a brief look at some related alternative schemes for quantum computing.
Geometry‐driven Magnetoresistance
Authors: Solin Stuart A. , Ram‐Mohan L. Ramdas 
Published: December 2007

AbstractMagnetoresistance (MR) in materials arises from two properties of the system. One is the physical MR that is dependent on the intrinsic properties of the materials in the physical system. The second source originates in the geometric structure and distribution of the materials in the physical system. In this review, we focus on the geometric MR and show how it can be altered and dramatically enhanced in two cases. First, in metal–semiconductor hybrid (MSH) structures, the judicious distribution of metal and semiconductor leads to a dramatic increase in the MR due to the rerouting of the current passing preferentially through the metallic regions at low fields, due to their high conductivity, into the semiconductor regions in the presence of a magnetic field. This phenomenon is now known asextraordinary magnetoresistance(EMR), with observed room‐temperature EMR in excess of 100% at 0.05 T and reaching values of 106% at 5 T. This property of the MSH has been shown to be scalable down to structure dimensions on the order of ∼50 nm with a measured EMR of 35% at a signal field of 0.05 T. The details of the diffusive transport mechanism leading to the enhancements in MR are presented. Second, in nanocontacts between ferromagnetic wires, the quantum point contact leads to a ballistic magnetoresistance (BMR) that is due to the development of a domain wall (DW) between the wires when they are magnetized in an antiparallel configuration. The scattering of electrons by the DW in the nanochannels between the wires changes the conductance of the channel, and BMR of ∼300–3000% and higher have been observed. Here again the geometric origin of the MR is evident. The various aspects of the nanochannel governing BMR are discussed. Both geometric enhancements show great promise for technological applications in the area of reliable nanoscale sensors for computer read heads, magnetic actuators and switches, and biological sensors.
The Kondo Effect in Mesoscopic Quantum Dots
Authors: Grobis Michael , Rau Ileana G. , Potok Ronald M. , Goldhaber‐Gordon David 
Published: December 2007

Abstract

A dilute concentration of magnetic impurities can dramatically affect the transport properties of an otherwise pure metal. This phenomenon, known as the
Kondo effect
, originates from the interactions of individual magnetic impurities with the conduction electrons. Nearly a decade ago, the Kondo effect was observed in a new system, in which the magnetic moment stems from a single unpaired spin in a lithographically defined quantum dot, or artificial atom. The discovery of the Kondo effect in artificial atoms spurred a revival in the study of Kondo physics, due in part to the unprecedented control of relevant parameters in these systems. In this review, we discuss the physics, origins, and phenomenology of the Kondo effect in the context of recent quantum dot experiments. After a brief historical introduction (Section 1), we first discuss the spin‐1/2 Kondo effect (Section 2) and how it is modified by various parameters, external couplings, and nonideal conduction reservoirs (Section 3). Next, we discuss measurements of more exotic Kondo systems (Section 4) and conclude with some possible future directions (Section 5).
Hot Electron Spintronics
Authors: Jiang Xin , van Dijken Sebastiaan , Parkin Stuart 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
This article reviews recent experimental progress in hot electron spintronics. Experiments from various research groups using spin‐resolved electron transmission in ferromagnetic‐metal thin films are presented and the concept of spin‐filtering is introduced. These studies provide key insights into the operation of hot electron spintronic devices. Several applications based on hot electron spin‐filtering are also discussed, including ballistic electron emission microscopy, the spin‐valve transistor, and the magnetic tunnel transistor. Finally, the topic of hot electron spin injection into semiconductors is briefly reviewed.
Theory of Spin‐polarized Current and Spin‐transfer Torque in Magnetic Multilayers
Authors: Slonczewski John 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
An introduction to the theory of quantized spin‐polarized electron transport perpendicular to the plane of a magnetic multilayer with noncollinear magnetization vectors. The dependence of resistance and current‐driven torque on relative angle between two magnetic moments of a multilayer pillar are derived. Spacers of both metallic and insulating tunnel‐barrier types are considered. The classical Landau–Lifshitz equation describes the dynamics of the magnetization created by spin‐transfer torque.
Comparison Between Liquid State and Solid State Electrochemistry
Authors: Riess Ilan 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are
We discuss the similarities and differences between liquid‐state electrochemistry (LSE) and solid‐state electrochemistry (SSE). Although based on the same thermodynamic principles, the properties of these cells are quite distinct. Differences exist in the bulk conduction mechanism, partially in electrode reaction and in cell construction and morphology. This also leads to differences in applications.

Introduction

Electrochemical Cell Geometry

Cells Based on
LEs

Cells Based on
SEs

Comparing the Two Groups of Cells

Charge Transport in Electrolytes

Charge Transport in
LEs

Charge Transport in
SEs

Summarizing the Differences Between Transport in
LEs
and
SEs

Theoretical Current Voltage Relations for Ideal
ECs
(No Electrode Polarization)

General Current Density Equations

Half Cells

Supporting Electrolyte

Boundary Conditions

Relations Between Open‐Circuit Voltage and the Nernst Voltage

Chemical Diffusion Coefficient

I
–
V
Relations

Methods for Characterizing
ECs

Methods for Characterizing
LEs
and
SEs
/
MIECs

Methods for Characterizing Elements in the
EC

Electrode Processes and Overpotentials

General

Inner (
G
alvani) Electrical Potential

Inner Electrical Potential in
LSE

Inner Electrical Potential in
SSE

I
–
V
Relations for Charge‐Transfer Processes in
LSE

The Butler–Volmer Equation for an Elementary Step

The Butler–Volmer Equation for Multistep Reactions

I
–
V
Relations for Charge‐Transfer Processes in
SSE

General

Ion Transfer

Electron Transfer

Further Discussion of Ion and Electron Transfer

Relating the Overpotential to a Difference in a Chemical or Electrochemical Potential

Conclusions for Charge‐Transfer Processes

Diffusion

Galvani Potential Distribution versus Electrochemical Potential Distribution

Heterogeneous Catalysis in
SSE

Summary
State of Art: Present Knowledge and Understanding
Authors: Horányi G. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe sections in this article areHistorical BackgroundThe Structure of the Double LayerThermodynamics and ModelsThe Extent of AdsorptionAdsorption IsothermIndication and Evaluation of Specific AdsorptionSpecific Adsorption at Solid ElectrodesThe End of the “Mercury Era”Underpotential Deposition: A Limiting Case of Specific AdsorptionA Widely Used and Misinterpreted Misconception: The Electrosorption ValencyInterrelation of Anion Specific Adsorption andUPDof Metal IonsThe Generalization of the Thermodynamics of Monolayer Adsorption in Electrochemical SystemsAnion Adsorption on Well‐defined Crystal SurfacesMethods of Investigation and Illustrative ExamplesGeneral RemarksIn Situ TechniquesOptical TechniquesRadiotracer MethodsElectrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance (EQCM) and Nanobalance (EQCN) TechniquesScanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)Ex Situ MethodsElectrochemical Double‐layer Modeling Under Ultrahigh Vacuum ConditionsIllustrative ExamplesTrends and PerspectivesAcknowledgment
Electrodeposition of Compound Semiconductors by Electrochemical Atomic Layer Epitaxy (
EC
‐
ALE
)
Authors: Stickney John L. , Wade Travis L. , Flowers Billy H. , Vaidyanathan Raman , Happek Uwe 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
This chapter concerns the state of development of electrochemical atomic layer epitaxy (EC‐ALE), the electrochemical analog of atomic layer epitaxy (ALE). EC‐ALE is being developed as a methodology for the electrodeposition of compound semiconductors with nanoscale control. ALE is based on the formation of compounds, one monolayer (ML) at a time, using surface‐limited reactions. An atomic layer of one element can be electrodeposited at a potential under that needed to deposit the element on itself, and this process is referred to as underpotential deposition (UPD). EC‐ALE is the use of UPD for the surface‐limited reactions in an ALE cycle.
Electrodeposition is generally performed near room temperature, avoiding problems with interdiffusion and mismatched thermal expansion coefficients. This makes EC‐ALE a good candidate to form superlattices, where the compound deposited is modulated on the nanometer scale.
This chapter describes the basics of the EC‐ALE cycle, the elements that have been used to form deposits, as well as the solutions, rinsing, and potential changes. It describes the hardware presently being used by this group and other research laboratories, the compounds that have been formed, and the development of deposition cycles for various compounds. It describes the status of device formation using EC‐ALE, and goes over some of the problems and issues involved in developing cycles and growing films. Finally, given that EC‐ALE is based on surface‐limited electrochemical reactions, studies of relevant electrodeposit surface chemistry are discussed.
Electronic Tunnel Factors in Molecular Electron Transfer and Molecular Conduction
Authors: Nitzan Abraham 
Published: December 2007

AbstractElectron transmission through molecules and molecular interfaces has been a subject of intensive research owing to recent interest in electron transfer phenomena underlying the operation of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) on one hand, and in the transmission properties of molecular bridges between conducting leads, on the other. In these processes, the traditional molecular view of electron transfer between donor and acceptor species give rise to a novel view of the molecule as a current carrying conductor, and observables such as electron transfer rates and yields are replaced by the conductivities, or more generally by current–voltage relationships, in molecular junctions. Such investigations of electrical junctions in which single molecules or small molecular assemblies operate as conductors, constitute a major part of what has become the active field of molecular electronics.In this chapter, the author reviews the current knowledge and understanding of this field with particular emphasis on theoretical issues, and on the relationship between this new look at electron transfer phenomena and the traditional study of molecular electron transfer in solution. Different approaches to computing the conduction properties of molecules and molecular assemblies are reviewed, and the relationships between them is discussed.
Analog and Digital Instrumentation
Authors: Wipf David 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Electrical Control

Electronic Principles

Electronic Electrical Control

Potentiostat Circuits

Galvanostatic Circuits

Signal Transduction

Alternate Control Circuits

Ohmic Drop Compensation

Current Interruption

Positive Feedback

Control Loop Frequency Response

Effect of Reference Position

Positive Feedback Stability

Other Destabilizing Conditions

Excitation Signals and Data Acquisition

Excitation Signals

Data Acquisition

Microcomputer Control and Storage

Example Instrument

Conclusion
Ultrasound and Electrosynthesis
Authors: Compton Richard G. , Hardcastle Joanna L. , del Campo Javier , Wadhawan Jay D. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Cell Design in Sonoelectrosynthesis

Examples of Sonoelectrosynthetic Reactions

Electrochemical Reductions in Ultrasonically Emulsified Media: Electroreduction of Maleates, Fumarates, and Acetylenes

Electrodimerization of 2‐Nitrobenzylchloride in the Presence of Ultrasound

Ultrasonically Enhanced Birch Reductions

Ultrasonically Induced Electrode Depassivation: Reduction of Methylene Green

Ultrasonically Enhanced Kolbe Processes

Inorganic Sonoelectrosynthesis: Production of Metallic Nanopowders

Sonoelectrosynthesis: An Overview
Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy
Authors: Horrocks Benjamin R. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Principles of Operation

Feedback Mode

Generation/Collection Mode and Potentiometric
SECM

Penetration Experiments

Equilibrium Perturbation Mode

SECM
Imaging

Instrumentation

Apparatus

Tips

Theory

Numerical Simulation of
SECM
Experiments

Finite Difference Methods

Integral Equations

Finite Element Methods

Steady State
SECM
Experiments

Diffusion‐Controlled Reactions

Finite Kinetics

Generation‐Collection Mode

Transient
SECM
Experiments

Potential Step Techniques

Miscellaneous Techniques

Selected Applications

Solid–Liquid Interfaces

Corrosion

Semiconductors

Conductive Polymers

Immobilized Enzymes

Dissolution of Ionic Crystals

Liquid–Liquid and Liquid–Gas Interfaces

Electron Transfer at the
ITIES

Ion Transfer at the
ITIES

Transfer of Neutral Molecules

Applications in the Life Sciences

Intact Plants and Single Cultivated Cells

Calcium and Superoxide Measurements

Imaging Mass Transport in Biological Systems

Microfabrication

Methods Based on Direct Current Flow Between Tip and Substrate

Methods Based on Feedback or Localized Generation of Reagents

Single Molecule Electrochemistry

Advances in
SECM
Imaging

Constant Height Imaging

Constant Current Imaging

High‐Resolution
SECM
Imaging

Acknowledgments
Kinetics of Electrolytic Corrosion Reactions
Authors: Frankel Gerald S. , Landolt Dieter 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Measures of Corrosion Rate

Exchange Current Density; Kinetics at Equilibrium

Overvoltage

Activation Overvoltage

Development of
B
utler–
V
olmer Equation

T
afel Equation

Low‐field Approximation

Multistep Reactions

The Hydrogen Evolution Reaction

Mixed Potential Theory

Effect of Multiple Oxidizing Agents

Galvanic Corrosion

Ohmic Potential Drops

Polarization Resistance and Linear Polarization
Uniform Corrosion of Metals in Acid, Neutral and Alkaline Electrolytes
Authors: Feser Ralf 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe sections in this article areFundamental Aspects of Uniform CorrosionIntroduction to Uniform CorrosionHomogenous Mixed ElectrodeDetermination of the Homogenous Corrosion RateCathodic Corrosion Reactions in AcidsKinetic of Cathodic Reactions and Influence of Transport ProcessesTransport‐controlled Hydrogen ReductionOxygen ReductionCorrosion in Mineral AcidsCorrosion in Organic SolutionsSingle or Multicomponent MediaCorrosion of Various MetalsIronPotential–pHDiagram of IronCorrosion of Iron in AcidsCorrosion of Iron in Neutral and Alkaline SolutionsStainless SteelCorrosion of Stainless Steels in AcidsStainless Steels in Neutral and Alkaline SolutionsNickelPotential–pHDiagram of NickelCorrosion of Nickel in AcidsCorrosion of Nickel in Neutral and Alkaline SolutionsAluminumPotential–pHDiagram of AluminumCorrosion of Aluminum in AcidsCorrosion of Aluminum in Neutral and Alkaline SolutionsMagnesiumPotential–pHDiagram of MagnesiumCorrosion of Magnesium in AcidsCorrosion of Magnesium in Neutral and Alkaline SolutionsZincPotential–pHDiagram of ZincCorrosion of Zinc in AcidsCorrosion of Zinc in Neutral and Alkaline SolutionsCopperPotential–pHDiagram of CopperCorrosion of Copper in AcidsCorrosion of Copper in Neutral and Alkaline SolutionsTitaniumPotential–pHDiagram of TitaniumCorrosion of Titanium in AcidsCorrosion of Titanium in Neutral and Alkaline Solutions
Electrochemical Deposition
Authors: Paunovic Milan 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Electrochemical deposition involves (1) electrodeposition (Sects 3.1, 3.2, and 3.5.2), (2) electroless deposition (Sects 3.3 and 3.5.3), and (3) displacement deposition (Sect. 3.4). The structure and properties of the deposits are the subject of Sect. 3.6. The applications of electrochemical deposition in modern electrochemical technology are discussed in Sects 3.7 and 3.8.
Electrochemical Techniques for Studying High‐temperature Subcritical and Supercritical Aqueous Solutions
Authors: Lvov Serguei N. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

High‐temperature Electrochemical Systems

High‐temperature Reference Electrodes

High‐temperature Indicator Electrodes

Undesirable Potentials

High‐temperature Reference and Buffer Solutions

High‐temperature Potentiometry

High‐temperature
p
H
Measurements

High‐temperature Electrokinetic Studies

High‐temperature Electrochemical Kinetics and Corrosion

High‐temperature Electrical Conductance Techniques

Conclusions
Polymer Electrolyte and Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
Authors: Gottesfeld Shimshon 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionThe Polymer Electrolyte and Direct Methanol Fuel Cells: Brief Overview of Key Components and Features of Cells and StacksThe Polymer Electrolyte and Direct Methanol Fuel Cells: Power Output and Energy‐conversion EfficiencyThe Ionomeric MembraneChemical Structure and Chemical Stability of Proton‐conducting Polymeric MembranesThe Ionomeric Membrane/Water SystemWater Uptake by Ionomeric MembranesThe State of Water in the Ionomeric MembraneProton Conduction in Ionomeric MembranesWater Currents through Ionomeric Membranes in an OperatingPEFCDiffusion of Water in poly[PFSA] MembranesElectroosmosisModeling of the Water Profile and Net Water Flow Rate across the Ionomeric Membrane under CurrentThePEFCIonomeric Membrane—State of the ArtFrom Ionomeric Membrane to the Membrane‐electrode AssemblyPt/CCatalysts Applied to the MembraneLong‐term Stability of Membrane/Electrode Assemblies inPEFCsFrom aPEFCStack to thePEFCPower SystemElectrocatalysis and Electrodes inPEFCsThe Anode Process in thePEFCsThePEFCAnode with Pure Hydrogen FeedThe Anode Process in aPEFCOperating on Reformed Carbonaceous FuelsAnode Catalyst Cleansing by Oxygen BleedingCO‐tolerantPEFCAnode CatalystsThePEFCAnode: SummaryThe Air Cathode in thePEFCPEFCCathode Losses and the Uniqueness of the Pt CatalystThe Kinetics of theORRat the Pt/Ionomer InterfaceThePEFCAir Cathode: Comprehensive Analysis of Voltage LossPEFCCathode Modeling and Diagnostics Based on Impedance SpectraThePEFCCathode: SummaryThe Direct Methanol Fuel CellTheDMFCAnodeTheDMFCMembrane: Methanol Crossover and the Impact on the Power/Efficiency Relationship in theDMFCTheDMFCAir CathodePotential Applications ofDMFCsin Portable Power SourcesMicrofuel Cell System Engineering ChallengesDemonstrations of Small Fuel‐cell System PrototypesAcknowledgments
Charge Transport in Dye‐sensitized Systems
Authors: Nelson Jenny 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionDye‐sensitized Systems for PhotovoltaicsDye‐sensitized Systems for Other ApplicationsStructure and Function of Dye‐sensitized Junctions: An OverviewGeneral Structure of Dye‐sensitized Electrochemical JunctionEnergetic StructurePhysical Structure and MaterialsCharge Carriers and Charge Transfer ProcessesPotential DistributionRelevance to Device PerformanceMaterial PropertiesElectron ConductorZnOand Other Oxidesp‐type Metal OxidesHole ConductorsLiquid ElectrolytesSolid‐state Hole ConductorsDyesTheoretical BackgroundBasic Equations of Device PhysicsCharge Transport in a Conventional Photovoltaic DeviceDevice Physics for Dye‐sensitized SystemsSimplifications for Dye‐sensitized SystemsExperimental Techniques and ResultsDCMeasurementsIncident Photon to Current EfficiencyDark‐current VoltageLight‐current VoltagePhotoconductivity and Photovoltaic PropertiesTime DomainPhotocurrent TransientsPotential Step TransientsTransient AbsorptionFrequency DomainIntensity Modulated Photocurrent SpectroscopyIMVSElectrical Impedance Spectro‐scopy (EIS)SummaryAcknowledgment
Solid State Dye‐sensitized Solar Cells—An Alternative Route Towards Low‐Cost Photovoltaic Devices
Authors: Bach Udo 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Solid‐state Dye‐sensitized Systems

Organic
CTMs
Applied to Nanoporous Dye‐sensitized Metal Oxide Electrodes

Inorganic Nanoporous Dye‐sensitized Heterojunctions

Alternative Organic Solid‐state Approaches

Organic Solar Cells

Interpenetrating Networks

Nonsensitized Inorganic/Organic Junctions

Conclusion and Outlook

Acknowledgment
Sulfur
Authors: Levillain E. , Demortier A. , Lelieur J.‐P. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Sulfur and Polysulfide Ions in Solution

Nonaqueous Solvents

Aqueous Solutions

Electroreduction of Sulfur and Redox Properties of Polysulfides

“Classical” Nonaqueous Solvents

Liquid Ammonia

Aqueous Solutions

Electrooxidation of Sulfur

Applied Electrochemistry

Electrosynthesis

Batteries, Solar Cells, and Sulfurization

Environmental Chemistry

Conclusion
Alkali Metals
Authors: Redepenning Jody 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionSecondary Lithium‐ion BatteriesStandard Potentials in Aqueous SolutionsTemperature Dependence of Standard PotentialsAlkali Metal HydridesPourbaix DiagramsAmalgamsFormation of Binary CompoundsNonaqueous Solvents
A Few Selected Aspects of Electrode‐induced Reactions at Mono‐ and Dinuclear Molybdenum–sulfur Centers
Authors: Pétillon Francois Y. , Schollhammer Philippe , Talarmin Jean 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Mononuclear
Mo

S
Centers

Electron Transfer‐induced Structure Change

Electrochemically Induced Metal–ligand Bonds Cleavage

Electrochemical Transformation of Ligands

Dinuclear Thiolate‐bridged Molybdenum Complexes

Electron Transfer‐induced Structure Changes

Electron Transfer‐induced and Electron Transfer‐catalyzed Ligand Substitution

Electrochemically Induced Metal–Ligand Bonds Cleavage

Electrochemical Deprotection of a Substrate‐binding Site

Electrochemical Transformations of Bound Substrate

Conclusion

Acknowledgments