bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
DENTITION AND AGEING OF THE HIPPOPOTAMUS
Authors: Laws R. M. 
Published: April 2008

I. SummaryThe present paper is based on the examination of lower jaws from some 3000 individuals of Hippopotamus amphibius L. which were collected in the course of cropping operations in the Queen Elizabeth Park, Uganda between 1961 and 1966.It extends an earlier study by W. M. Longhurst, who described 20 relative age groups based on tooth replacement and wear. The age groups, slightly modified, are described and illustrated here and should serve as a useful field guide.Mean chronological ages from 0–43 years have been allocated to the groups.Checks which confirm the validity of the ages allotted are presented and discussed. These include correlation with the mandibular age group of six known‐age animals; findings on the age‐related incidence of rinderpest‐neutralising antibodies; the orderly progress of fusion of the mandibular symphysis and rate of loss of the first premolar. Growth layers present in the teeth are discussed.The growth of the eye lens is also described. After an initial phase of rapid growth the lens continues to grow throughout life and follows a rectilinear pattern from an estimated age of eight years onwards. This is expected from the findings of similar studies on other species for which known‐age specimens are available. Variability of lens dry weight at age is relatively small and indicates that the estimated ages are reasonably precise.Growth of the mandible is analysed and is not inconsistent with the ages allotted. A marked sex difference in mandible weight at age allows the sex of found jaws to be determined at ages above eight years.The growth of the teeth is described. Both canines and incisors show well‐marked sex differences in growth rate and size. The post‐canine teeth do not show sex differences. Cycles of growth, wear and resorption of these teeth are discussed and it is concluded that mechanical senescence of the teeth is a major factor in mortality at ages above 30 years.Growth in body length is briefly discussed and provides further confirmation of the validity and precision of the age criteria. Growth equations are presented.Finally a survivorship curve derived from the ageing of 207 jaws assumed to represent natural deaths is presented. Population models are constructed from the survivorship curves by calculation of estimated natality rates (obtained by applying data on age at first breeding and annual pregnancy rate to the survivorship data) and life tables are constructed. The shape of the survivorship curve and the percentage recruitment agree with expectation and provide further evidence of the consistency of the age criteria.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE CHANGING VEGETATION OF TSAVO NATIONAL PARK (EAST)
Authors: Agnew A. D. Q. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryAn analysis of woody vegetation in Tsavo National Park (East) by extensive variable‐plot sampling indicates that the vegetation had been differentially destroyed up to 1966, but that by 1967 considerable local shrub regeneration had taken place. This may indicate that Commiphora woodland will become re‐established over much of the park.
A QUANTITATIVE STUDY OF THE DAILY ACTIVITY OF THE UGANDA DEFASSA WATERBUCK
Authors: Spinage C. A. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryWaterbuck activity was recorded at four‐minute intervals for continuous periods of 12 hours on two or three consecutive days, and for single nocturnal periods. Feeding patterns of the male and female were similar and during the day there was no hour during which some feeding did not take place. Only male activity was recorded at night. This showed more intensive feeding but with periods of no feeding just after dark and just before dawn. The use of a four‐minute recording interval was found to work well in practice.
HUNTING BEHAVIOUR OF THE CHEETAH IN THE SERENGETI NATIONAL PARK, TANZANIA
Authors: Schaller George B. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryEighty‐nine per cent, of 136 cheetah kills in the Serengeti National Park consisted of Thomson's gazelles, the most abundant and readily available species in the size category (60 kg or less) preferred by the cheetah. Fifty‐four per cent, of the Thomson's gazelle kills were subadult; among the adults all age classes were represented. One female cheetah captured 24 Thomson's gazelles in 26 days, a killing rate of 10 kg/day. The actual food intake of this female was about 4 kg/day. The hunting success of cheetah pursuing large subadult and adult Thomson's gazelles was about 50 per cent.The hunting methods–including the various means of approaching prey–are described as are the typical ways of killing and feeding. Twelve per cent, of the cheetah kills were appropriated by lions and hyaenas.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD HABITS OF TAME WARTHOG AND ANTELOPE IN UGANDA
Authors: Field C. R. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryMonthly observations were made of the food habits of tame warthog, reedbuck and kob over a period of a year. Measurements were taken of the shoulder height and size of mouth of the animals at different stages of their growth.Whilst a few species of grass were regularly preferred, the majority showed fluctuations in their preference. Some consistent seasonal differences were apparent. Most herbs were avoided.Large differences in food habits occurred between warthog and antelope; however, there was some overlap during the rains when food was abundant and at the height of the dry season when it was scarce. Some differences were apparent between kob and reedbuck and between individual warthog and reedbuck. Intraspecific differences, however, were less noticeable than interspecific differences.The height of the animal and the size of its mouth were important in determining the portion of the sward available for food and the degree of selection possible within the available food supply.
THE HEAD OF THE FOREST HOG, HYLOCHOERUS MEINERTZHAGENI
Authors: Ewer R. F. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryA description is given of the external features, the muscles moving the rhinarium and lower lip, the jaw muscles and the muscles attached to the occiput in a yearling male Hylochoerus.Rubbing places and scrapes made by the animals in their natural habitat, possibly in search of small invertebrates, are described and certain features of the skull architecture and musculature are considered in relation to the chewing mechanism.
THE BANDED MONGOOSE, MUNGOS MUNGO GMELIN
Authors: Neal Ernest 
Published: April 2008

SummaryThe banded mongoose is a social, diurnal, medium‐sized carnivore classified in the family Viverridae.Packs of up to 32 animals were found to occupy a single, old termite mound for periods in excess of 2 months. Nine out of ten dens were in termite mounds, the other was in a gully. One den was excavated to show structure. The whole pack occupied the central chamber each night.One group of 32 consisted of 17 adults, 7 juveniles, and 8 babies too small to leave the den with the pack during the day.The animals were strictly diurnal, usually leaving the den about one hour after dawn; time of return was more variable, but was usually during the hour before dark.Senses of sight, smell and hearing were found to be very acute.During the day the packs covered large distances, foraging as they went. During the period of study, food (estimated by dung analysis) consisted almost entirely of Coleoptera (mainly dung beetles) and millipedes. The packs followed the trails of elephant and buffalo and obtained most of their food from their dung. Detailed behaviour is described.Mating was seen on three occasions and two males were seen to copulate with the same female. Family size was not determined, but eight young were seen to be suckled by three females indiscriminately. One mother looked after all eight young during the day when the pack was away.The animals used communal defaecating areas on and around the den, the faeces being scattered over the surface of the ground.Reactions to various animals, including predators, are described. When caught in the open the pack tended to bunch together acting as a single unit. If bushes were near they used them for shelter.Adaptations are discussed.
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON FOOD HAWITS OF GERENUK IN TSAVO NATIONAL PARK, KENYA
Authors: Lenthold Walter 
Published: April 2008

SummaryIn the context of widespread vegetation changes in Tsavo National Park, food habits of gerenuk are being investigated; the present paper gives an account of the results obtained during the first year of the study.Feeding of free‐ranging gerenuk was observed from a landrover in two study areas with different vegetation types. Plant species eaten were determined in the field or collected for identification.Gerenuk feed almost exclusively on leaves, shoots, flowers, and a few fruits of trees and shrubs, as well as some climbers and vines, the latter mainly during the rainy seasons. No small herbs or grass were found to be eaten.The composition of the diet differed considerably between the two study areas, largely as a result of differences in the available vegetation.Seasonal variations in the diet are brought about mainly by variations in the availability of different food plants, notably the ratio between deciduous and evergreen species at different seasons.On the basis of a preliminary quantitative survey of the vegetation in the study areas, actual preferences have been evaluated. Some common plant species were found to be rejected altogether, although they are eaten by other browsing animals.A total of 68 plant species has so far been recorded as food plants, indicating that gerenuk are able to utilize a wide range of plants. In view of this adaptability, and of the abundance of preferred food plants in the study areas, the vegetation changes in Tsavo National Park do not, at present, appear to endanger the continued existence of the gerenuk.
APPRAISAL OF CONDITION ESTIMATION METHODS FOR EAST AFRICAN UNGULATES
Authors: Smith Norman S. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryPreviously proposed methods of determining physical condition of game animals are discussed. A total of 286 African ungulates of ten species were collected and autopsied, and several indices of physical condition were calculated. Selected indices were correlated with total fat or total lean percentages or both. Of the methods discussed and evaluated, those based upon fat deposited in particular areas were more accurate or feasible than those based upon blood constituents, adrenal weights, or body weight/skeletal measurement ratios.
FOOD PREFERENCES OF BLACK RHINOCEROS IN THE TSAVO NATIONAL PARK
Authors: Goddard John 
Published: April 2008

SummaryFood preferences of the black rhinoceros population in Tsavo National Park, Kenya were studied from 1967 to 1969. Feeding rhinoceros were watched for a period of 1 h, and the plants which they selected and rejected were identified, either as they were feeding or when they had moved on. A technique was used which provided an indication of the relative importance of certain plants in the diet during the wet and dry seasons. A total of 70 h was spent actually watching feeding rhinoceros in six habitat types representative of the changing ecosystem; 3,600 feeding stations were examined. Black rhinoceros were observed eating 102 species from 32 botanical families. In all habitat types the rhinoceros is very selective for herbs and shrubs, and shows a marked preference for legumes. Available grasses are very rarely eaten. Results of food preference studies in other areas of East Africa are compared with the present study. It is suggested that the abundance and distribution of certain kinds of leguminose flora may be the key to an optimum black rhinoceros habitat.
SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE SITATUNGA IN KENYA
Authors: Owen Rosemary E. A. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryA 16‐month study was made of sitatunga in a swamp in western Kenya, with particular reference to distribution within the habitat, daily activity, and food preferences.Absolute figures for density could not be obtained because of observational difficulties, but there was a minimum of 7.3 animals/linear km of swamp, or c. 55/km2. The sitatunga preferred areas of swamp adjacent to patches of gallery forest, and areas where there was deep water and a dense growth of tall reeds.They were most active during the first five and last two hours of daylight, and at night. Much of this time was spent feeding. Feeding behaviour and food preferences were studied. The sitatunga usually moved along well‐marked tracks through the swamp vegetation; some of these led to beds of flattened plants, raised above water level, which were probably used for resting and for breeding. The latter took place in most months of the year, with a possible peak in November. Calves remained hidden for some weeks after birth.Group size and structure were examined; most sightings were of single animals or groups of two. A majority of these two groupings were composed of adult females. The proportion of immature animals seen indicated a healthy population.Courtship behaviour was observed 18 times and mating once.
A BIBLIOGRAPHY RELATING TO THE ECOLOGY AND ENERGETICS OF EAST AFRICAN LARGE MAMMALS
Authors: PETERSEN J. C. BRIAND , CASEBEER R. L. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryMany investigations have made contributions to an understanding of energy flow through large mammals in East African ecosystems. This paper lists references to such works and compiles them according to their application to various segments as they appear in an energy‐flow model. The first part indicates papers on pasture utilization, value of foodstuffs, animal numbers and distribution, population dynamics and secondary production. The second part assembles references dealing with individual animal species, stratifying them according to the subjects of ecology, food habits and nutrient utilization, population dynamics and growth.
A COMPARISON OF FOUR EAST AFRICAN CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS NILOTZCUS LAURENTI) POPULATIONS
Authors: WATSON R. M. , GRAHAM A. D. , BELL R. H. V. , PARKER I. S. C. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryFour crocodile populations have been examined by aerial photography with a view to assessing their length frequency distributions.The assumptions, and the limitations attached to such assumptions, necessary to convert length frequency information into information on the age structure, and hence the status, of the population are considered.Environmental conditions of value in understanding the status of the populations are listed.The Victoria Nile population is considered to show adequate recruitment, but dispersal of young crocodiles tends to give the converse impression. The population is probably stable and has not been heavily exploited in the past.The Grumeti River population may represent a local aggregation mostly of large males from Lake Victoria, probably retreating from human induced pressures. There is little recruitment through breeding, and the largest crocodile encountered in this study are members of this population.The Lake Rudolf population is a typical healthy population with high recruitment and high juvenile mortality. The population is probably stable, but may be expected to decline as fishing interests on the west shore expand. Growth is retarded in the Rudolf population.The Lorian swamp population is expanding rapidly probably after a period of heavy mortality wrought by hunters shooting for skins. The present conflicts with human/livestock interests is expected to increase, resulting in stabilization and decline of crocodile in the swamp.Some comments are made on the possible influence of various environmental parameters on present status and trends of the populations.
ELEPHANT ECOLOGY IN THE QUEEN ELIZABETH NATIONAL PARK, UGANDA
Authors: FIELD C. R. 
Published: April 2008

Summary1. Aerial and ground counts in the Queen Elizabeth National Park from 1963 to 1969 indicate that the number of elephants has more than doubled. The increase appears to be the result of immigration rather than reproduction.2. Elephant food habits were studied for 10 months in two areas of the Park. In the short‐grass/thicket area, browse intake rose markedly whenever the rainfall fell below 50 mm/month. In the tall‐grass area without thicket, herbs were eaten frequently during the rains and Cymbopogon grass bases in the dry season.3. Food availability had an important influence on the diet of elephants. Sometimes, however, elephant were very selective, e.g. for Panicum maximum, Azima tetracantha, Securinega virosa, and Tribulus terrestris. Certain grass inflorescences were selected during the rains, and bases in the dry season.4. Most browse was consumed in the thicket area during the dry season and most grass was eaten in the tall‐grass area of the Park.5. Stomach and faecal samples gave a similar result and indicated that the diet in the tall‐grass area was comparable to that of elephant in Murchison Falls National Park.6. Analyses of important plant species showed that, in general, tall‐grass had a lower crude protein content than short‐grass, herbs and browse. Browse leaves had a relatively high crude‐protein content in the dry season. Differences were less marked in the rains.7. Ether extract, or fat content, was high in browse leaves and in Cymbopogon, in particular its bases. These may have been selected in the dry season for this reason.8. Grass and browse stems were very fibrous and this may have contributed to their being avoided.9. High carbohydrate levels probably enhanced the palatability of grass bases and browse leaves.10. Grasses were very siliceous, in particular their bases when contaminated with soil. Elephant took considerable trouble to remove soil. Browse leaves had little silica but were rich in other minerals, and this may have contributed to their greater palatability.11. Studies of woodland dynamics show a decline in large trees which corresponds to the increase in elephants. In some cases trees have been almost eliminated. Damage to trees indicates that a most important factor in their decline is the elephant. There is some evidence that the trees are eliminated selectively.12. In the tall‐grass area there has been an increase of 46.3% in elephant numbers, but a decline of 80.3 % in buffalo, over the past 15 years. An overall decline in combined biomass of 36.9 % is calculated. Estimates of energy utilization of the annual vegetation production by elephant and buffalo indicates a decline from 6.1 % to 3.9% over this period.
The aardwolf (Proteles cristatm Sparrman) 1783 as predator of termites*
Authors: KRUUK H. , SANDS W. A. 
Published: April 2008

Summary(1) Food selection of aardwolves was studied by a comparison of faecal contents with available termite populations. Observations are reported on the foraging behaviour, and on aspects of termite biology which expose various species to predation.(2) The aardwolf diet shows a very high selectivity for one species of termite, Trinervitermes bettonianus in the Serengeti and ecologically similar species elsewhere.(3) Both morphology and foraging behaviour are very well adapted to feeding on Trinervitermes bettonianus or similarly behaving termites. The aardwolf does not dig for food; hearing is probably an important sense used for locating prey.(4) Various aspects of the termites' protection against aardwolf predation are discussed.(5) The aardwolf diet shows an increase in variety during the rains; the cause of this is discussed.(6) Some brief notes are made about territorial behaviour, scent marking and the use of middens.(7) As a management recommendation regular grassland burning is suggested for areas where the presence of aardwolves is considered desirable.
The status of the Amboseli rhino population
Authors: WESTERN DAVID , SINDIYO DANIEL M. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryThe status of the Amboseli rhino population has given rise to particular concern, due to an apparently rapid decline since the 1950s.Information on the causes of death is available over the last 3‐3 years and ground counts give a reasonable picture of the gross population structure of the rhinos. Aerial counts indicate a significant decline and provide population estimates on which a reconstruction of changes is possible. It is shown that the population has been declining at an average of about 12% per annum over the last 4 years at least. Seventy‐five per cent of mortality results from spear wounds inflicted by Maasai. Natality is dropping rapidly, while the level of spearing is increasing. Spearing is possibly nonselective, so that the age‐distribution may be similar to previous periods when the population was more stable. As a result, natality is probably not responding to increasing mortality.It is concluded that the rhino population is unable to effectively alter the magnitude of decline through intrinsic factors, or immigration. It would take a population over twice its present size to offset the impact of spearing.The effect of a rapidly changing environment is considered, but although it may result in slightly less favourable conditions for the rhinos, any decline is completely masked by spearing.The reasons for spearing and the recent increases are discussed, as well as the future prospects and implications.
An identification system for zebra (Equus burchelli, Gray)
Authors: PETERSEN J. C. BRIAND 
Published: April 2008

SummaryAn identification system based on the individual stripe patterns, has been developed for zebra (Equus burchelli, Gray). A taxonomic nomenclature facilitates easy field classification into a number of classes, which form the basis for a photo‐filing system, and thus quick identification of individual animals.
An analysis of mechanical failure of darts and costs involved in drug immobilization of elephant and buffalo
Authors: WOODFORD M. H. , ELTRINGHAM S. K. , WYATT J. R. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryThe failure and success achieved while attempting to immobilize sixty‐two elephants (Loxodonta africana) and twenty‐five African buffalo {Syncerus coffer) with etorphine hydrochloride administered by syringe projectile are described.Failures due to mechanical causes are divided into those occurring before and those occurring after injection.In the elephant series the most frequent cause of mechanical failure before injection was due to the dart bouncing off the target animal often coupled with bending or breaking of the needle. In the buffalo series, misfires due to faulty cartridges were responsible for most of the failures before injection, but bounce‐offs were common, too. Failure to immobilize or inadequate immobilization following apparently successful darting of both elephant and buffalo was most often due to the penetration of the plunger by the detonator.A breakdown of the cost of immobilizing forty elephant and twenty buffalo is given. Total costs for each animal successfully immobilized were U. Shs. 323.0 and U. Shs. 359.9 for elephant and buffalo respectively.
A test of the counting of elephants from the air
Authors: ELTRINGHAM S. K. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryAerial counts of elephants made three times a day over the same region tended to be consistent if due allowance is made for observed movements to and from the area. There was little difference between observers when two were present. Ground counts made on the same day as the aerial counts tended to return lower totals, due probably to elephants in dense vegetation being hidden from the ground observer but visible from the air. It is concluded that aerial survey is the most efficient way of counting elephants, at least in the Queen Elizabeth National Park.