bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Divide and Conquer
Authors: Boeri Tito , Castanheira Micael , Faini Riccardo , Galasso Vincenzo , Barba Navaretti Giorgio , Stéphane Carcillo , Haskel Jonathan , Nicoletti Giuseppe , Perotti Enrico , Scarpa Carlo , Tsyganok Lidia , Wey Christian 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
This chapter considers instances in which widening the political base for reform may still be desirable, but is practically unfeasible. This scenario typically emerges when the benefits from reform are dispersed among many economic agents, postponed to future generations, or are highly uncertain — as, for example, with the liberalization of a ‘strategic’, traditionally highly regulated market — where costs are highly visible and relatively concentrated. Since buying out the opposition of vested interests is too costly or would largely limit the scope for reform, policy-makers must resort to a different strategy. The recipe adopted by successful policy-makers — particularly when liberalizing nonmanufacturing industries — is to ‘divide and conquer’. This strategy aims at disentangling entrenched vested interests by concentrating the costs of the reform on particular groups.
Introduction
Authors: Zaum Dominik 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
This introductory chapter discusses the objectives and the scope of the book, and argues for the importance of a normative approach to international administrations. It explores three important methodological questions: first, in what ways can norms affect the activities of international administrations; second, how can we conceptualize and operationalize the ‘international community’ that creates and staffs these international administrations; and third, the selection of case studies.
The Scope and Value of the Artistic Image
Authors: Crowther Paul 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter develops all the book's themes further still through a sustained consideration of the aesthetic as it is developed through style in the making of artistic images. The scope of the image is shown to include even abstract works of visual art. Such works are to be understood as images of a ‘contextual space’, which subtends and sustains the normal perception of the visual field. In this chapter, considerable use is made of some important ideas from Gadamer to elucidate the ontology of the artistic image, and how these involve important contrasts between high art and other forms of making are considered. Attention is paid to the qualified role of formal values and expressive values in judgements of artistic merit.
Twofoldness: Pictorial Art and the Imagination
Authors: Crowther Paul 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter gives an analysis of the distinctive ontology of pictorial art. It is argued that the ‘twofoldness’ of pictorial art enables us to become conscious not only of imagination per se, but also of the specific characteristics which allow it to function as a necessary condition of experience. This is shown through a general theory of the transcendental significance of imagination, which further develops the theory broached in previous chapters. Arguments are then formulated to show that the images of visual art are based on stylistic interpretation, and that this exemplifies a distinctive relation between picturing on the one hand, and imagination and self-consciousness on the other.
Between Language and Perception: Literary Metaphor
Authors: Crowther Paul 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter analyses metaphor as a kind of junction between rational articulation and perception. It argues that the tensional structure of metaphor embodies a constant in human experience, which is capable of being expressed in different ways under different historical conditions; and that literary metaphor is the clearest exemplar of this. To establish these claims, the logic of metaphor in linking perception and predication is addressed. It is argued that this is the focus of the literary metaphor's distinctive character. This argument is followed up by sustained analysis of the ancient Greek poet Archilochus' use of metaphor to provide a ‘case history’ of metaphor with canonic value as well as artistic importance.
Conclusion: The Status and Future of Art
Authors: Crowther Paul 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter summarizes the central argument of the book as a whole and considers it in relation to some broader questions, most notably artistic value's deservedly high cultural status, and its relation to controversies concerning the end of art. It is argued that each individual contribution to a medium offers a new way — however slight — of experiencing the world. When artistic refinement or innovation is of a fundamental kind, then one has the excitement of seeing highly significant new ways of configuring the medium and world flowing out of these. The artwork is always to some degree an inert material object; but in its style of imagery and originality it exemplifies the power and potential of freedom.
Fragmented France
Authors: Hayward Jack 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
For centuries, France has struggled to impose unity upon its diverse components. Its leaders have defined its identity by opposition to the ‘Anglo-Saxons’: first England, then Britain and the USA. After exploring France's self-image by contrast with the Anglo-American counter-identity, Part One deals with the unfinished revolution from 1789 to 1878 when the Third Republic achieved relative stability. After examining the variety of symbolic representations of French exceptionalism in search of democratic legitimacy and national unanimity, the enduring divisions in French society are explained in their ideological, social, religious, territorial, and political aspects. Emphasis is given to writers and intellectuals in expressing these cleavages. Part Two relates French political paralysis to the slowness of socio-economic modernization and the polarizing role of intellectuals in perpetuating varieties of Left and Right battles over who personified anti-France. The adversarial character of French party politics fluctuated between the rhetorical revolutionary and reactionary extremes and the conservative or reformist realities. The colonial and international role of France is described, while the protectionist aversion to competitive global capitalism results in reluctant adaptation to forces beyond French control.
French Identity: The National Search for Retrospective Legitimacy and Unanimity
Authors: Hayward Jack 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
The French sense of national identity derives from legitimizing myths and symbols rather than from the divergent realities that operate within shifting territorial frameworks of reference. National heroes are commemorated in the Pantheon, statues, and state funerals while the people are personified in the secular figure of Marianne as against the Right's Joan of Arc. Roman Catholicism's link with the Monarchy historically linked claims to religious universality and national specificity. Conscription and literacy in French language reinforced national-building.
Tensions and Trajectories: The Constituents of French Exceptionalism
Authors: Hayward Jack 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
Rival French conceptions of political representation with electable citizens limited to property owners, were implemented in a context of political destabilization and class conflicts. Roman Catholicism and Gallic secularism engaged in hostilities and the Left/Right dichotomy became established. Administrative centralization was embodied in the Prefect, while national assimilation was forcefully pressed. Attempts at alliance with Britain took the fitful form of the Entente Cordiale.
Enduring Conflicts and Elusive Consensus
Authors: Hayward Jack 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
The contrast between an urbanizing and industrializing society and an enduring peasant and artisan population is emphasized, while the business-political elite networks achieved maximum power by the late 19th century. The clerical-anti-clerical struggle for control of education results in the victory of secularism. Committed historians shaped the dominant political culture, although writers (Chateaubriand, Balzac, Stendhal, Lamartine, Baudelaire, Hugo) and artists (Delacroix, Daumier, Courbet) were influential.
A Liberal Democratic Republic Struggles to be Born, 1814–78
Authors: Hayward Jack 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
In the desperate search for uniformity, the French moved from regime instability to government instability. The July Monarchy, the Second Republic, and the Second Empire are successively discussed, with the Third Republic attaining relative regime stability but administrative instability was endemic. The press oscillated between long periods of repressive censorship and ephemeral orgies of uninhibited subversion.
The Economics of the European Patent System
Authors: Guellec Dominique , van Pottelsberghe de la Potterie Bruno 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe patent system has been faced for more than ten years with an avalanche of patent filings, which puts into question its ability to fulfil its social mission of encouraging innovation and the diffusion of technology. This situation is due to the emergence of new technologies, the adoption of new and more aggressive IP strategies by the business sector, and progressive global harmonization of patent systems. This book aims at providing an analysis of patent systems in general, and the European patent system in particular. Through an emphasis on the historic, strategic, and legal context of patent systems the first part of the book shows how patents progressively have been designed as an incentive mechanism which allows their holder to charge a mark up over the marginal cost through restricted competition. Patents also involve the disclosure of inventions, and hence encourage the diffusion of knowledge. Over the past century patents have gradually become the currency of technology markets. The book demonstrates how the design of patent law and practice can benefit from economic analysis, regarding notably the patent subject matter (what should be patentable or not), the optimal inventive step, the scope of protection, and the duration. The second part of the book is devoted to the European patent system. Patenting procedures in Europe are complex, as national routes exist in parallel with the centralized procedure handled by the European Patent Office, triggering complex strategies by applicants in order to maximize their exclusive rights and reduce competition. The recent development of various filing strategies and their impact on the granting process are examined in the light of factual evidence. The recent explosion of the number and size of patent applications raises the issue of quality maintenance. The book puts forward issues to be addressed by patent policy in Europe: putting quality of patents first, making procedures stricter for applicants, reinforcing the integration of the system at the European level, and inscribing the economic mission of the system in the European Patent Convention so that the case law would integrate economic concerns.
Russell's Account of Classes
Authors: Potter Michael 
Published: May 2007

AbstractRussell discovered his paradox while writing The Principles of Mathematics. When this book appeared in 1903, it contained a discussion of his paradox but no more than a sketch of a solution. He then began to work on a second volume, in which the formal development of mathematics from logic was to be presented. When it eventually appeared almost ten years later, this second volume had metamorphosed into a separate three-volume work called Principia Mathematica, which was intended to provide the complete logical derivation promised in the Principles of the foundations, not just of arithmetic, but of the whole of pure mathematics. The programme Russell was engaged in was thus in a sense a direct continuation of Frege's: his task was to repair the error in Frege's system and hence establish the logicist thesis.
Seneca's Defence
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractZeno of Citium, the Stoic founder, had tried out other definitions of emotion. One, defended by Chrysippus, was that emotion involves oscillating, like Medea, between accepting the right value judgement and disobeying it. But disobedience to reason is not the same as mistake. How can it be, and is it ever, combined with mistake? The Stoic Seneca (1st century CE) allows this by distinguishing three movements in anger. The first movement is the appearance that revenge is appropriate and the resulting shock to soul or body. The second is the mistaken assent to the appearance that revenge is appropriate. The third movement — the full emotion — moves from mistake to disobedience with the judgement that revenge is to be pursued, appropriate or not.
The Role Of Analytic Philosophy In Stoic Cognitive Therapy
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe Stoics invented cognitive therapy, in which: I attack my judgement that the situation is bad — e.g., by recalling that I am not the only one, or that things are only unexpected not bad, or by redescription of the situation. I attack my judgement that mourning or revenge is appropriate by reminding myself it makes me neglect the living, or that I have often behaved provocatively myself. But where, as Bernard Williams asked, does philosophical analysis come in? For example by showing that rethinking can remove emotion since it depends on judgement, by showing what two judgements are open to attack, and by telling us to avoid William James' phenomenon of judging, ‘I am crying, so I must have been maltreated’. The relevance of time, self, and the disutility of some emotion also needs to be considered. The Stoic connexion between philosophy and therapy is, rightly, seamless.
How the Ancient Exercises Work
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe ancients offered a huge range of therapeutic exercises. Some ward off future emotion, some deal with emotion that has already arisen from a past occurrence. Chrysippus' emphasis on re-evaluating situations is a therapy for emotions, whereas Posidonius' reversion to Plato would have helped with moods as well. Pythagoreans, Democritus, Epicureans, Cynics, Aristo of Ceos (Aristotelian), Plutarch, and Galen all make contributions. The poet Ovid parodies the philosophers' therapies. All this is echoed in Christianity, but the Stoics are outstanding, Epictetus the ex-slave sterner, Seneca the aristocrat more adapted to ordinary discomforts. In recent times, Epictetus enabled Admiral Stockdale to withstand torture and solitary confinement, and his account shows how even the sterner therapies could work in practice.
Puzzling over the Imagination: Philosophical Problems, Architectural Solutions
Authors: Weinberg Jonathan M. , Meskin Aaron 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter addresses three distinct philosophical issues concerning the imagination: the puzzle of emotions and fiction, imaginative resistance, and the distinction between imagination and supposition. Standard approaches to these issues, which restrict themselves to the resources of folk psychology and metaphysics, are shown to be inadequate. Instead, an alternative approach rooted in careful exploration of the cognitive architecture of the imagination is developed. This approach transforms the aforementioned puzzles about the imagination into explananda apt for a scientifically-informed explanation. The result is an account of the imagination which, in addition to explaining these three key imaginative phenomena, shows promise for solving other related issues such as the epistemic value of modal intuitions. Moreover, it is a vindication of a certain kind of naturalistic approach to philosophy, not just in the philosophy of mind but also in aesthetics and epistemology.
Introduction
Authors: Wolff Jonathan , De-Shalit Avner 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
Beginning with the story of Leah — an Israeli woman who suffers from lack of control over her life — this introductory chapter raises the key questions discussed in the book and discusses differences and similarities between the moral demands of priority to the least advantage, sufficiency, and equality. It is argued that redistributive policies which do not adequately reach the very worst off are likely to have destructive effects on many aspects of society, and that in practice, there is a consensus among egalitarians to search for priority to the least advantaged. In addition, the chapter locates the arguments of the book within the debate as to whether egalitarianism should focus on matters of distribution alone, or whether issues of social structure (often referred to as social equality) should instead be its focus. The rest of the chapter summarizes the book's argument and discusses the method of research.
Chapter 2 Functionings
Authors: Wolff Jonathan , De-Shalit Avner 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
This chapter deepens the discussion of the nature of disadvantage by asking: what categories of functionings exhaust those necessary to construct a full philosophical theory of disadvantage? Beginning with a list offered by Martha Nussbaum, and Sen's capability approach, the concepts of capability and functionings are further analysed, using the method of ‘dynamic public reflective equilibrium’. This involves a dialogue between the philosopher and the public, in this case a series of interviews with disadvantaged people and with professionals who take care of disadvantaged people in a variety of fields. The result is that while basically Nussbaum's list is shown to be intuitive, four additional categories are suggested. Thus, a new list of functionings is devised as part of the task of setting out a particular pluralist account of disadvantage.
Chapter 4 Opportunity and Responsibility
Authors: Wolff Jonathan , De-Shalit Avner 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
This chapter argues that the idea of ‘capability’ is too vague; it is replaced with the concept of ‘genuine opportunities’ for secure functioning. An opportunity for a functioning is genuine to the extent that the agent is not required to sacrifice the security of other important functionings to secure this particular functioning. It is argued that only in such cases can people be held responsible for failing to make use of their opportunities. Therefore, the government should guarantee genuine opportunities for secure functionings. The case in which an individual has achieved a functioning level that is higher than could be reasonably expected is briefly addressed.
Clustering of Disadvantage and Empirical Research
Authors: Wolff Jonathan , De-Shalit Avner 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
The previous chapters demonstrated that the issue of identifying the least advantaged reduces to the question of whether clustering of disadvantage can be identified among the ‘high-weight functionings’ identified in Chapter 5. It is argued that a series of empirical studies confirm that such clustering exists. In particular, work on the social determinants of health by Marmot and Wilkinson suggests that there is significant clustering of the relevant disadvantages. These results are reinforced by Klinenberg's work on the Chicago heatwave of 1985.
Addressing Disadvantage While Respecting People
Authors: Wolff Jonathan , De-Shalit Avner 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
Social policies designed to help people by securing a particular functioning might harm them by risking other functionings. One example is housing, where policies of slum clearance and rehousing, while improving people's housing conditions, disrupt their communities and social networks, often leading to severe problems in affiliation, mental health, and the ability to cope. Another example concerns means tested benefits, which while well-intentioned can be experienced as humiliating and stigmatizing, thereby risking a sense of autonomy and self esteem. This chapter argues that policy makers need to consider the total effects of their interventions, rather than simply concerning themselves with only their own policy areas. Remedies of ‘status enhancement’ are recommended, which improve an individual's genuine opportunities for secure functionings by changing the world around them, rather than identifying particular individuals as objects in need of help.
Forms of Rabbinic Literature and Thought
Authors: Samely Alexander 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
This book surveys the corpus of rabbinic literature, which was written in Hebrew and Aramaic about 1,500 years ago and which contains the foundations of Judaism, in particular the Talmud. The rabbinic works are introduced in groups, illustrated by shorter and longer passages, and described according to their literary structures and genres. Tables and summaries provide short information on key topics: the individual works and their nature, the recurrent literary forms which are used widely in different works, techniques of rabbinic Bible interpretation, and discourse strategies of the Talmud. Key topics of current research into the texts are addressed: their relationship to each other, their unity, their ambiguous and ‘unsystematic’ character, and their roots in oral tradition. The book explains why the character of the texts is crucial to an understanding of rabbinic thought, and why they pose specific problems to modern, Western-educated readers.
Parts and Wholes in Rabbinic Literature
Authors: Samely Alexander 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
This chapter examines if and how rabbinic literature constitutes a unified historical phenomenon. A number of observations supporting such a unity are presented. A crucial role is ascribed to the hermeneutic assumption of such a unity. This assumption is supported by the aggregate nature of rabbinic works. Some of the effects of the juxtaposition of individual statements are illustrated, and the unreliability of rabbinic general principles is emphasized. An account is given of the role which the assumption of an oral tradition might play in accounting for the aggregate nature of the texts.
How Statements are Linked to Each Other
Authors: Samely Alexander 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
This chapter examines the thematic discourse as it occurs in key rabbinic books on religious obligation: halakhah. Three main ways in which neighbouring statements can interact with each other in such works as the Mishnah and the Tosefta are described. It is shown that the individual halakhic statement is not as self-suffcient as it may seem, and yet its role within a larger whole is usually undefined. The resulting ambiguities are often fundamental, affecting the historical reconstruction of rabbinic Judaism, or Judaisms.
Putting the World into Rabbinic Words
Authors: Samely Alexander 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
This chapter suggests that the rabbis' large-scale use of the hypothetical legal case endows this format with a special significance. This is taken to imply that the world provides the space for human action in response to God's commandment. The hypothetical legal case as a mechanism by which (further) discourse on law is generated, and by which fuzzy social practices could be progressively transformed into more sharp-edged verbal norms, are considered. The chapter concludes with a survey of generative-hermeneutic patterns of thought and text composition.
Hermeneutic Models of Story and History
Authors: Samely Alexander 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
The midrashic engagement with the biblical past, as it is represented in biblical words, is substantial and detailed. This chapter explains some major types and their literary formats, using a chapter from Genesis Rabbah as illustration. Particular attention is given to the question of endings, both in stories and in history, as perceived by the rabbis. For the rabbis, their own past and present held little historical interest. This results from the fact that the midrashic practice intensifies the meaning of biblical events, reducing later events to the status of mere repetitions of biblical paradigms. This is seen as an expression of exile, that is, a state of waiting for redemption.