Experimental demonstration of real‐time cardiac physiology‐based radiotherapy gating for improved cardiac radioablation on an MR‐linac
Authors: Akdag Osman , Borman Pim T. S. , Mandija Stefano , Woodhead Peter L. , Uijtewaal Prescilla , Raaymakers Bas W. , Fast Martin F. 
Published: March 2024

AbstractBackgroundCardiac radioablation is a noninvasive stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) technique to treat patients with refractory ventricular tachycardia (VT) by delivering a single high‐dose fraction to the VT isthmus. Cardiorespiratory motion induces position uncertainties resulting in decreased dose conformality. Electocardiograms (ECG) are typically used during cardiac MRI (CMR) to acquire images in a predefined cardiac phase, thus mitigating cardiac motion during image acquisition.PurposeWe demonstrate real‐time cardiac physiology‐based radiotherapy beam gating within a preset cardiac phase on an MR‐linac.MethodsMR images were acquired in healthy volunteers (n = 5, mean age = 29.6 years, mean heart‐rate (HR) = 56.2 bpm) on the 1.5 T Unity MR‐linac (Elekta AB, Stockholm, Sweden) after obtaining written informed consent. The images were acquired using a single‐slice balance steady‐state free precession (bSSFP) sequence in the coronal or sagittal plane (TR/TE = 3/1.48 ms, flip angle = 48, SENSE = 1.5, , voxel size = , partial Fourier factor = 0.65, frame rate = 13.3 Hz). In parallel, a 4‐lead ECG‐signal was acquired using MR‐compatible equipment. The feasibility of ECG‐based beam gating was demonstrated with a prototype gating workflow using a Quasar MRI4D motion phantom (IBA Quasar, London, ON, Canada), which was deployed in the bore of the MR‐linac. Two volunteer‐derived combined ECG‐motion traces (n = 2, mean age = 26 years, mean HR = 57.4 bpm, peak‐to‐peak amplitude = 14.7 mm) were programmed into the phantom to mimic dose delivery on a cardiac target in breath‐hold. Clinical ECG‐equipment was connected to the phantom for ECG‐voltage‐streaming in real‐time using research software. Treatment beam gating was performed in the quiescent phase (end‐diastole). System latencies were compensated by delay time correction. A previously developed MRI‐based gating workflow was used as a benchmark in this study. A 15‐beam intensity‐modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) plan ( Gy) was delivered for different motion scenarios onto radiochromic films. Next, cardiac motion was then estimated at the basal anterolateral myocardial wall via normalized cross‐correlation‐based template matching. The estimated motion signal was temporally aligned with the ECG‐signal, which were then used for position‐ and ECG‐based gating simulations in the cranial–caudal (CC), anterior–posterior (AP), and right–left (RL) directions. The effect of gating was investigated by analyzing the differences in residual motion at 30, 50, and 70% treatment beam duty cycles.ResultsECG‐based (MRI‐based) beam gating was performed with effective duty cycles of 60.5% (68.8%) and 47.7% (50.4%) with residual motion reductions of 62.5% (44.7%) and 43.9% (59.3%). Local gamma analyses (1%/1 mm) returned pass rates of 97.6% (94.1%) and 90.5% (98.3%) for gated scenarios, which exceed the pass rates of 70.3% and 82.0% for nongated scenarios, respectively. In average, the gating simulations returned maximum residual motion reductions of 88%, 74%, and 81% at 30%, 50%, and 70% duty cycles, respectively, in favor of MRI‐based gating.ConclusionsReal‐time ECG‐based beam gating is a feasible alternative to MRI‐based gating, resulting in improved dose delivery in terms of high rates, decreased dose deposition outside the PTV and residual motion reduction, while by‐passing cardiac MRI challenges.