bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Plant Genetics and Development
Authors: Curtis Mark D , Grossniklaus Ueli 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Our understanding of nearly all aspects of plant growth and development have benefited from the application of genetic analyses. Early anatomical and physiological studies provided evidence for processes that allow the plant to respond to internal and external stimuli, but genetics has provided the tools to revolutionize our understanding of the underlying mechanisms. The development of new tools in molecular genetics, the adoption of plant model organisms and the creation of databases for comparative gene analyses, have all contributed to the rapid progress in our understanding of plant developmental biology in recent years.
Floral Meristems
Authors: Schneitz Kay , Balasubramanian Sureshkumar 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Meristems refer to a group of undifferentiated dividing cells that are responsible for the formation of plant organs. Floral meristems are a group of dividing cells that give rise to flowers. The formation of a floral meristem, and its subsequent fate, are under both environmental and molecular control. Several exogenous environmental factors and a complex network of genes control this process.
Regulatory Genes in Plant Development: Homeobox
Authors: Chung Kook‐Hyun , Sinha Neelima R 
Published: October 2007

AbstractThe Knotted‐like homeobox (KNOX)genes play a profound role in shoot apical meristem organization, maintenance and leaf initiation.A MYBdomain genePHANTASTICAplays a role in regulating dorsal–ventral polarity in lateral organs and also downregulates a subset ofKNOXgenes.
Septicaemic Shock
Authors: Vincent Jean‐Louis 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Sepsis is the body's response to invading microbes or their toxins; severe sepsis is sepsis accompanied by sepsis‐related organ dysfunction; and septic shock (the most severe form) is severe sepsis with hypotension that does not respond to fluid resuscitation. Septic shock is common and associated with high mortality and morbidity rates.
Hepatitis as a World Health Problem
Authors: Bain Vincent G , Tandon Puneeta 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Viral hepatitis is a health problem affecting hundreds of millions of people worldwide. The morbidity and mortality from viral hepatitis is enormous and affects all age groups. Hepatitis A and E are enterically transmitted viruses, which are spontaneously cleared by the host and do not lead to chronic infection. Hepatitis B may be spread vertically, sexually or parenterally whereas hepatitis C is most often acquired parenterally from contaminated blood products (historically) or via the use of intravenous drugs. Both of these infections may lead to chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis with its attendant complications including portal hypertension, liver failure and hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatitis D can only cause infection together with hepatitis B. It may lead to an aggressive hepatitis as well as chronicity. Although our knowledge of viral genetics, epidemiology and treatment options is increasing, prevention remains the most cost effective method of controlling viral hepatitis.
Roots: Contribution to the Rhizosphere
Authors: Gunawardena Uvini , Zhao Xiaowen , Hawes Martha C 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Diverse compounds exuded by different parts of the root system create a unique environment known as the rhizosphere. Interactions among microorganisms found within the rhizosphere and communication between these microorganisms and plant roots play an important role in maintaining plant health.
Protein Motifs: the Helix‐Turn‐Helix Motif
Authors: Matthews Brian W 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
The helix‐turn‐helix motif was first observed in the structures of certain proteins that bind to specific regulatory sites on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). It is made up of a part of the protein comprising an α‐helix followed by a turn followed by a second α‐helix aligned approximately 120° to the first. When the protein binds to its regulatory site, the second α‐helix of the helix‐turn‐helix occupies one of the grooves on the DNA and is critical in recognizing the correct target.
Chaperonins
Authors: Consalvi Valerio , Chiaraluce Roberta 
Published: October 2007

Abstract

The challenge in protein folding is the production of the native, active conformation from the primary sequence information.
In vivo
, in the cytosolic environment, acquisition of the native conformation is in competition with proteolytic degradation and/or intracellular precipitation. Chaperone proteins assist in finding the native fold, and these key components of the cellular machinery occur ubiquitously through archaea, bacteria and eukarya.
Protein Structure Classification
Authors: Pearl Frances MG , Orengo Christine A , Thornton Janet M 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
To understand and map the universe of protein structures, it is necessary to collate, annotate and classify these structures in a rational scheme. The different approaches that have been taken to tackle this problem include the identification of protein domains, phylogenetic and phenetic classification and hierarchical and nearest‐neighbour clustering. Powerful new sequence searching methods enable structural assignments to be allocated to genomic data.
History of Scientific Agriculture: Crop Plants
Authors: Hancock JF 
Published: October 2007

Abstract

The first farming communities appeared in the
Fertile Crescent
above the Tigris River in what is now Iran about 12 000 years ago. Agriculture was also invented independently at several other locations in the world including Africa, Asia, China, Mesoamerica, South America and the Eastern US. Most of the early crops were annual types that were self‐pollinating and polyploid. Once humans began to plant and harvest, several profound changes occurred in the crop species due to conscious and unconscious selection. Some of the major changes were non shattering of seed pods, more determinate growth, more uniform ripening, larger seed size and increased seed production. Levels of genetic diversity were also greatly reduced during the process of crop domestication when humans selected only those types that were most beneficial to them.
Plant Physiological Responses to Climate and Environmental Change
Authors: Midgley Guy F 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
A future climate and environmental regime will affect plant physiology and induce higher order responses. Implications of rising atmospheric carbon dioxide are positive for plant growth, but less so than predicted from the theory of photosynthesis, because of feedback effects within the plant, and from ecosystem level feedback effects. Rising temperatures will reduce freezing and chill stress incidence, but warming will increase metabolic rates. High extremes will induce heat‐shock responses. Higher plants are physiologically well‐defended against projected increases in UV‐B. Interactions between stresses will be multifaceted, but theory is poorly developed to make projections of their net result. A focus on testing theory using field‐based experiments will be an important way forward.
Latitudinal Diversity Gradients
Authors: Gough Lauren , Field Richard 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
The diversity of organisms tends to increase from the poles to the equator, a trend that is consistent over space and time. More than 30 hypotheses have been advanced to explain the phenomenon and although no consensus has yet been reached, support for the role of contemporary climate dominates the current literature. However, an integration of contemporary ecological and historical (phylogeny‐based) explanations is increasingly advocated. Most hypotheses are likely to be valid at some range of spatial scales, with mechanisms often showing interdependencies at different scales. With a continuing rise in the number of hypotheses, there is an increasing emphasis on empirical testing and falsification.
Vegetation History
Authors: Ingrouille Martin 
Published: October 2007

AbstractOn land, the vegetation determines in large part the distribution of other living organisms. An understanding of vegetation history is crucial for understanding present‐day terrestrial ecosystems. The vegetation is made up of several overlapping components, influenced to a greater or lesser extent by historical events. There might be relictual species that have survived from the distant past, a selected assemblage of species that survived the many relatively rapid changes in climate experienced from the beginning of the Pleistocene Ice Ages and also species that have responded more recently to the disturbance brought about by human beings.
Multivariate Techniques in Ecology
Authors: Reyment Richard A 
Published: October 2007

AbstractMultivariate statistical analysis is concerned with the simultaneous examination of two or more variables (in the case of full space) or parts (in the case of simplex space) by means of procedures based on the application of standard methods of linear algebra and differential geometry. The methods are universally applicable. In the life sciences, multivariate analysis is of wide use in animal and plant taxonomy, quantitative genetics, environmetrics, ecology and aspects of evolutionary biology.
Molecular Ecology
Authors: Freeland Joanna R , Anderson Sarah 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Molecular ecology is a broad area of research that embraces topics as varied as population genetics, conservation genetics, molecular evolution, behavioural ecology and biogeography. Although somewhat varied, the areas of research within molecular ecology are united by the fact that they all use molecular genetic data to help us understand the ecology and evolution of organisms in the wild. This article provides an introductory overview of molecular ecology, and includes discussions of molecular markers, population genetics and phylogeography. It also contains examples that show how this discipline is relevant to several areas of applied science, including wildlife forensics and the management of invasive species.
Crop Plants: Evolution
Authors: Miller Allison J 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
All crop plants originated from wild plant populations. The domestication of plant populations occurs over several generations as a small subset of wild individuals are selected and transferred into cultivated habitats, where they undergo intensive artificial selection for various traits deemed desirable by humans. Over time, artificial selection and genetic bottlenecks result in crops that are morphologically and genetically distinct from their wild ancestors. The evolution of crop plants and the development of agricultural societies dependent upon them is associated with profound changes in human populations, including increased population sizes, the development of complex societies and technologies and dramatic environmental changes. The evolution of crop plants has been called one of the most significant developments of the last 14 000 years.
Plant Defences Against Fungal Attack: Perception and Signal Transduction
Authors: Kachroo Aardra 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Phytopathogenic fungi cause over 75% of all plant diseases. Plants perceive these invaders as ‘nonself ’ via race‐specific/nonspecific factors and surmount physical and chemical responses to counter the invasion. Race‐specific recognition is generally followed by the rapid and massive induction of many of these responses resulting in resistance.
The Wellcome Trust
Authors: Reeves Carole 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
The Wellcome Trust is one of the world's largest and most diverse independent biomedical charities, supporting a spectrum of activity from basic science to history of medicine. Total charitable expenditure in 2005 was £483 million and investment assets were £12.3 billion. Currently, about 90% of its funds support UK activities while most of the remainder underpins research and capacity building in developing and restructuring countries. There are over 3000 Wellcome Trust funded researchers in more than 40 countries.
Plant Behavioural Ecology
Authors: Trewavas Anthony J 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Plant behaviour is different to animal behaviour using plasticity in growth and development rather than movement. Plants actively forage their environment for light and soil resources placing roots and branches in environmentally beneficial positions so as to enhance survival and thus eventual fitness. But decisions about placement are (1) often made on future predictions of energy return, (2) optimized to minimize resource outlay using self‐recognition while maximizing energy return, (3) made to guard territory (4) used to ensure plants linger longer in resource‐rich patches. Complexity in plant sexual systems and life cycle has arisen from genetic assimilation of behavioural changes as the balance of trade‐offs in resource availability has altered. Plant behaviour can thus be regarded as intelligent.
Triticum aestivum
(Wheat)
Authors: Snape John , Pánková Katerina 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Wheat seeds, known as grain, are a primary source of calories for the human race, and for animal feed. They belong to the botanical tribe Triticeae in the grass family Poaceae, which also contains the related crop species, rye and barley. The centre of origin of the species is the ‘fertile crescent’ in the Middle East from where they have travelled to all continents of the World, although, typically, they are major annual crops of temperate regions.
Plant Biodiversity
Authors: Harris Stephen A 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
It is estimated that some 350 000 green plant species (‘green algae’, nonvascular plants, seedless vascular plants, gymnosperms, angiosperms) have been described, of which the vast majority are angiosperms. Confidence in the estimates of species numbers vary from group to group and in some cases are little better than guesswork. The main threats to plant biodiversity are humans, mediated through habitat destruction, introgression and hybridization, human population growth, pollution and overexploitation.
Grasslands
Authors: Suttie James M 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Vegetation dominated by grasses, which is among the largest ecosystems in the world, has great environmental significance as well as providing feed for livestock and wildlife. Grassland types vary according to climatic zones as do their utilization and wildlife. Competition between species is affected by herbivory and disturbance. Grasslands often result from the arresting of plant succession due to fire, grazing and other anthropic intervention.
Mitochondrial Genome Organization and Expression in Plants
Authors: Brennicke Axel , Leaver Christopher J 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
The higher plant mitochondrial genome contains in the order of 50 proteins coding genes scattered throughout the genome and while much of the genome is transcribed, regulatory control is primarily exercised posttranscriptionally at the level of the ribonucleic acid (RNA) or protein turnover. In some plant species aberrant recombination events in the mitochondrial genome generate novel open reading frames, expressed as variant polypeptides, which in some cases lead to failure to produce functional pollen, a trait that has been exploited in plant breeding to produce F1 hybrid crops.
Plant Disease and Defence
Authors: Rietz Steffen , Parker Jane E 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Pathogens have evolved elaborate mechanisms to invade plant tissues and cause disease. Plants, in turn, respond to pathogen infection by expressing multiple layers of resistance. Once low energy ‘basal’ defences of plant cells have been overcome by pathogens, the plant can employ a more energy costly system of nonself recognition that triggers an ‘acute’ immune response. The survival of plants depends on their ability to fine‐tune defence responses to the type of pathogen they encounter.
Hemichordates: Development
Authors: Gerhart John , Lowe Christopher , Kirschner Marc 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Hemichordates resemble chordates in important aspects of their development anatomy and physiology. Within the hemichordate phylum are two main subgroups, the enteropneusts, of a few hundred species, and the pterobranchs, of 20 or so species. Comparison of hemichordates and chordates allows deductions about the common ancestor from which they both evolved.
5′‐
UTRs
and Regulation
Authors: Mignone Flavio , Pesole Graziano 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
The 5′ untranslated region consists of the leading part of a cellular messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) from the 5′ end to the translation start codon AUG. Precursor mRNA is posttranscriptionally modified by the removal of introns and by the addition at the 5′ end of a 7‐methyl‐guanylate cap structure, which has a crucial role in translation initiation and in regulating transcript stability. 5′‐UTRs as well as 3′‐UTRs, are deeply involved in regulation of gene expression through specific motifs that can affect mRNA stability, subcellular localization, nuclear export, tissue specificity and efficiency of translation.
Zinc‐finger Genes
Authors: Grant Richard P , Crossley M , Mackay Joel P 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Zinc‐fingers (ZnFs) are small protein domains stabilized by one or more zinc ions. ZnF proteins are abundant in higher eukaryotes, and many contain multiple ZnF domains. Initially thought to be peculiar to transcription factors and other deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)‐binding proteins, these domains can also interact with other proteins, ribonucleic acid (RNA) and lipids, implicating them in a mélange of biological processes.
Trinucleotide Repeat Expansions: Mechanisms and Disease Associations
Authors: Epplen Jörg T , Wieczorek Stefan 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Trinucleotide (and selected other) repeat expansions may cause severe neurodegenerative disorders with adult onset. Either elongated polyglutamine/polyalanine blocks, toxic polyglutamine peptides or reduced gene expression are responsible for the differential pathogenesis of this rather novel disease category.
Kinases and Phosphatases and Human Disorders: The First Drugs
Authors: van Huijsduijnen Rob Hooft 
Published: October 2007

AbstractKinases are enzymes that transfer phosphate groups from simple precursors (adenosine‐ or guanosine‐triphosphate) to proteins, lipids or carbohydrates. Phosphatases catalyse the reverse reaction and produce free phosphate.
Transcription Factors
Authors: Latchman David S 
Published: October 2007

AbstractTranscription factors are regulatory proteins that can increase or decrease the transcription of a particular gene from deoxyribonucleic acid into the corresponding ribonucleic acid. They play a key role in embryonic development, the creation and maintenance of cell type‐ and tissue‐specific patterns of protein synthesis and the response to cellular signalling pathways.
Mutation Databases
Authors: Béroud Christophe , Claustres Mireille 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
In the 1970s began the organization of medical knowledge in databases. Twenty years later, few groups understood the importance of mutations in all areas of health care and the need to create mutation databases. To classify, interpret and develop this knowledge, two complementary approaches have been developed: the collection of mutations from a large set of genes (core database) and the collection of mutations from a single gene (Locus Specific Database). During the last decades the developments of technology, especially the availability of large scale sequencing, led to the collection of tens of thousands of mutations and polymorphisms. The mass of data is now sufficient to address fundamental questions such as the predictive medicine. Concomitantly new bioinformatics tools are developed to evaluate the pathogenic impact of a given mutation or its consequence on the 3D structure of the protein and to identify cellular signals such as Exonic Splicing Enhancers and Exonic Splicing Silencers either disrupted or created by mutations. In the near future, tremendous progresses will be made to collect phenotypic information and will be of considerable importance for the development of new therapeutic strategies based on mutations such as the exon‐skipping or the premature termination codon read‐through.
Gene Feature Identification
Authors: Makałowska Izabela 
Published: October 2007

Abstract

The identification of all genes is one of the goals of any genome‐sequencing project. Apart from laboratory techniques, genes can also be identified by using computational, homology‐based or
ab initio
(model‐based) methods, which differ in their performance according to the sequence being analysed. With the growing number of sequenced genomes, comparative genomics is becoming the most powerful method for deciphering genomes.
Homozygosity Mapping
Authors: Génin Emmanuelle , Todorov Alexandre A 
Published: October 2007

AbstractThe mapping of genes involved in rare recessive disorders in large outbred population is often a difficult task because of the lack of families with multiple affected individuals. Homozygosity mapping is an efficient gene mapping method applicable to rare recessive disorders in inbred populations. Indeed, the method takes advantage of the fact that inbred affected individuals are likely to have two recessive copies of the disease allele from a common ancestor; i.e. two identical‐by‐descent (IBD) alleles. Since small chromosomal regions tend to be transmitted whole, affected individuals will also have identical‐by‐descent alleles at markers located nearby the disease locus and thus will be homozygous at these markers. The basic idea of the method to locate genes involved in rare recessive traits is thus to search for regions of homozygosity that are shared by different affected individuals.
Ascertainment in Genetics Studies
Authors: Wang Xueqin , Zhang Heping 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Certain ascertainment schemes are often used to recruit the study subjects in genetic studies in order to enhance the study feasibility. It could raise potential problems such as biased inference. Efforts have been made to correct the ascertainment bias by integrating ascertainment information into models. Recently, it has been noted that the past efforts may not be enough due to parameter heterogeneity, which probably exists in a complex genetic trait. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the ascertainment problems and correction procedures and remaining challenges.
Genotype‐Phenotype Relationships
Authors: Lyonnet Stanislas , Feingold Josué , Frézal Jean 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
Since the beginning of the cloning of human disease‐causing genes and the identification of gene mutations, in most cases of Mendelian disorders a clear correlation between a given genotype and a particular phenotype has not been established. Understanding the complex relationships between genotypes and phenotypes is one of the greatest challenges of genetic medicine, because the elucidation of these correlations is the key to using genetic diagnosis and DNA‐based tests for the diagnosis, prognosis and surveillance of individuals affected by genetic conditions.
X‐chromosome Inactivation and Disease
Authors: Lyon Mary F 
Published: October 2007

Abstract
X‐chromosome inactivation is the phenomenon in which one of the two X chromosomes in every somatic cell of female mammals becomes transcriptionally inactive early in embryonic development. This has the result of equalizing the effective gene dosage of X‐linked genes in chromosomally XX females and XY males, and is hence known as a dosage‐compensation mechanism. In humans, X‐chromosome inactivation has implications for the effects seen in diseases due either to X‐linked genes or to numerical or structural anomalies of the X‐chromosome.