bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Plant Peroxisomes and Glyoxysomes
Authors: Donaldson Robert Paul , Assadi Masoumeh , Karyotou Konstantina , Olcum Tulin , Qiu Tianqing 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPeroxisomes and glyoxysomes are membrane enclosures, both referred to as microbodies, which contain oxidative enzymes that participate in photorespiration in leaves, nitrogen metabolism in root nodules, and fat conversions in seeds. The enzymes found within microbodies are brought in from the cytosol by information described as peroxisomal targeting sequences (PTS).
Plant Cell Wall Biosynthesis
Authors: Fry Stephen C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Most plant cell wall polymers are synthesized from ‘activated’ precursors by the action of transferases. These enzymes are located in cell membranes (synthesizing polysaccharides and glycoproteins) or in the cell wall itself (synthesizing cutin and suberin). Lignin, in contrast, is synthesized in the wall by oxidative rather than transferase‐catalysed reactions.
Multigene Families: Evolution
Authors: Walsh J Bruce , Stephan Wolfgang 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Groups of genes showing similarity with each other are referred to as a gene family, arising from wholesale or partial gene duplication. The clustering of functionally related members of a gene family reflects their common ancestry and subsequent duplication and divergence. It has been speculated that gene duplication is essential for the creation of major evolutionary novelty. Genome projects will help in understanding the importance of gene duplications underlying macroevolutionary events.
Natural Selection: Sex Ratio
Authors: Seger Jon 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Natural selection acts strongly on the proportional numbers of male and female offspring among the progeny of adults. The equilibrium is often one at which males and females are produced in roughly equal numbers, but under certain ecological and genetic circumstances there may be dramatic population‐wide biases, and even in populations with balanced sex ratios, parents are often selected to produce strongly male‐ or female‐biased progenies in response to variations in their individual condition.
Speciation: Sympatric and Parapatric
Authors: Ritchie Michael G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Sympatric and parapatric speciation refer to the origin of species in the absence of complete geographic isolation between the diverging taxa. Until recently, most biologists believed that geographic isolation was an obligatory stage in the development of most species, i.e. most species originated in allopatry. However, new empirical and theoretical studies have shown that speciation may occur despite the incipient species having adjacent or overlapping geographic ranges.
Natural Selection: Introduction
Authors: Reznick David 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Most organisms have relatively stable populations, so that, of all those born, only some survive to reproduce. Those that survive do so because they are in some way better suited to their environment. This process involves natural selection by environmental pressures among all of the variations present in a population. Over time, those alleles that enhance survival and/or reproductive success will become more common in the population and the genetic composition of the population will change.
Evolution: Shifting Balance Theory
Authors: Tonsor Stephen J , Moore Francisco B‐G 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe shifting balance is an evolutionary process by which: 1) Drift and selection in small populations drive among‐population epistatic differentiation. 2) The epistatic combinations differ in fitness, and their mean fitnesses are dependent on the joint frequencies of the various epistatic combinations. 3) Epistatic differentiation among populations drives among‐population selection when migration levels depend on population mean fitness. This leads to the replacement of the ancestral epistatic combination throughout the metapopulation, under some circumstances.
Natural Selection: Responses to Current (Anthropogenic) Environmental Changes
Authors: Thomas Sean C , Kingsolver Joel G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Human‐caused changes in the environment are pervasive, as are evolutionary responses to these changes by living organisms. Selective responses to anthropogenic environmental change have thus been the topic of extensive research, providing hundreds of well‐documented cases of natural selection in action. Many of these responses are also of great importance from an ecological, economic and human health perspective.
Molecular Evolution: Techniques
Authors: Mable Barbara K 
Published: September 2006

AbstractProgress in the field of molecular evolution has been intricately tied to advances in the techniques used to characterize the molecular basis of genetic change. Although DNA sequencing currently provides the most information on evolutionary processes at the molecular level, techniques such as immunological distances, protein sequencing, protein electrophoresis, DNA hybridization, and restriction fragment analyses contributed to the development of more advanced techniques and continue to have important usages.
Ingestion in Reptiles and Amphibians
Authors: Nishikawa Kiisa , Schwenk Kurt 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The feeding stages of prey capture, ingestion, processing,
intraoral transport and swallowing are accomplished in different ways in
different species of amphibians (caecilians, salamanders and frogs) and
reptiles (crocodilians, turtles, tuatara, lizards, amphisbaeneans and snakes
– birds have diverged so much from other reptile groups that they can be
considered separately). The structural and ecological diversity of amphibians
and reptiles is reflected in the diversity of their feeding systems.
Excretion and Fluid Balance in Vertebrates
Authors: Kokko Juha P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Vertebrates have adapted to large variations in environmental
conditions in each of which the internal environment of volume and solute
composition must be maintained within narrow limits. In mammals, some
80–90% of the total osmolality is made up of sodium and chloride
ions. To maintain their highly regulated internal environments, animals must
be ‘in balance’ – a state termed homeostasis that is
achieved through complex positive and negative feedback mechanisms.
Osmoregulation by Vertebrates in Terrestrial Environments
Authors: Hillman Stanley S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A terrestrial environment for vertebrates leads to both a passive water loss to the air and solute gain through food. Consequently, terrestrial environments would tend to increase the osmotic concentration of vertebrates. Natural selection has led to a variety of behavioural, physiological and anatomical adaptations to both minimize water loss and excrete solutes in order to maintain a constant osmotic concentration in terrestrial environments.
Pheromones in Vertebrates
Authors: Faulkes Chris G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Pheromones are chemical signals, released from a donor individual, that elicit a specific response in a recipient of the same species. They are generally classified into two types: releaser pheromones produce a relatively rapid, behavioural effect, while primer pheromones lead to longer term physiological or developmental changes in the recipient animal. The use of pheromones as a method of communication is widespread amongst organisms from bacteria to humans.
Reproduction in Monotremes and Marsupials
Authors: Renfree Marilyn , Shaw Geoffrey 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The three subclasses of mammals are most clearly distinguished from one another by their mode of reproduction and the anatomy of their reproductive tracts. The three species of monotreme are all oviparous, whereas the 276 or more living species of marsupial all give birth to small, altricial young that in most species are retained in the mother's pouch during the extended lactational period.
Haemophilias
Authors: Walter Johannes , High Katherine 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Haemophilia is a hereditary bleeding disorder caused by a deficiency of one of two plasma clotting factors, factor VIII or factor IX. The clinical symptoms of this X‐linked recessive disease vary depending on the level of activity of the affected factor. Patients may be asymptomatic, except in the face of trauma or surgery, or suffer from mild to severe, often spontaneous, haemorrhage.
Mutation
Authors: Devoret Raymond 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A mutation is a DNA change that is recorded durably and passed on to the offspring. A number of mutations in germ cells have detrimental effects for they often cause hereditary diseases. Likewise, mutations that accumulate in body cells can generate cancers. Nevertheless, a large number of mutations are neutral in their normal environment. The few advantageous mutations that occur are generally maintained. Mutations that arise at random are constantly sifted through by a selective environment. This dual process works as the driving force of evolution.
Li–Fraumeni Syndrome
Authors: Portwine Carol , Malkin David 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The Li–Fraumeni syndrome is a rare inherited predisposition to the development of multiple cancer phenotypes at an early age which is attributed primarily to germline mutations of the
p53
tumour suppressor gene. Identification of these families is important in the study of cancer and the development of ethical and appropriate screening modalities, prevention, early cancer detection, and treatment of individuals who harbour alterations of such cancer genes, in order that we may one day improve their prognosis.
Macular Degeneration, Age Related
Authors: Duncan Jacque L , Berger Jeffrey W , Fine Stuart L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Macular degeneration comprises a group of diseases characterized by progressive deterioration of the central retina, retinal pigment epithelial cells and choriocapillaris, causing central vision loss. Advances in molecular biology have made possible the identification of the genetic basis for many types of hereditary macular degeneration, but the most common type, age‐related macular degeneration, is probably multifactorial.
Terpenoids: Lower
Authors: Harborne Jeffrey B 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Lower terpenoids are formed in plants either from acetyl‐coenzyme A via mevalonate or more directly from glucose via 1‐deoxy‐
d
‐xylulose. Monoterpenoids are produced from the condensation of two isoprene units, and sesquiterpenoids from three. Lower terpenoids are secreted in glandular hairs on leaves or in the scent glands of flowers. They provide many of the fragrant odours of plants. The best‐known sesquiterpenoid is abscisic acid, an important plant hormone involved in the opening and closure of leaf stomata.
Protozoan Nutrition and Metabolism
Authors: Smith‐Somerville Harriett E , Ziemkiewicz Hope T , Ryals Phillip E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Protozoa are found in almost every type of moist habitat, a range that encompasses salt and fresh waters, soil, host organisms and environments with extremes in temperature. Their success is due in part to the ability of different protozoa to use diverse and often changing nutritional sources.
Protozoan Ecology
Authors: Anderson O Roger 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Protozoan ecology is the interaction in space and time of protozoa (flagellates, amoeboid organisms and ciliates) with other living organisms and the physical environment. It encompasses, among other factors, sources of food and energy used to sustain life, food web dynamics, the role of protozoa in maintaining fertility of ecosystems, and adaptive strategies for survival in varying habitats.
Protozoan Organelles of Locomotion
Authors: Sleigh Michael A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Structures responsible for locomotion of single‐celled protozoa are referred to as organelles because they comprise only part of a cell that is performing all of the functions of a complete organism. Organelles that produce motion may move the whole organism from place to place, or may change the shape of the cell or the position of components within it.
Protozoan Symbioses
Authors: Lom Jiří 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Protozoan symbiosis describes a condition of existence in which two protozoa or a protozoan with another partner – a virus, a prokaryote, another protist or a multicellular eukaryote – live together. It brings nutritional benefit to both symbionts or to only one of them, or it may be detrimental to one of them.
Protozoan Cysts and Spores
Authors: Corliss John O 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cysts are typically resting, dormant and/or resistant stages in the full life cycle of many protozoan species, sometimes playing a role in dispersal of the organism. Spores are a stage commonly associated with multiplication and propagation of a protozoan organism, sometimes having a resistant wall and often, in parasitic forms, serving as an obligate stage in the life cycle.
Protozoan Pathogens of Domestic and Companion Animals
Authors: Marquardt William C , Speer CA 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Protozoa parasitize every species of animal that has been examined for them. Many are of economic importance in domestic animals and many species of wildlife have protozoan parasites that affect their health and serve to modulate populations. Companion animals such as dogs and cats also have parasitic protozoa that have detrimental effects on their health.
Amoebiasis
Authors: Stanley Samuel L , Li Ellen 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Amoebiasis is caused by the protozoan parasite
Entamoeba histolytica
, a human‐specific pathogen that thrives in areas of poor sanitation. The clinical manifestations of
E. histolytica
infection range from asymptomatic colonization to invasive disease manifest as amoebic dysentery or amoebic liver abscess.
Coccidiosis
Authors: Barta John R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Coccidiosis is principally an enteric disease of vertebrates that results from infection with eimeriid parasites of the genus
Eimeria
or
Isospora
(Apicomplexa; Coccidia; Eimeriidae). Coccidiosis is a frequent cause of diarrhoea, morbidity and mortality in domesticated birds and mammals that can be alleviated by use of prophylactic or therapeutic antiparasitic drugs or, less commonly, by vaccination.
Cryptosporidiosis
Authors: Graczyk Thaddeus K 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Cryptosporidiosis is a zoonotic enteric diarrhoeal disease which is a self‐limiting in immunocompetent humans and chronic in immunocompromised or immunosuppressed people. It is caused by ingestion of exogenous stages, the oocysts, of a protozoan,
Cryptosporidium parvum
.
Chromista
Authors: Maneveldt Gavin W , Keats Derek W 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAs a group, the chromists show a diverse range of forms from tiny unicellular, flagellates to the large brown algae known as kelp. Molecular studies have confirmed the inclusion of certain organisms once considered fungi, as well as some heterotrophic flagellates. Despite their diversity of form and feeding modes, a few unique characters group these organisms.
Eimeria
Authors: Duszynski Donald W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The genus
Eimeria
Schneider, 1875 (Protista: Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) is a specious (more than 1700 species) lineage of obligate intracellular parasites found in all classes of vertebrates and some invertebrates. Some species are highly pathogenic, especially in domesticated animals.
Entamoeba
and
Entamoeba histolytica
Authors: Diamond Louis S , Clark C Graham 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Entamoeba
are protozoa parasitizing all classes of vertebrates and a few invertebrates. Two species,
E. histolytica
, a parasite of humans, and
E. invadens
, a parasite of reptiles, are capable of causing severe illness and death of the host.
Gymnodinium
Authors: Heimann Kirsten , Hansen Gert , Roberts Keith R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The dinoflagellate genus
Gymnodinium
is a complex assemblage of species. Clearly, not all species are evolutionarily related but many representatives are providing valuable insight into fundamental phylogenetic and biochemical questions. Taxa assigned to this genus are known to be toxin producers of extreme importance to biomedicine.
Suctorians
Authors: Lanners H Norbert , Lanners Ellen B 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe predatory or parasitic suctorians are sessile ciliates. However, adult stages do not bear cilia. The ciliated stage is a free‐swimming swarmer, which settles on a substrate or infects a new host organism, loses its cilia and undergoes metamorphosis into the adult form. Many species attach to the substrate by a stalk, or a lorica. Suctorians feed through straight tubular cell extensions called tentacles.
Staphylococcal Sepsis: Treatment
Authors: French G L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Staphylococcus aureus
is a virulent pathogen that causes both asymptomatic colonization and infection.
S. aureus
is the most common cause of skin and soft tissue infections. In hospitals,
S. aureus
is the most common cause of surgical site infection, and a common cause of bacteraemia. Epidemic strains of
Staphylococcus aureus
(and especially methicillin‐resistant
S. aureus
, MRSA) may spread in hospitals via dust and air, staff hands and contaminated medical devices and equipment.
Antimicrobials Against Fastidious Gram‐negative Rods
Authors: Sefton Armine M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Neisseria meningitides
,
N. gonorrhoeae
,
Haemophilus influenzae
,
Brucella
spp,
Bordetella
spp and
Legionella
spp are bacterial pathogens which can cause serious disease in humans.
N. meningitides
, for instance, is one of the commonest causes of bacterial meningitis. These bacteria can become resistant to antimicrobials by a variety of mechanisms and this is likely to impact on future management of infections caused by these organisms.
Bone Homeostasis: Extracellular Calcium Levels and Their Control
Authors: McDonald Fraser 
Published: September 2006

AbstractCalcium is an essential ion within the human body. It is responsible for the correct coordination of many functions and constitutes a large part of the skeleton. Calcium levels are kept within a specific range, regulated principally by three hormones – parathyroid hormone, calcitonin and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) – although other paracrine substances can have a major effect.
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
Authors: Michalak Marek , Opas Michal 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X‐linked recessive disorder that affects muscles and causes progressive weakness. Dystrophin, the product of the DMD gene, is one of several membrane proteins that form the dystrophin–glycoprotein complex, which helps to maintain the integrity of muscle cells; loss of these proteins leads to the wasting of muscle cells and to the pathology of DMD.
Seed Banks and Gene Banks
Authors: Bradbeer J William 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Although the survival of plant genotypes
in situ
in their natural environment is by far the preferred method for the conservation of biodiversity, recent years have seen much activity in the fall‐back alternative of
ex situ
conservation. In such a strategy, plant germplasm is conserved in living plant collections backed up by seed storage in seed banks and/or the cryopreservation of plant cells or tissues.
Meristems
Authors: Green Kirsten A , Clark Steven E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In the region designated the shoot meristem, undifferentiated cells are maintained throughout the life cycle of the plant, providing a source of cells from which plant organs are derived. Cells that are differentiating as they are channelled toward a particular developmental fate also reside in the shoot meristem, as do the resultant organ primordia.
Adventitious Roots
Authors: Neuman Dawn S , Hansberry Janis 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
New roots may arise from atypical locations; these are called adventitious roots. Most commonly, adventitious roots arise out of stems, beginning from stem cortex cell divisions or from buds buried in the bark. In some plants, adventitious roots form on leaves. The field of horticulture is based in large part on cloning plants from cuttings of stems or leaves that form adventitious roots. These roots are also common along rhizomes of ferns, clubmosses, and horsetails. Primary roots and adventitious roots have similar function and structure.
Trichomes
Authors: Hülskamp Martin , Schwab Birgit 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A ‘trichome’ (or hair) is an outgrowth derived from the shoot or root epidermis of a plant. The form and distribution of trichomes differs between plant species or genera, but recent molecular work reveals that there are common regulatory pathways for trichome development of different types within the same plant species and possibly also across plant species.
Regulatory Genes in Plant Development: Homeobox
Authors: Sinha Neelima R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Knotted‐like homeobox (KNOX) genes play a profound role in shoot apical meristem organization, maintenance and leaf initiation. An MYB domain gene PHANTASTICA plays a role in regulating dorsal–ventral polarity in lateral organs and also downregulates a subset of the KNOX genes.
Xylem: Differentiation, Water Transport and Ecology
Authors: Sachs Tsvi 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The xylem carries water from the roots to the leaves; it is also the major supporting tissue in large plants. Three major areas of current research are concerned with additional mechanisms for the ascent of water; patterning at the plant, tissue and cell levels and its molecular basis; and the ecological significance of xylem diversity.
Acantharia
Authors: Febvre Jean , Febvre‐Chevalier Colette 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Acantharia are marine planktonic protozoa related to Radiolaria. Their main distinctive features are the mineral skeletons of strontium sulfate, the radial cytoplasmic extensions known as axopods, the extracellular fibrillar network or periplasmic cortex and the contractile filament bundles known as myonemes.
Heliozoa
Authors: Febvre‐Chevalier Colette , Febvre Jean 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Heliozoa are typically spherical aquatic protozoa bearing thin, sensitive and dynamic cellular extensions known as axopods. The axopods are stiffened by bundles of unstable microtubules that radiate from the cell body in all directions. The skeleton, when present, consists of dispersed elements covering the cell surface. No fossils of Heliozoa have been reported.
Ischaemic Heart Disease
Authors: Lewis David , Wang Qing , Topol Eric 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The clinical spectrum of ischaemic heart disease encompasses a variety of acute and chronic conditions including silent ischaemia, chronic stable angina, myocardial infarction, ischaemic cardiomyopathy and sudden cardiac death. Its pathogenesis and treatment is the subject of much ongoing research and debate.
Anaesthesia: Modern Approaches
Authors: Foëx Pierre 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Anaesthesia, the single largest hospital medical speciality, has expanded to include anaesthesia, acute and chronic pain relief and intensive care. Over 60 per cent of hospital patients are in contact with anaesthetists. Developments over the past decades have increased its safety and its mechanisms have become clearer. Many anaesthetists are becoming perioperative physicians and take an increasing role in the delivery of postoperative care.
Preterm Labour: Mechanisms and Risks
Authors: Bernal Andrés López 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Preterm labour (the occurrence of labour before 37 completed weeks of pregnancy) complicates millions of pregnancies throughout the world and accounts for a disproportionately high percentage of perinatal deaths and long‐term handicap of the surviving infants. Research efforts must focus on the prediction and accurate diagnosis of this condition and the development of better, more selective, therapy.