bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sustainable Minerals Operations in the Developing World: introduction
Authors: Marker B. R. , Petterson M. G. , McEvoy F. , Stephenson M. H. 
Published: April 2008

excerpt
Sustainable development requires an appropriate abalance between social, economic and environme ntal well-being, now and for the future. Since most minerals are non-renewalble resources, sustainability of supply can only be addressed by extracting, processing and distributing raw in the least environmentally damaging ways, using minerals wisely, and recycling as much as possible. However, there also is significant scope for inproved sustainability in terms of economic and social aspects.
Minerals are essential raw materials but high-quality deposits havem become depleted in many developed countries. These countries have increasingly turned to developing countries for supplies and it is in these that modt high-quality untapped futre prospect remain. for countries with limited export opportunities, minerals are often a mainstay of the domestic economy. However, low selling prices may reflect limited environmental regulation and low wages. This can lead to charges that the rich countries are exporting their environmental damage to, andexploiting, poorer countries. As more countries develop, the global demand for supplies of essential raw materials increases, and resources will be depleted more quickly. Therefore, sustainable minerals supply from the developing countries is an important global issue.

In this Special Report, general aspects of sustainable minerals operations in the developing world are reviewed by Petterson
et al.
, Hobbs, and Richards while the remaining papers consider specific issues in more detail. Hobbs, in particular, emphasizes the need to give proper weight each to human capital, financial capital, manufactured capital, and environmental capital in any full analysis as a context for sustainable development and effective.
The need and context for sustainable mineral development
Authors: Petterson M. G. , Marker B. R. , McEvoy F. , Stephenson M. , Falvey D. A. 
Published: April 2008

Abstract
A special thematic conference was organized at the Geological Society of London in November 2003, aimed at bringing together experts in minerals development in the Developing Countries. Representatives of many aspects of mineral development attended, including mining companies, governments, aid agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), academics and consultants. The opening address to the conference is given in this paper. Mining is an ancient human activity developed through essential societal demand. As society and technology have developed, they have inevitably become ever-more materials hungry. This demand will remain for the foreseeable future. Many areas of the Developed World have depleted high-grade mineral deposits, and remaining resources are subject to strong environmental constraints. This increases pressure on the Developing World to generate the mineral commodities upon which society depends. Mineral resources are also a potential source of capital over which Developing Countries can have their own decision-making powers (in contrast to aid money for example). Sustainable mineral development is all about balance. Achieving the dynamic balance between supply and demand, equitable capital distribution, good financial and environmental management and governance, economics, and social stability is the challenge the world faces in the twenty-first century and beyond.
The role of minerals in sustainable human development
Authors: Richards Jeremy P. 
Published: April 2008

Abstract

Sustainable mineral resources development can be seen as the equitable conversion of transient mineral wealth into durable social and environmental capital. In the past, this conversion has not been efficient or equitable, with benefits accruing mainly to First World investors and consumers by externalization of social and environmental costs to local people and places. Modern industry, led by large multinational corporations, is in the process of changing its
modus operandi
to embrace ideas of corporate and social responsibility. The damage from past practices to the developing world is severe, however, and may require measures beyond voluntary or current legal instruments to reverse degenerative trends. Central among these requirements is Third World debt cancellation. However, the mining industry can also contribute by fully internalizing the costs of mineral production, and paying a fair price for the resources it extracts; these internalized costs should be reflected in higher commodity prices. This can be achieved through a combination of financial instruments and incentives, innovation, and best practice, with essential consumer buy-in through increased awareness.
Markets for industrial mineral products from mining waste
Authors: Scott Peter W. , Eyre John M. , Harrison David J. , Bloodworth Andrew J. 
Published: April 2008

Abstract
The composition of mining waste varies according to the nature of the mining operation and many other factors, but where the same mineral is extracted from a similar style of metalliferous or industrial mineral deposit or coal, the waste usually has similar characteristics. There are many potential sources of industrial minerals from mining waste. Waste from one mine may be a byproduct or coproduct in a mining operation elsewhere. Much technical research work on mine waste utilization, for example studies on slate waste, has included a manufacturing process. The waste is invariably an inferior material compared with an industrial mineral from a primary resource for the manufacturing process. Successful markets have not been found. Four scenarios are proposed where an industrial mineral product made from mining waste may be marketed successfully. These are a bulk product for a local market made with minimal or no processing; a low unit value product and a cost-effective alternative source of a mineral for local industry; an industrial mineral commodity traded nationally or internationally; and extraction of a high unit value rare mineral. Making an industrial mineral product from mining waste and successfully marketing it should involve minimal processing of the waste consistent with the value of the mineral product.
FarmLime: low-cost lime for small-scale farming
Authors: Mitchell Clive J. 
Published: April 2008

Abstract
In the less-developed parts of southern Africa, where agriculture is crucial in daily survival, agricultural lime is often difficult to obtain. This is due to the scarcity of production sites, high transport costs and inadequate support for farmers from government extension services. In Zambia there are upwards of 700 000 small-scale farmers who struggle to farm on acid soils and as a result have poor crop yields. They cannot afford to use agricultural lime, which would solve the problem, and as a result are trapped in a cycle of poverty. In an attempt to address this problem, the UK research project ‘FarmLime’, based in Zambia, investigated a means of producing affordable agricultural lime using simple, locally available technology. Dolomite suitable for agricultural lime occurs throughout Zambia, including those farming districts with acidic soils. It is estimated that small-scale production using partly manual methods could produce agricultural lime for US$25 – 30 per tonne. Demonstration crop trials were successful in demonstrating the benefits of using agricultural lime to small-scale farmers. Where the price of maize is high and the cost of lime is low, the economic benefits of its use are high. However, even if there is a demonstrable economic benefit, the use of agricultural lime will be constrained by the lack of cash in the rural economy; one potential solution to this could be bartering of crops for agricultural lime.
Climatic controls on alluvial-fan activity, Coastal Cordillera, northern Chile
Authors: Hartley Adrian J. , Mather Anne E. , Jolley Elizabeth , Turner Peter 
Published: April 2008

Abstract

A description of the distribution, drainage basin characteristics, surface morphology, depositional process and age of 64 alluvial fan systems from both flanks of the hyper-arid Coastal Cordillera of northern Chile between 22°15′S and 23°40′S is presented. The coastal fans on the western flank of the Coastal Cordillera are dominated by debris-flow deposits fed from steep catchments. Two drainage basin types are recognized: type A drainage basins are small (10–30 km
2
) and do not cut back beyond the main coastal watershed; and type B drainage basins are large (up to 400 km
2
) and cut inland beyond the coastal watershed. The western Central Depression fans on the eastern flank of the Coastal Cordillera are characterized by sheetflood deposition fed from relatively shallow catchments in small drainage basins (10–50 km
2
). The surface morphology, sedimentation rates, a luminescence date and regional cosmogenic radionucleide data suggest that these fans have been inactive for at least the last 230 000 years and probably for much of the Neogene.

The principal control on fan activity in the study area is climate. The Coastal Cordillera forms an orographic barrier to recent El Niño-related precipitation events that are restricted to the western flank of the Coastal Cordillera. These events did not penetrate into the Central Depression as indicated by the inactive nature of the western Central Depression fans located 25 km east of the active coastal-fan catchments. This scenario is considered to have prevailed for much of the Neogene. Climate also controls rates of weathering on alluvial-fan surfaces. The coastal fog results in rapid salt weathering of clasts on coastal fans resulting in the production of fines, but does not penetrate into the Central Depression. Fault activity is important in controlling drainage basin size. The larger (type B) drainage basins are commonly focused on active faults that cut the coastal watershed, facilitating drainage basin expansion. Source-area lithology is not important in controlling depositional processes. Fans on both sides of the cordillera have the same basaltic andesite and granodiorite source lithologies, yet coastal fans are dominated by debris-flow and western Central Depression fans by sheetflood deposition. A combination of chemical weathering and stream power related to gradient are considered to account for the differences in process.
Luminescence dating of alluvial fans in intramontane basins of NW Argentina
Authors: Robinson R. A. J. , Spencer J. Q. G. , Strecker M. R. , Richter A. , Alonso R. N. 
Published: April 2008

Abstract
Alluvial fans are sensitive recorders of both climatic change and tectonic activity. The ability to constrain the age of alluvial-fan sequences, individual sedimentary events and the rates of sediment accumulation are key for constraining which mechanisms most control their formation. Recent advances in optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) measurement and analysis have resulted in vast improvements in the dating technique and reliability of age determinations, particularly for OSL dating of quartz grains, and routine application to a wide variety of depositional environments is now possible. Here we apply OSL methods to date a variety of deposits within Late Pleistocene conglomeratic alluvial sequences in NW Argentina. The ages obtained range from 39 to 83 ka and were determined from debris-flow- and fluvial-dominated deposits and lacustrine sequences in intramontane basins bounded by tectonically active mountain ranges with as much as 2 km of relief. With careful choice of facies and sample collection, OSL techniques can be used to date Late Pleistocene, predominately matrix-supported, cobble-conglomerate alluvial deposits.
Factors controlling sequence development on Quaternary fluvial fans, San Joaquin Basin, California, USA
Authors: Weissmann G. S. , Bennett G. L. , Lansdale A. L. 
Published: April 2008

Abstract
Variable geometry and distribution of stratigraphic sequences of fluvial fans in the eastern San Joaquin Basin, California, were controlled by tectonics, through basin subsidence and basin width, and response to Quaternary climate change, related to the degree of change in sediment supply to stream discharge ratios and local base-level elevation changes. Three fluvial fans — the Kings River, Tuolumne River and Chowchilla River fans — illustrate the influence of these factors on ultimate sequence geometry. In areas with high subsidence rates (e.g. the Kings River fluvial fan) sequences are relatively thick and apices of subsequent sequences are vertically stacked. Areas with relatively low subsidence rates (e.g. the Tuolumne River fan) produced laterally stacked sequences. Rivers that experienced a significant increase in sediment supply to stream discharge ratios due to direct connection to outwash from glaciated portions of the Sierra Nevada developed high accommodation space and relatively thick sequences with deep incised valleys. Conversely, rivers that were not connected to glaciated regions (e.g. the Chowchilla River fan) and, thus, experienced a relatively minor change in sediment supply to discharge ratios during climate change events, produced thinner sequences that lack deep incised valleys. Local base-level connection to sea level, via the axial San Joaquin River, produced deeper incised valleys than those of internally drained rivers. Finally, narrow basin width allowed glacially connected fans to completely fill available accommodation space, thus producing smaller fans that lack preservation of distal, interglacial deposits. Evaluation of these controls allows prediction of sequence geometries and facies distributions for other San Joaquin Basin fans for input into future hydrogeological models.
Mid-Cretaceous turnover of saurischian dinosaur communities: evidence from the Neuquén Basin
Authors: Coria Rodolfo A. , Salgado Leonardo 
Published: April 2008

Abstract
Successional changes are recorded among saurischian dinosaur faunas throughout the Cretaceous of the Neuquén Basin. Both sauropod and theropod lineages present in NW Patagonia show comparable transformations and indicate that some clades did not survive the Late Turonian boundary. Similar patterns of changes are observed in other Patagonian sedimentary basins. Diplodocoid sauropods and carcharodontosaurid theropods are not yet recorded in levels younger than Turonian, while titanosaurians and abelisauroids are present before and after this period. Important floral changes during the mid-Cretaceous, mainly related to the proliferation of angiosperms, could be one element that influenced some dinosaurian associations.
Deformation transfer in viscous detachments: comparison of sandbox models to the South Pyrenean Triangle Zone
Authors: Koyi Hemin A. , Sans Maura 
Published: April 2008

Abstract
Results of scaled sandbox models, containing three viscous layers located at different geographic and stratigraphic levels simulating three evaporitic units in the South Pyrenean Triangle Zone, and interpreted field data are presented here to explain structural variation and kinematics in shortened areas containing multiple weak horizons acting as detachments. In the Southern Pyrenean Triangle Zone, the Beuda, Cardona and Barbastro thrust fronts have similar geometric features to those developed in the models, suggesting that they could have formed and evolved in a similar way. These deformation fronts are not always perpendicular to the regional shortening direction. Instead, their direction is governed by the initial pinch-out of the viscous horizonts. Model results show that triangle zones form when: (1) deformation is transferred to weak horizons located at higher stratigraphic levels, and (2) the deformation front reaches the pinch-out of the weak horizons. Model results also show that the rheology of the detachment horizonts controls the geometry of the deformation front. Weak detachments (Cardona Formation, and pure silicone in the models) promote folding and back-vergent structures, and thus formation of triangle zones at the deformation front, irrespective of the location of the thrust front relative to the pinch-out of the viscous detachment. However, over strong (more viscous) detachments (Barbastro and Beuda formations, and impure silicone in the models), folds that eventually evolve to thrusts are dominant. In such cases, backthrusts form only at the pinch-out of the detachment layer. In cases where no viscous detachment is present, no backthrusts form, and therefore the thrust front does not develop a triangle zone geometry. Instead, a foreland-vergent piggyback sequence of thrusts forms. Model results show that the stratigraphic level of a detachment governs size, geometry and spacing of the imbricates formed above it.
Geometric and experimental models of extensional fault-bend folds
Authors: Withjack Martha O. , Schlische Roy W. 
Published: April 2008

Abstract
We use geometric and experimental models to study the development of extensional fault-bend folds. The geometric models show that fault shape, fault displacement, and patterns of aggradation/erosion profoundly affect the distribution of growth beds, the magnitude and direction of dip of pregrowth and growth beds, and the location and dip of the outer limit of folding in pregrowth and growth beds. Complex structural and stratigraphic patterns develop if the rate of aggradation/erosion relative to the rate of fault displacement changes through time. The experimental models (with dry sand and wet clay) show that several deformational styles can accommodate extensional fault-bend folding. In sand models, a few, relatively major, secondary antithetic normal faults accommodate most hanging wall deformation. Pregrowth layers, although faulted, remain flat. The effective shear direction parallels the antithetic normal faults, and the shear angle is about 60°–65°. In clay models, numerous, relatively minor, secondary normal faults (antithetic and synthetic) and cataclastic flow accommodate most hanging wall deformation. The deformed pregrowth and growth layers dip gently toward the main fault. The effective shear angle (35°–50°) is considerably less than the dip of the antithetic normal faults. In the sand models and geometric models with a large shear angle (60°), more displacement occurs on the main normal fault and the hanging wall collapses in a relatively narrow zone. In the clay models and geometric models with a small shear angle (35°), less displacement occurs on the main normal fault. Instead, the hanging wall stretches substantially and collapses in a relatively wide zone.
Macroscale dynamics of experimental landscapes
Authors: Bonnet Stephane , Crave Alain 
Published: April 2008

Abstract
We review results from laboratory-scale modelling of erosion and relief dynamics under variable uplift and rainfall rates. Under constant values of these forcing parameters an experimental landscape typically evolves towards a steady-state between uplift and erosion, and we show how the geometry of the steady-state landscape adjusts to the rates of uplift and rainfall. The comparison between these laboratory-scale landscapes and the natural ones is not straightforward because contrary to analogue modelling in tectonics, natural conditions of relief evolution cannot be downscaled to the laboratory without any scale distortions. Laboratory-scale modelling in geomorphology is therefore only experimental, not analogue. Despite these limitations, experimental models may be used to provide physical tests for numerical models and they give insights into first-order behaviours and directions for future research.
Numerical modelling of erosion processes in the Himalayas of Nepal: effects of spatial variations of rock strength and precipitation
Authors: Godard V. , Lavé J. , Cattin R. 
Published: April 2008

Abstract

The interplay between tectonics and erosion has a predominant control on the evolution of the morphology of mountain belts. Here we investigate the modalities of deformation in Central Nepal on a
c.
100 ka time scale in response to tectonic and external forcings, through the use of a finite-element thermomechanical model coupled with an integrative denudation formulation that accounts for fluvial incision and hillslope landsliding. We study the complex coupling existing between tectonics and erosion, with special emphasis on the influences of rock strength and rainfall distributions. Our results underline the key role played by lithologic variations in the elevation of both rivers and mean topography. We show that the location of the Main Frontal Thrust is mainly controlled by the low erodability of the unconsolidated sandstone in the Siwaliks Hills. As previously suspected (Burbank
et al.
2003), our simulations demonstrate that the pattern of uplift in Nepal is mainly dependent on both erodability and fault geometry, rather than on rainfall distribution.
Effects of compaction processes on stresses, faults, and fluid flow in sedimentary basins: examples from the Norwegian margin
Authors: Bjørlykke Knut 
Published: April 2008

Abstract
Modelling of sediment compaction requires that the rate limiting processes are understood. The compaction of uncemented sediments at relatively shallow burial depths should be modelled as a function of effective stress following soil mechanical principles and using experimental compaction data for calibration. In siliceous rocks chemical compaction is dominant at depths greater than 2–3 km (80–100°C). Chemical compaction should be modelled as a function of the temperature history and the mineralogical and textural composition of the sediments. The rate of chemical compaction for siliceous sediments is to a large extent a function of the quartz cementation, which is an exponential function of temperature, while the effective stress plays a minor role. In the case of carbonate sediments the kinetics of precipitation of cement is much faster and the effective stress is more important than temperature.

The magnitude and distribution of effective
situ
stresses is a complex function of external tectonic stresses, gravitational forces and fluid pressures. Sediments undergo mechanical compaction when subjected to high effective stress and are much more compressible than basement rocks. Chemical compaction also results in a reduction in rock volume and this has a strong feedback on the
in situ
stresses. If the horizontal stress is greater than the vertical stress, both mechanical compaction and chemical compaction will also occur in the horizontal direction, thus relaxing
in situ
stresses unless there is significant basin shortening. Calculations show that relatively large
in situ
stress anomalies (10 MPa) may be relaxed in 5–10 ka by chemical compaction during basin subsidence. Chemical compaction may also continue during uplift; it is fundamentally different from mechanical compaction and must be modelled separately.