bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
GENERALIZED INDUCTIVE DEFINITIONS IN CONSTRUCTIVE SET THEORY
Authors: Rathjen Michael 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter studies generalized inductive definitions on the basis of constructive Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, CZF. In theories such as classical Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, it can be shown that every inductive definition over a set gives rise to a least and a greatest fixed point, which are sets. This principle, notated GID, can also be deduced from CZF plus the full impredicative separation axiom or CZF augmented by the power set axiom. Full separation and a fortiori the power set axiom, however, are entirely unacceptable from a constructive point of view. It is shown that while CZF+GID is stronger than CZF, the principle GID does not embody the strength of any of these axioms. CZF+GID can be interpreted in Feferman's Explicit Mathematics with a least fixed point principle. The proof-theoretic strength of the latter theory is expressible by means of a fragment of second order arithmetic.
CONSTRUCTIVE SET THEORIES AND THEIR CATEGORY-THEORETIC MODELS
Authors: Simpson Alex 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter advocates a pragmatic approach to constructive set theory, using axioms based solely on set-theoretic principles that are directly relevant to (constructive) mathematical practice. The aim is to leave the notion of set as unconstrained as possible, while remaining consistent with the ways in which sets are actually used in mathematical practice. Following this approach, the chapter presents theories ranging in power from weaker predicative theories to stronger impredicative ones. The theories considered all have sound and complete classes of category-theoretic models, obtained by axiomatizing the structure of an ambient category of classes together with its subcategory of sets. In certain special cases, the categories of sets have independent characterizations in familiar category-theoretic terms, and one thereby obtains a rich source of naturally occurring mathematical models for (both predicative and impredicative) constructive set theories.
Introduction
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis introductory chapter provides definitions and explains the scope of the book. It explains how conclusions are drawn from trees, how they are used to build these trees, why gametes are included, and the limitations of the topics considered. Previously, there have been many approaches to explain the evolution of organ systems, but these were restricted to particular systems. Other approaches have reconstructed phylogeny derived from the one organ system instead of reconstructing the evolution of this organ system from a tree based on all available data.
Epidermis
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThe epidermis is the external surface of an animal and performs several functions. It is usually a monolayer of cells, but can also be composed of several layers of cells. Epidermal cells are connected by cellular junctions (anchoring, occluding, and gap junctions), which are of particular phylogenetic importance. Epidermal cells can secrete extracellular material to their basal and apical side, which is called the ECM or glycocalyx/cuticle. The evolution of such structures is discussed in this chapter, including the presence of chitin and the moulting of the entire cuticle. Particular substructures of epidermal cells are the cilia, which form a variety of different arrangements and shapes. Several characters concerning the epidermis can be recognized as evolutionary novelties for particular metazoan taxa.
Sensory organs
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThere is a wide variety of different sensory organs, but the basic principles of their function are similar. This chapter summarizes the known sensory structures, and ciliary receptors are briefly discussed. The two sensory structures discussed in detail are static sense organs and photoreceptors. Static sensory organs occur as statocysts in a variety of animals. They differ extremely in shape, composition, and location, making their multiple parallel evolution quite likely. Photoreceptors also occur in abundance and in different forms. Following a review of photoreceptors among animal taxa, it is concluded that the molecular photosensitive system is quite old and that it is, for example, likely that several opsins were present in the bilaterian ancestor. The particular architecture of the photoreceptor (‘eye’) evolved in parallel many times over.
Reproductive organs
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractAnimals can reproduce in two ways: asexually or sexually. Both modes have advantages and their evolutionary distribution and significance is discussed in this chapter. In sexually reproducing animals, sexes can be separate (gonochoristic) or combined in one individual (hermaphroditic). Gametes can be formed in a variety of ways, but not necessarily in particular structures called gonads. Sponges do not have anything like a gonad, and cnidarians and ctenophores concentrate gametes in particular regions called gametogenic areas. Most bilaterian animals have particular gonads, which can originate in different ways. The gametes also originate in different ways, either very early in development by ‘preformation’ or later by ‘epigenesis’. Gametes are transferred in different ways, producing numerous reproductive structures for gamete storage and transfer.
Late twentieth-century patterns and trends in the climate of tropical forest regions
Authors: Malhi Yadvinder , Wright James 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter presents an analysis of the mean climate and climatic trends of tropical rainforest regions over the period 1960-98, with the aid of climatological databases. Since the mid-1970s all tropical rainforest regions have experienced a warming, in synchrony with a global rise in temperature that has been attributed to the anthropogenic greenhouse effect. Over the study period precipitation appears to have declined sharply in northern tropical Africa, declined marginally in tropical Asia, and showed no significant trend in Amazonia. There is no evidence to date of a decline in precipitation in eastern Amazonia, a region thought vulnerable to climate-change induced drying. The strong drying trend in Africa suggests that this should be a priority study region for understanding the impact of drought on tropical rainforests. Only African and Indian tropical rainforests appear to have seen a significant increase in dry season intensity. The El Niñno-Southern Oscillation is the primary driver of interannual temperature variations across the tropics, and of precipitation fluctuations for large areas of the Americas and Southeast Asia.
Forest–climate interactions in fragmented tropical landscapes
Authors: Laurance William F. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractIn the tropics, habitat fragmentation alters forest-climate interactions in diverse ways. On a local scale (&lt;1 km), elevated desiccation and wind disturbance near fragment margins lead to sharply increased tree mortality, altering canopy-gap dynamics, plant-community composition, biomass dynamics, and carbon storage. Fragmented forests are also highly vulnerable to edge-related fires, especially in regions which have periodic droughts or strong dry seasons. At landscape to regional scales (10-1,000 km), habitat fragmentation may have complex effects on forest-climate interactions, with important consequences for atmospheric circulation, water cycling, and precipitation. Positive feedbacks among deforestation, regional climate change, and fire could pose a serious threat for some tropical forests, but the details of such interactions are poorly understood.
The effects of drought on tropical forest ecosystems
Authors: Meir Patrick , Grace John 
Published: September 2007

AbstractDrought stress in tropical forests can have a major impact on global carbon, water, and energy cycles. This chapter examines drought-induced responses in the processing of carbon and water by intact tropical forest ecosystems over short (physiological) and longer (ecological) timescales. Both levels of understanding should be represented in analyses of climate-forest ecosystem feedback. Although limited spatial information on the diversity of the physical properties of soil constrains estimates of drought vulnerability, tree functional convergence across species based on simple measures such as wood density would simplify how drought responses can be represented and linked to changes in forest composition through mortality indices. While insufficient on their own, satellite-derived measurements of ecosystem properties (e.g. leaf area index) and processes (e.g. mortality and photosynthesis) are expected to provide increasingly detailed information that can be used to test understanding of short- and longer-term responses to drought.
TOPOLOGICAL STRINGS
Authors: Mariño Marcos 
Published: September 2007

AbstractType-A and type-B topological sigma models are two topological field theories in two dimensions. Although they contain a lot of information in genus 0, they turn out to be trivial for g &gt; 1. This is essentially due to the fact that, in order to define these theories, it is necessary to consider a fixed metric in the Riemann surface. In order to obtain a non-trivial theory in higher genus the degrees of freedom of the two-dimensional metric must be introduced. This means that the topological field theories must be coupled to two-dimensional gravity. The coupling to gravity is done by using the fact that the structure of the twisted theory is tantalizingly close to that of the bosonic string. Topological sigma models may be defined not only on closed Riemann surfaces and closed topological strings, but also on the open case.
The Concealed Art of the Soul
Authors: Ganeri Jonardon 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThe mistakes we make about ourselves result in our deepest sufferings. Philosophy, meant to be a medicine for our souls' affliction, claims to offer both a diagnosis and a cure. This book looks to ancient India, where Buddhists and Hindus alike grapple with the fundamental human quest for peace of mind. For Indian thinkers, a philosophical treatise about the self is meant not only to lay out the truth, but also to embed itself in a process of study and contemplation that will lead eventually to self-transformation. The survey includes the Upaniṣads, the Buddha's discourses, the epic Mahābhārata, and the philosopher Candrakīrti, whose work was later to become foundational in Tibetan Buddhism. The book shows that many contemporary theories of selfhood and personal identity are not only anticipated but developed to an extraordinary degree of sophistication in these works, and that there are other ideas about the self found here which modern philosophers have not yet begun to explore. In the Appendices, the book begins to disclose some of the paths along which Indian ideas about the self have migrated throughout history to the West.
A Cloak of Clever Words: The Deconstruction of Deceit in the Mahābhārata
Authors: Ganeri Jonardon 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines the discussion of truth-telling, sincerity, and deceit in the Mahābhārata. It explores classical Indian thinking about the value of truth, and the circumstances under which it is morally permissible to tell a lie.
Investor Engagement
Authors: Martin Roderick , Casson Peter D. , Nisar Tahir M. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractIncreased engagement by investors with the companies in which they invest has been a major change in Western economies since the 1980s. Shareholder value provides rationale and incentive for investor engagement. The book summarizes the basic principles of shareholder value, and explains the reasons for its growth, especially in the UK and the USA. The authors outline a spectrum of investor engagement ranging from indirect/laissez-faire influence via (threat of) exit to direct intervention in specific areas of management practice. The book focuses on two types of investor, institutional investors and private equity/venture capital investors. Different types of institutional investors have different incentives for engagement, and adopt different methods. ‘Universal investors’ with long time horizons, such as pension funds, have especially strong incentives for engagement, as illustrated by USS Limited. The book distinguishes between institutional investors' routine and extraordinary engagement, and shows how collaboration amongst investors through organizations such as the Institutional Shareholders' Committee offsets the high costs of monitoring and provides means for ensuring compliance with ‘best City practice’. The engagement of private equity funds is illustrated through case studies of equity funds and the portfolio firms in which they invested. But corporate managers are not simply passive reactors to investors' interventions: managers seek to influence investors, for example through managing market expectations. Shareholder value conceptions are not universal: they are strong in the UK and the USA, but are weaker in coordinated market economies such as Germany. The book concludes by evaluating the normative case for shareholder value and investor engagement, arguing that conventional analyses overestimate the efficiency arguments for shareholder value and the equity arguments against shareholder value. The future development of corporate governance is seen to require greater openness and the inclusion of a wider range of interests, not the further enhancement of the protection accorded to shareholder interests.
8 Shareholder Value, Investor Engagement, and Management Practice: a Normative Evaluation
Authors: Martin Roderick , Casson Peter D. , Nisar Tahir M. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter adopts a normative standpoint in examining both shareholder value and investor engagement. Shareholder value analyses exaggerate the weakness of internal control systems, overestimate the efficiency of the capital market as a means of transferring resources from sectors of low value added to sectors of high value added, and attributes too much importance to the capital market and equity finance as a source of new investment. Shareholder value analyses neglect the risks incurred by other stakeholders in the corporation, including employees. Investor engagement to enhance shareholder value or to secure compliance with ‘best City practice’ is regarded as uncontroversial. However, engagement to achieve wider social values may distort corporate practice. The chapter concludes by arguing for greater openness in corporate governance and the representation of a wider range of interests, not for further entrenchment of shareholder interests.
‘Scientific’ Criminology
Authors: Emsley Clive 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter begins by noting how in the last third of the 19th century, the usual suspects — beggars, vagabonds, prostitutes, the day-labouring poor of the cities and their children — continued to be stigmatized as criminals. It also notes the shift in this period towards medical and scientific discourses that led to criminals being identified as individuals with mental problems, with hereditary failings, or else corrupted by their environment. In addition to the medical experts summoned to give evidence in court, a new academic discipline emerged, fostered particularly by the work of Cesare Lombroso. These criminologists met and debated their findings in international congresses where national pride was often a spur to the criticism of others.
Beyond Pastoral? Generic Pressures in Vergil'sEclogues
Authors: Harrison S.J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThe Eclogues is examined as a collection extending the bounds of Hellenistic pastoral, partly on the model of the Theocritean collection. Particular emphasis is laid on Eclogues 4, 6, and 10, where generic complexity is most obvious and most overtly foregrounded. Here, we have a classic case of generic complexity, driven both by Hellenistic precedent (Theocritus) and by the political demands of the stormy triumviral period (Caesar, Pollio, land-confiscations).
Lyric Flexibility: Literary Form in Horace'sOdes
Authors: Harrison S.J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractHorace's re-invention of archaic Greek lyric for Augustan Rome raises many issues of generic complexity, which are deliberately foregrounded by the texts. The boundaries of lyric are severely probed and tested by the incorporation and admixture of other literary genres (e.g., epic, epigram, prophecy, and tragedy).
Kant, Hume, and the Problem of Moral Motivation
Authors: Ameriks Karl 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter contrasts Humean theories of moral motivation with Kant's Critical account. It argues that standard objections to Kant fail to take heed of his general theory of action and the intrinsic difficulties in finding, on any sensible theory, a fully satisfactory ‘explanation’ of moral motivation. Kant's account of motivation must be understood in the context of his general theory of human subjectivity. Unlike contemporary quasi-Humean accounts, which depend on a two-part theory of belief and desire, Kant's theory presupposes a classical three-part distinction between cognizing, willing, and feeling. Although the second Critique is devoted specifically to what is called the faculty of desire (Begehrungsvermögen), this faculty is not to be understood simply in terms of feeling, let alone the mere determinations of pleasure and pain. Instead, for Kant this faculty primarily designates the power of choice, which presupposes cognitive and affective components but is distinct from them.
Early human societies and their plants
Authors: Murphy Denis J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter introduces the new understanding from recent climatic and archaeological research of how human societies gradually developed increasingly important associations with edible plants. For the past two million years, life on earth has been largely dominated by hypervariable climatic conditions, fluctuating between relatively mild, damp conditions and much colder, drier states. Humans evolved during this period as efficient and relatively mobile hunter-gatherers, and by about 20,000 BP they had spread across much of the world. Over the past 100,000 years, human cognitive skills gradually increased, which facilitated more efficient social interactions and enabled people to adapt better to their unpredictable and ever-changing environments. During the Upper Palaeolithic (c.50,000-11,500 BP), as some of the megafauna became extinct, many human groups relied increasingly on a mixture of small game and plants, gradually becoming skilled exploiters and manipulators of numerous useful plant resources including fruits and seeds.
The domestication of non-cereal crops
Authors: Murphy Denis J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractNon-cereal crops are dominated by pulses (large-seeded legumes) and root crops, such as potatoes and yams. With their higher protein content and nitrogen-fixing ability, pulses complement cereals both agronomically and nutritionally, and are found in all regions of grain-based agriculture. Pulses were collected by hunter gatherers for many millennia before being domesticated in the Near East at about the same time as the early cereal crops, with non-dormant lentils dating from 11,000-9,000 BP, and non-shattering peas and lentils from 8,800-8,500 BP. Several bean species were domesticated in Eurasia and the Americas with Phaseolus spp being major staples throughout the latter continent. In all cases, the primary domestication traits were loss of dormancy, non-shattering pods, thin-coats, and increased seed size. As root crops, potatoes were selected primarily for low levels of toxins and large tuber size rather than for seed-related traits as in cereals and legumes.
People and the emergence of crops
Authors: Murphy Denis J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter is concerned with the emergence and spread of the major crop groups from their centres of origin in Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas. Although the initial domestication of some crops was sometimes rapid, with non-shattering large seed varieties often appearing within a few decades of cultivation, their subsequent spread across a wider region was relatively slow. In the Near East, domesticated forms of barley and wheat only gradually supplanted wild forms over a 2,500-year period after 10,000 BP. Rice was domesticated before 10,000 BP, but did not become a widespread dietary staple in east Asia until 7,000 BP. Mesoamericans domesticated maize before 9,000 BP, but large cob varieties did not appear until 3,000 BP.
Imperial botany and the early scientific breeders
Authors: Murphy Denis J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThe expansion of the British and Dutch mercantile empires from the 17th century was accompanied by a renewal of the old Babylonian concept of Imperial Botany, now made all the more effective by a new marriage of private commerce with state power and scientific knowledge. By the 18th century, and largely thanks to agrarian entrepreneurs such as Townshend, Coke, and Tull, Britain was undergoing an agricultural revolution that would underpin the later industrial revolution and consequent population growth. Botany became all the rage in court circles across Europe, from Vienna to Madrid. Botanical gardens established throughout the Anglo-Dutch empires simultaneously served economic, scientific, and aesthetic purposes. Crops such as sugar, tea, coffee, and cocoa served both as stimuli for expansion and lucrative products for the maturing empires. Greater understanding of the mechanisms of plant reproduction enabled breeders to experiment with new hybrids and mutations in order to enhance crop variation.
The Wreck of Catalonia
Authors: Ryder Alan 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This book examines the fate that overtook the principality of Catalonia in the 15th century, reducing it from dominance within the state of Aragon to a marginal role in the Iberian power created by the union of Aragon and Castile. Part one studies the tensions destabilizing Catalonia: unrest among a peasantry resentful of outdated burdens; merchants and artisans struggling to wrest control of the towns from entrenched oligarchies; an aristocracy devoted to endless feuding; and a monarchy thrown into disarray by the extinction of the Catalan line and its replacement by a Castilian dynasty. In 1462, Catalonia degenerated into a civil war that lasted ten years. Part two seeks to explain how and why the king, Juan II, emerged victorious. The economic and military resources of the two camps, their tactics, and the lines along which Catalan society divided are examined. The book looks at the crucial part played by foreign powers in the conflict, who intervened on both sides until Juan turned the tables with his gamble on a Castilian crown for his heir, Fernando. The surrender of the insurgents in 1472 left Catalonia chaotic, devastated, and mired in many more years of war with France as Juan struggled to recover the territories he had surrendered in return for French aid. Catalonia was then helpless before Fernando, the Catholic King of Castile, who became ruler of Catalonia in 1479. The measures he imposed to restore order and subject the principality to the new ‘Spanish’ state are the theme of the final chapter. The events discussed have a continuing resonance in Spain today.