bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
In-Process Investigation of Precipitate Growth in Zirconium Alloys
Authors: Herb B , Ruhmann H , König A 
Published: April 2008

The nucleation and growth of second-phase precipitates was investigated in ELS (Extra Low Sn-Sn below, Fe and Cr above ASTM specification) and Zircaloy-4 alloys used for DUPLEX cladding. DUPLEX cladding is typically used for the most demanding irradiation conditions in reactors with high power densities, coolant temperatures, and discharge burnups. Extensive in-process sampling was performed after the β-quenching, hot working, and α-annealing steps during manufacturing. SEM and TEM evaluations were performed to characterize the precipitate distribution and composition.
The β-quench step produces a significant number of fine precipitates along the grain boundaries during the β → α+β phase transformation. Intergrain nucleation of irregular-shaped precipitates was also observed. The subsequent hot-working steps in the α-phase tend to increase the uniformity and size of the precipitates. Zircaloy-4 materials processed with a forge-Quench-Forge (FQF) process generally have a log-normal precipitate distribution during the early processing steps. However, the log-normal distribution transforms into a bimodal distribution after α-annealing. The low-Sn ELS alloy shows broader distributions very early in the process with two or even three Gaussian peaks needed to describe the distribution curve. TEM evaluations suggest that the small particles in the bimodal distribution are a Zr-Si-Fe phase with very slow growth kinetics. The larger particles are the typical Laves phase Zr(Fe,Cr)2 with significantly faster growth rates. Separation of these two precipitate classes allows for a more accurate correlation to the Particle Growth Parameter (PGP) annealing parameter concept.
The precipitate distributions from FQF processing were also compared to a similar Zircaloy-4 alloy fabricated with a Forge-Forge-Quench (FFQ) process. This material was β-quenched and then extruded directly without α-phase forging.
E110 Alloy Cladding Tube Properties and Their Interrelation with Alloy Structure-Phase Condition and Impurity Content
Authors: Shebaldov PV , Peregud MM , Nikulina AV , Bibilashvili YK , Lositski AF , Kuz'menko NV , Belov VI , Novoselov AE 
Published: April 2008

The E110 alloy (Zr-1Nb) designed in Russia has been in successful operation in the VVER and RBMK reactors since 1960. The evolution of the Russian reactors during this period of time, their numbers and operating parameters, and, hence, the relevant production of the cladding tubes required much effort from the researchers and producers to optimize the technological processes resulting in the high operating reliability of the fuel rods clad in the E110 alloy.
In the Zr-Nb system to which the E110 alloy pertains, highly sophisticated structure-phase transformations proceed depending on the temperature-rate conditions of processing and the impurity content of the alloy. The alloy structure formed during its processing affects substantially the processability and performance of semi-products and finished tubes. The paper demonstrates the interrelation between the structure-phase transformations of the E110 alloy and the temperature-rate conditions of processing as well as the oxygen content of the alloy. The phase composition and microstructure are shown to play an essential part in providing the tubes with the requisite properties and their stability. The properties of cladding tubes having different structures and fuel rod claddings as in-pile irradiated are analyzed. The corrosion behavior of E110 alloy claddings is shown to be strongly dependent upon the material structure and reactor operating conditions.
Behavior of Lithium and Boron in Irradiated and Unirradiated Oxides Formed on Zircaloy-4 Claddings
Authors: Kido T , Wada S , Takahashi T , Uchida H , Komine I , Inoue Y 
Published: April 2008

In order to investigate the effect of lithium and boron on corrosion of Zircaloy-4 fuel cladding, secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) analyses coupled with chemical analyses have been carried out on oxides of specimens corroded in water with lithium hydroxide and boric acid similar to the actual reactor conditions, and of the fuel claddings irradiated in a commercial reactor.
The quantitative analyses on lithium and boron by SIMS and chemical analyses showed that the concentration of lithium in the oxides formed ex-reactor was 2 to 50 ppm when the water contained 2 to 10 ppm lithium and exhibited a strong temperature dependence. The concentration of boron in the unirradiated oxides was approximately 250 ppm when water contained 500 to 1600 ppm boron and showed some increase as the concentration of boron in the water increased. No temperature dependence was detected. The lithium concentration of irradiated oxides was systematically higher than that of the unirradiated oxides, and little difference has been seen in the 11B concentration.
The SIMS analyses of the oxides of the ex-reactor corrosion specimens revealed that the depth profile of lithium concentration was flat in most of the oxide and exhibited a sharp decrease in the dense oxide layer, which corresponds to a thickness of approximately 2μm from the assumed oxide-metal interface. The boron distribution in the oxide was similar in general, but showed an obvious cyclic variation in the outer oxide region. The frequency of the variation corresponded to the rate transitions during the corrosion tests. These features in the profiles of lithium and boron have been also detected on the oxides of the irradiated claddings.
The sharp decrease in the concentrations of lithium in the vicinity of the metal-oxide interface indicates that the inner layer is a barrier against the deteriorating effect of lithium. The hydrogen pickup fraction of the specimens was found to be influenced by the boron concentration in the water.
Contribution to the Understanding of the Effect of the Water Chemistry on the Oxidation Kinetics of Zircaloy-4 Cladding
Authors: Pêcheur D , Godlewski J , Peybernès J , Fayette L , Noé M , Frichet A , Kerrec O 
Published: April 2008

Zircaloy-4 cladding has been oxidized in autoclave at 633 K with various chemistry conditions ([Li+] = 0, 10, 70, 700 ppm and [B] = 0, 650 ppm as boric acid) to quantify the effect of lithium hydroxide and boric acid on the oxidation kinetics and to provide oxide films that have been analyzed by SIMS, SEM, and RAMAN spectroscopy to improve our knowledge of the oxidation process in a lithiated environment. Additional specific tests consisting of isotopic exchanges (6Li+/7Li+) have also been conducted to study the incorporation of lithium in the oxide films.
The main results are that: • Depending on the water chemistry, the lithium hydroxide has two effects on the oxidation kinetics: a decrease of the time to transition and a strong enhancement of the post-transition oxidation rate. • The boric acid strongly reduces these two effects of lithium hydroxide. • In the oxide film, the lithium is located mainly in the pores (or adsorbed on their walls). • The lithium has a quick access to the bulk of the oxide film, even in the inner barrier layer (considered as not completely impervious). • The enhancement of the oxidation rate due to lithium hydroxide is linked to the degradual alteration of the inner barrier layer, up to its quasi-disappearance.
These experimental results are described extensively, and several factors involved in the alteration of the inner barrier layer, such as lithium pickup in the ZrO2 film, evolution of the morphology of the oxide grains, tetragonal zirconia phase transformation, and hydriding, are then discussed.
Electrochemical Examinations in 350°C Water with Respect to the Mechanism of Corrosion-Hydrogen Pickup
Authors: Baur K , Garzarolli F , Ruhmann H , Sell H-J 
Published: April 2008

During corrosion of Zr alloys in pressurized water at high temperatures a fraction of the corrosion-hydrogen is picked up by the metal. Long-term out-of-pile corrosion experiments have shown that chemical composition of Zr alloys and the size of second-phase particles (SPP) in Zircaloy-4 (Zry-4) affect the corrosion and the corrosion-hydrogen pickup fraction. The mechanism of hydrogen pickup is not well understood, although several influencing parameters were evaluated or discussed in the literature. One of the parameters that might influence hydrogen pickup is the electrical potential gradient that develops over the oxide during corrosion. Long-term electrochemical measurements of Zry-4 samples with different SPP sizes and Fe content and of Zr-2.5Nb in pressurized water at 350°C with and without polarization were used to check this influence.
The potential difference between the reaction interface and the oxide surface is due to the oxidation reaction of the Zr metal resulting in electrons that have to move through the highly resistive oxide to the surface. Tests without polarization showed the potential difference proportional to the corrosion rate and depending on metallurgical aspects as the alloy composition and the SPP size. The lowest potential difference has been found for Zry-type material with large SPP and for Zr-2.5Nb.
A negative polarization voltage of the samples against a Pt-reference electrode increases the H pick up and even leads to an accelerated corrosion at large potential differences. Analysis of H pickup clearly shows that, besides corrosion-H, H from the electrochemical surface reaction is also picked up.
Samples with oxide layers exhibiting high electrical resistance pick up relatively more H than samples exhibiting oxide layers with low resistance. Zr-2.5Nb forming a very low-resistant oxide layer picks up only very little H. The effect of the SPP sizes can, at least partially, be explained by their influence on the electrical resistance of the oxide layer.
The results of this study identify the potential gradient formed over the oxide layer as an important parameter for the relative amount of H pickup.
Role of Intermetallic Precipitates in Hydrogen Transport through Oxide Films on Zircaloy
Authors: Hatano Y , Sugisaki M , Kitano K , Hayashi M 
Published: April 2008

The influence of size distribution of intermetallic precipitates on hydrogen uptake behavior of Zircaloy during oxidation in steam has been examined in the pre-transition region to clarify the role of precipitates in the hydrogen transport through the coherent oxide layer. Two different types of specimens containing coarse or fine precipitates are prepared with heat treatments for both Zircaloy-2 and -4. These specimens are oxidized in 0.1-MPa steam at 623 to 723 K. The amount of hydrogen uptake is measured with a hot extraction method. The concentration profiles of hydrogen in the oxide film is measured with secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS). Detailed spatial distribution of hydrogen is observed with tritium microautoradiography.
The results obtained for Zircaloy-2 and -4 are qualitatively similar to each other: The amount of hydrogen uptake of the specimen containing coarse precipitates is larger than that of the specimen containing fine ones, and the difference between the former and the latter increases with decreasing oxidation temperature. The concentration of hydrogen in the oxide film is gradient from the surface to the oxide-metal interface, and the gradient in the oxide film of the former is smaller than that of the latter. The tritium microautoradiographs of a cross section of the oxide film show that hydrogen is concentrated in the intermetallic precipitates.
Summarizing these experimental results, the following can be concluded: 1. The rate of hydrogen uptake is controlled by the transport process through the oxide film. 2. The intermetallic precipitates accommodated in the oxide film play an important role. 3. Hydrogen is transported through not only the zirconium oxide phase but also the intermetallic precipitate phase, in which the latter acts as the supplementary expressway of the hydrogen transport through the oxide film.
What Does a Property Data Sheet Really Tell You?
Authors: Driscoll SB , Shaffer CM 
Published: April 2008

Today's engineer, whether a student in training or a practicing professional, is faced with a myriad of design considerations when selecting the optimum material candidate for a functional product. The normal protocol followed includes prioritizing performance credentials, selecting candidate polymeric material, reviewing the properties and processing characteristics of each, and then making a qualified decision based on the available facts.
The problems, however, are both knowing fully what will be required of the product, in a wide range of use/abuse environments, and understanding as thoroughly as possible the true functional behavior of the polymer. What often is not completely understood is the correlation between published data sheets and the relevance to design considerations. How meaningful is the information found in a typical data sheet? How easily, if at all, can the design engineer integrate this information in a series of design iterations, leading to an improved product?
How useful is the information most routinely published? Certainly a great deal of information is readily available in a number of formats, including proprietary databanks maintained and freely distributed by the various material suppliers. This information is equally available via the Internet, and much follows the CAMPUS template containing both single- and multi-point data (International Standards Organization-ISO 10350 and 11403 respectively).
Regardless of the quantity and ready availability of this information, how can published Izod impact behavior be successfully used to make a better, more durable product? How can the Distortion Temperature Under Load (DTUL) of a material translate into practical continuous use temperature? What published data are really useful? And what are meaningless?
Finally, what really is needed — and is usually missing — to help the design engineer predictably produce a safe, reliable, and durable product?
Development of a Standard for Determining KIC and GIC for Plastics at High Loading Rates: the ESIS Protocol for 1 m/s Testing
Authors: Pavan A , Williams JG 
Published: April 2008

This paper describes research work undertaken by the Technical Committee on Polymers and Composites (TC4) of the European Structural Integrity Society (ESIS) to develop a standardized testing procedure for conducting KIC and GIC tests on plastics at a moderately high rate of loading, namely a load-point displacement rate of 1 m/s. One of the authors (A. P.) has acted as the task group leader for this activity within the Committee, with responsibility for the preparation of the testing protocol, the coordination of interlaboratory round-robins and the analysis of data generated thereby. The proposed testing procedure stems from the linear elastic fracture mechanics scheme covered in a protocol for “quasi-static” (low loading rate) determination of KIC and GIC which was developed within the same ESIS group previously.
In this paper the background for the extension of the scope of the preceding protocol to higher rates is illustrated, the problems encountered are highlighted and the solutions found and proposed in the final draft of the protocol are reviewed. A summary of the test results obtained in a series of round-robin exercises — which involved some thirty laboratories across Europe on a five-year span — is reported and the significance of interlaboratory consistency of the collected data is commented upon with the view of validating the protocol. In conclusion, it is pointed out that an agreed standardized procedure can be finalized to form the basis of national and international standards.
Acetone Immersion Testing Per ASTM Test Method D2152
Authors: Houle JF 
Published: April 2008

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, inadequate fusion of PVC materials was a relatively frequent occurrence for North American PVC pipe manufacturers. As a result, an acetone-immersion test method was developed and published in 1963 as ASTM D2152 “Standard Test Method for Adequacy of Fusion of Extruded Poly(Vinyl Chlo-ride) (PVC) Pipe and Molded Fittings by Acetone Immersion.”
Over the years, PVC pipe extrusion machinery and materials became more sophisticated. As a result, inadequate fusion occurred infrequently and failure rates of acetone tests dropped to near zero. Manufacturers also realized that other quality tests (such as impact and flattening tests) were identifying the occasional fusion problem that did occur.
Another complication arose in the 1980s: acetone, once considered a relatively harmless chemical, was determined to be a health and safety hazard and a toxic waste. Strict government regulations were imposed on the storage, use, and disposal of ace-tone.
This paper will show that the acetone-immersion test is severely limited in its usefulness due to its application and to the properties of the substance itself.
Stainless Steels for Medical and Surgical Applications
Authors: Winters GL , Nutt MJ 
Published: April 2008

Description
Twenty-one peer reviewed papers give you the latest research and technical developments in the medical uses of stainless steels. It covers a wide range of topics, including corrosion, wear, biological response, radiopacity, and the high cost of medical products. New alloys are discussed as solutions to some issues by offering more biocompatible, higher quality, radiopaque, or low cost alternatives for orthopaedic implants and stents. Several corrosion papers address this key concern for all medical devices, while others offer creative options for this field. Timely issues, such as injuries due to the interaction of implants and MRI examinations are also addressed.
Audience: This new publication is a valuable resource for materials scientists and engineers, medical device development engineers, medical doctors and surgeons, metallurgists; medical researchers, medical device R&D managers, and stainless steel manufacturing engineers.
Stability of a C-type Impact Machine Between Calibrations
Authors: Sundqvist M , Chai G 
Published: April 2008

In order to investigate the stability of an impact testing machine between ordinary calibrations, impact tests have been performed on a regular basis using specimens from an isolated batch of material. A nickel based alloy, W-Nr. 1.4563, was chosen due to its ageing stability. The material was heat treated and a microstructure analysis was carried out ensuring a homogenous structure in all specimens. The specimens were then cut out in the longitudinal direction.
The machine is a 300 J C-type pendulum and usually approximately 30 specimens are tested every day. Commonly the materials are very tough, generating energy values above 80% of the machine capacity.
For the stability analysis, a set of control specimens was tested on the first day of every week and the results were recorded. Notched type A specimens (Charpy V) were used and tests were performed with an ISO striker. On the other days ordinary specimens were tested. The total number of tested specimens and especially the number of specimens generating energy values above 240 J were documented.
The deviation of energy values obtained by the control specimens between the calibrations was evaluated. By using a stability diagram the correlation between energy divergence, time and number of daily tested specimens was studied.
The results could be used as complementary guidelines, apart from the regular radius measurement of the anvils, for determining optimal intervals between calibrations for similar machines used in the high energy area.
Low Striking Velocity Testing of Precracked Charpy-type Specimens
Authors: Varga T , Loibnegger F 
Published: April 2008

The usual loading rate for impact testing is near 5 m/s. As it will be demonstrated, force-deflection diagrams show strong oscillations, at least at the beginning. Investigations on realistic loading rates showed, however, in most practical cases effective loading rates below 0.1 m/s. Because this is true in nearly every case, a loading rate of 0.1 m/s seems to be sufficient for precracked specimens.
If the loading rate is reduced from about 5 m/s to 0.1 m/s, the force-deflection-diagram can be evaluated without parasitic oscillations. Therefore measurement of fracture toughness, KId, Jd and the calculations of CTOD become easier.
Regarding fracture work and specific fracture work, the steel investigated shows no significant difference if 5 m/s and 0.1 m/s impact velocity is compared. Fracture toughness characteristics will become comparable when transition temperature shifts below 20°C are negligible.
If a transition temperature shift above 15°C is of importance, the experimental results have to be treated differently. A substitution will become not practicable without a function converting the 0.1 m/s results to 5 m/s results and vice versa.
If the steels tested are sufficiently brittle, an extrapolation to the fracture toughness of larger sections will become possible.
Advancements in Pipe Monolith Lysimeter Designs
Authors: Heim LG , Tanner MJ , Crane AB , van Wesenbeeck IJ , Velagaleti RR 
Published: April 2008

The self-contained field lysimeter, patented by ABC Laboratories, Inc. (U.S. Patent # 5,594,185) has been used to test the mobility and dissipation of various agrochemicals in a variety of field sites and soil types. In this paper we present data to support the functionality of the pipe lysimeter design and describe some recent design modifications that have been made to improve its performance. The previous design, presented at the ASTM Eighth Symposium on Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment, Atlanta, Georgia, April 1998, used a steel soil core casing, which for some test substances could result in unwanted wall sorption or catalyzed degradation. The use of a stainless steel core casing, while generally considered to be inert for most test substances, can become very expensive, increasing the overall cost of the field project. for these reasons, the modular lysimeter design was modified to allow the use of PVC and other non-metallic soil core casing materials.
The utilization of non-metallic soil core casing materials requires the use of a custom manufactured cutting tip and pressing ring for generation of the soil core. Other significant modifications include enhanced methods for the leachate and over-flow module attachment to the soil column, and the instrumentation used for the leachate collection void at the base of the soil column.
Development of the monolith lysimeter design to include non-metallic soil core casings provides a comprehensive method for use of all potential core casing materials in the generation of intact, undisturbed soil columns. Benefits of the PVC lysimeter modification include minimal compaction during soil-core generation, chemically inert casing materials for some test substances, and reduced materials costs. In addition, the instrumentation scheme used for the PVC lysimeter allows for more pre-fabrication prior to field deployment, and minimal labor requirements in the field for instrumentation and installation, significantly reducing the overall cost of field lysimeter projects.