bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Vehicle and Course Characterization Process for Indoor Tire Wear Simulation
Authors: Stalnaker D. O. , Turner J. L. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
An empirical methodology is described for separately characterizing vehicles and road courses for subsequent combination to predict tire force histories in tire use or testing. By building a library of vehicle and wear course characterizations, indoor wear test simulations can be selectively constructed by using any combination of “virtual” test vehicles and wear courses. A reliable transient record of vertical, lateral and fore-aft forces and inclination angles can be generated and supplied to drive the indoor wear tire loading fixture. Vehicle characterization involves mapping the basic dynamic load transfer behavior over a range of acceleration, deceleration and cornering maneuvers. A unique indoor vehicle test facility is described for efficiently capturing the tire forces and inclination angles during various maneuvers. All four tire positions can be characterized. Vehicle center of gravity (CG) accelerations and speeds are also recorded during indoor testing. An alternative to experimental measurements is the use of a vehicle computer model for mapping the basic dynamic load transfer behavior. Empirical equations relating vehicle kinematics to tire forces and inclination angles have been developed and are presented. A method of utilizing these equations together with outdoor wear course measurements for predicting transient tire force histories is presented. The method is demonstrated and validated with several vehicle case studies. The tire force component of a wear course can be characterized by measurement of a few parameters: the vehicle CG accelerations and the longitudinal velocity. Course characterization is illustrated using the Department of Transportation's Uniform Tire Quality Grading wear course in the San Angelo, TX area. The full 650 km course was characterized and combined with the laboratory characterization of a 1997 Pontiac Grand Am. Four 650 km drive files were created, one for each tire position, for an indoor wear machine. These consisted of five time-based parameters: radial load, lateral force, wheel torque (acceleration, deceleration forces), inclination angle, and velocity. By sequencing a tire through these four drive files, it was “rotated” as it would have been on the actual vehicle. Examples of tire wear rates and irregular wear are shown for a number of tire constructions, comparing the indoor to the outdoor results. Good correlation was achieved. This simulation technique permits the tire force spectrum of quite complex and lengthy routes to be accurately reproduced in the precisely controlled environment of the laboratory. Each cornering maneuver, each braking and acceleration event, every hill and town can be reproduced in real-time. Only by combining the specific vehicle dynamics of a given vehicle with that of a specific wear route can tire wear be accurately simulated. This tire-vehicle system simulation methodology is referred to as a TS-Sim model.
A Correlation Between Rolling Tire Contact Friction Energy and Indoor Tread Wear
Authors: Knisley S. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
In an effort to reduce tire development time and cost, tire companies have developed accelerated indoor wear test technology and are developing modeling methods to conduct tire wear evaluations in a “virtual” sense. Much automotive and tire industry expertise has been devoted to establishing a relationship between outdoor and indoor wear test results. The development of modeling techniques has focused on the prediction of friction energy in rolling tire contact. A successful “virtual” wear test based on this technique requires an objective link between rolling tire contact friction energy and tire wear. In this paper, a correlation equation using experimentally measured rolling contact friction energy and indoor tread wear is obtained for a specific passenger tire construction. Test equipment and methods for rolling contact measurements and indoor tread wear are described. Laser measurements of tread loss are compared to friction energy results for combined straight-ahead rolling and cornering conditions to establish a reasonable correlation between contact friction energy and tire tread loss on a global and local scale across loading conditions representative of a realistic outdoor wear course.
Application of STOM to the Optimal Tire Contour Design by Introducing the Aspiration-level Indicator
Authors: Cho J. R. , Jeong H. S. , Kim N. J. , Kim K. W. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Many tire performances are associated with the tire design, among which maneuverability and tire durability become major ones to be considered. The former performance is determined by the tension-value distribution along the sidewall carcass, and the latter by the peak strain energy density in the belt edge region. These two mechanical quantities are closely related to the sidewall carcass contour, so that the above-mentioned two performances could be improved by sidewall contour optimization. Unfortunately, however, this kind of multi-objective optimization requires interactive methods, for which the designer's decision-making is involved, owing to the existence of multi-peaks. In this study, we basically apply the satisficing trade-off method (STOM), but we intend to systemize it more by introducing aspiration-level indicators that control the entire optimization process. Through numerical experiment, we confirm that the proposed refined STOM leads systematically and efficiently to a nearly optimum sidewall contour.
Simplified Approach to Calculating Geometric Stiffness Properties of Tread Pattern Elements
Authors: Okonieski R. E. , Moseley D. J. , Cai K. Y. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The influence of tread designs on tire performance is well known. The tire industry spends significant effort in the development process to create and refine tread patterns. Creating an aesthetic yet functional design requires characterization of the tread design using many engineering parameters such as stiffness, moments of inertia, principal angles, etc. The tread element stiffness is of particular interest because of its use to objectively determine differences between tread patterns as the designer refines the design to provide optimum levels of performance. The tread designer monitors the change in stiffness as the design evolves. Changes to the geometry involve many attributes including the number of sipes, sipe depth, sipe location, block element edge taper, nonskid depth, area net-to-gross, and so forth. In this paper, two different formulations for calculating tread element or block stiffness are reviewed and are compared to finite element results in a few cases. A few simple examples are shown demonstrating the basic functionality that is possible with a numerical method.
A Finite Element Tire Model and Vibration Analysis: A New Approach
Authors: Zhang Y. , Palmer T. , Farahani A. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A complete finite element tire model was developed for the purposes of vehicle dynamics analyses and full vehicle finite element model real time proving ground simulations. The tire model was validated through simulations of some of the very important global, static and dynamic mechanical properties such as the tire radial and lateral stiffnesses, free-drop test, and low-speed rolling cornering stiffness. The three-dimensional free vibration and harmonic/randomly forced vibrations with ground contact of the tire model were studied here. One of the main purposes for the present study is to provide a new approach toward tire and vehicle NVH studies. All the analyses were nonconventional in the sense that, instead of NASTRAN-type modal analysis, the explicit nonlinear dynamic finite element code LS/DYNA3D was used to conduct all the analyses in the time domain, and the vibration modes were decomposed via fast fourier transformation.
Analytical Model of Tire Cavity Resonance and Coupled Tire/Cavity Modal Model
Authors: Gunda R. , Gau S. , Dohrmann C. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The acoustic resonance of the air cavity in the tire/wheel assembly may be a contributor to vehicle interior noise through the structure-borne noise transmission path. This problem has been examined in the past using approximate closed form solutions (based on plane wave theory for a two-tube model) and numerically, using FEA. The coupling between the cavity resonance and structural resonance of the wheel may result in higher levels of interior noise as noted previously.
The two primary goals of this paper are (1) to develop simple analytical models to gain fundamental understanding of some observed phenomena and for a quick estimation of cavity resonance frequency to assist in the design process, and (2) to develop tire modal models incorporating the acoustic cavity to predict coupled system natural frequencies and response.
An improved analytical model for accurate calculation of acoustic cavity resonance frequencies of a static, unloaded tire is developed using variational principles. The sensitivities of the cavity resonance frequencies to tire width and aspect ratio are examined. For the case of a loaded tire, an improved analytical formulation based on plane wave propagation (for linearly varying cross-sectional area) is developed. Deformed structure geometry from FEA is used as input to the analytical model.
The FEA-based methodology used in the tire/cavity coupling analysis is as follows: The tire structural modes are calculated, ignoring the effect of the acoustic cavity. The tire cavity modes are calculated using deformed cavity geometry only. Next, the structural/acoustic coupling matrix is calculated. Finally, a coupled cavity-structure modal model is generated from modal mass and stiffness of the tire/wheel assembly, the cavity modal matrices, and the coupling matrix. This process is an improvement over conventional tire modal models, which only include structural modes.
Relationships Between the Friction and Viscoelastic Properties of Rubber
Authors: Amino N. , Uchiyama Y. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
In this study, the relationships between friction and viscoelastic properties such as loss tangent tan δ and storage modulusE′ were examined. Wet skid resistance was measured using the British Pendulum Tester. The rubber specimens were rubbed againstfive silicone carbide cloths of differing abrasive grain sizes. The viscoelastic properties of the rubber specimens were measured with a viscoelasticspectrometer. From the data on wet skid resistance and viscoelastic properties, it is found that the coefficient of friction μ varies as follows:
μ = a + b · tan δ/E′
where a and b are constants. Tan δ/E′ was related to the hysteresis term of friction, and the μ-frequency curves were compared with the tan δ/E′ –frequency curves.
Tire Temperature Prediction During Post-cure Inflation
Authors: Kennedy R. H. , McMinn M. S. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Temperature distribution is predicted as the tire cools during post-cure inflation. A finite element transient heat transfer analysis is employed, with appropriate material conduction and convection coefficients determined from lab experiments. Initial temperatures to apply to the tire model were determined from measurements on a range of tire sizes. Measurements were also made during and at the end of the post-cure inflation cycle for comparison with the predicted values. Reasonable agreement is seen between the predicted temperatures and the population of measured tire values.
Plane Wave Resonance in the Tire Air Cavity as a Vehicle Interior Noise Source
Authors: Thompson J. K. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Vehicle interior noise is the result of numerous sources of excitation. One source involving tire pavement interaction is the tire air cavity resonance and the forcing it provides to the vehicle spindle: This paper applies fundamental principles combined with experimental verification to describe the tire cavity resonance. A closed form solution is developed to predict the resonance frequencies from geometric data. Tire test results are used to examine the accuracy of predictions of undeflected and deflected tire resonances. Errors in predicted and actual frequencies are shown to be less than 2%. The nature of the forcing this resonance as it applies to the vehicle spindle is also examined.
Tire Treadwear—The Joint Influence of Compound Properties and Environmental Factors
Authors: Veith A. G. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The wear rate of tire tread compounds depends jointly on the properties of the compound and on certain tire use or environmental factors. A previous publication clearly demonstrated the influence of rubber glass transition temperature (Tg) and carbon black (reinforcement) level under varying seasonal conditions (summer vs. winter testing) for several test courses with varying levels of pavement microtexture or abrasiveness. The variations in treadwear performance were interpreted in terms of two mechanisms of wear: (1) a highly elastic rupture deformation mechanism, rubber element vs. pavement asperity, called E-wear and (2) a highly viscous or plastic deformation mechanism (abrasive wear), called P-wear.
The work of the previous publication has been extended by the use of the compound loss modulus (at 0 °C) as a single property to characterize tread compounds, that is superior to other typical properties (hardness, fatigue flex life, rupture energy). The varied dependence of wear on loss modulus (negative, zero, positive dependence) is explained on the basis of the two mechanisms. Thus an increase in loss modulus may have beneficial or detrimental effects on wear rate depending on the loss modulus level and certain environmental factors.
The loss modulus is dependent on Tg, the carbon black level and morphology, the process oil content, as well as certain polymer microstructure properties such as cis/trans ratio and block (polymer) characteristics. The measured loss modulus is capable of being expressed in terms of components attributable to the above properties. The use of these components opens up the possibility of accurately characterizing tread compounds for their treadwear performance under selected environmental conditions and thus improve on the largely trial and error process of tread compound development.
Light-Weight Tire Concept
Authors: Lux F. , Stumpf H. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Current demands by the consumer, the automobile industry, and the environment have determined the basis of this investigation. In the past, the requirements—ever faster, ever sportier—were accepted as decisive parameters for the development of our study. In the future, rational and safety-related tire characteristics as well as environmental consciousness will increase, whereas purely performance-related parameters will diminish in their importance.
Through our light-weight tire project, we have paved the way for future tire generations. The first priority is the minimal use of material resources; this means a reduction of materials and energy in tire production by using advanced design and production methods without sacrificing performance standards. This benefits the consumer—the final judge of all of our activities—by considerably reducing the rolling resistance, leading to lower fuel consumption. Further design targets include the improvement of rolling behavior and increased comfort by reducing tire weight, and therefore a reduction in unsprung masses on the vehicle.
A Free-Rolling Cornering Test for Heavy-Duty Truck Tires
Authors: Pottinger M. G. , Pelz W. , Tapia G. A. , Winkler C. B. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Under the guidance of the SAE Truck Tire Characteristics Task Force, the background to support the creation of a recommended practice for experimentally determining the free-rolling cornering properties of heavy-duty truck tires has been developed. The value of such a recommended practice lies in the establishment of a broadly accepted procedure for obtaining the free-rolling cornering data needed to represent tires in vehicle dynamics simulations of commercial trucks.
This paper presents the proposed test procedure and background data. It contains a summary of the proposed test procedure, example data from CALSPAN and UMTRI using the proposed procedure, a statistical comparison of the data from CALSPAN and UMTRI, a discussion of the effect of inflation pressure on the data, a discussion of how the proposed test affects tire cornering properties and tread surface topography, and a look at the projected future work of the task force.
Radiated Noise from Tire/Wheel Vibration
Authors: Ni E-J. , Snyder D. S. , Walton G. F. , Mallard N. E. , Barron G. E. , Browell J. T. , Aljundi B. N. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
As a general trend, vehicle sound quality has significantly improved in recent years. This is primarily due to improved body structure and powertrain design. As demand for better vehicle sound quality increases, it is important to study all possible noise sources contributing to noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH). Tire vibration has long been recognized as a source of airborne noise. Some effects of wheel design on tire noise have also been well understood for sometime. But the dynamic interaction between tire and wheel designs and its effect on vehicle NVH, although frequently observed for many years, has only recently been identified in the 200–350 Hz frequency range. Different wheels can produce perceptible differences in vehicle interior sound pressure levels in a road test. Hence, the authors have developed a process to quantify and reduce noise caused by a vibrating tire/wheel assembly.
This paper discusses the general flow of the process, which begins with the identification of NVH issues on a total vehicle level. Modeling and optimization of the aluminum wheel was chosen as the focus of this project for two reasons. First, the interior sound pressure level (SPL) around 285 Hz is about 5–7 dBA higher in a vehicle equipped with aluminum wheels rather than a steel design. Second, modifying the wheel is far more economical and faster due to its simplicity of design than the complexity of either the vehicle body structure or a tire.
Tire Transient Analysis with an Explicit Finite Element Program
Authors: Kao B. G. , Muthukrishnan M. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The Finite Element (FE) method has long been recognized as an effective analytical tool for tire design analysis. However, meaningful prediction of the tire dynamic characteristics, such as tire transient responses, was not feasible due to the limitations of the traditional commercial FE programs. The availability of the explicit FE programs has made such simulation one step closer to reality. In this paper LS-DYNA3D, an explicit FE program, is used to simulate a simple tire test, demonstrating that it is possible to predict the tire dynamic responses from the tire design data. Geometry, material properties of various components and the fiber reinforcement, layout, etc. of a commercial tire were used to create the tire FE model. Tire carcass composite properties were calculated from a strain energy function derived for the fiber-reinforced rubber. The Mooney constitutive law was adopted for the elastic properties of the rubbers. The tire model was coupled with a rigid wheel model and inflated to a specified inflation pressure. The tire-wheel model was then loaded against a rotating rigid cylinder with an attached semi-circular cleat. The calculated tire center reaction forces showed good correlation with laboratory measurements.
Calculation of the Hydroplaning of a Deformable Smooth-Shaped and Longitudinally-Grooved Tire
Authors: Grogger H. , Weiss M. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The dynamic hydroplaning of a deformable automobile tire is calculated. The three-dimensional flow around the tire is described by an efficient free surface model and the Navier-Stokes equations. The effects of turbulence are modeled by the well-known k,ε-model. The deformation of the tire is calculated using a noncommercial finite element program, in which all components of the three-dimensional tire are taken into account with their own mechanical and constitutive behavior. The deformation of the tire during stationary hydroplaning is found by an iterative solution procedure. The result of the calculation is the pressure distribution and the velocity field. The integration of the pressure distribution acting on the tire surface yields the lift and drag forces as well as lift and drag coefficients. The calculations are performed for a smooth-shaped tire at speeds of 30, 60, and 90 km/h driving speed and an 8 mm high water film. The results are compared with those of the undeformable tire. The calculated pressure distribution on the pavement shows very good agreement with experimentally obtained data. At 90 km/h the model predicts that the water penetrates the contact area of the tire whereas the tire still has contact with the road in the shoulder area. This is also found in experiments. Further, calculations are performed for a deformable tire with three circumferential grooves. Here the influence of different water depths at a speed of 90 km/h is investigated. The groove depth of the tire is 8 mm whereas the water depth varies between 4, 8, and 12 mm. The calculations show the intrusion of a water wedge into the contact area. As in previous studies it is found that the tire deformation has a very strong influence on the resulting lift forces.
Effects of Aspect Ratio on the Stresses and Deformations of Radial Passenger Tires
Authors: Wu G. Z. , He X. M. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The effects of aspect ratio on the stresses and deformations of radial passenger tires under inflation pressure are analyzed with the nonlinear finite element method. The stiffness properties of the cord-rubber composites used in this paper were measured by a Shimadzu Universal Testing Machine DCS-500. The analysis shows that when the aspect ratio decreases from 80 to 70, while the properties of the materials and the inflation pressure of the tires remain the same, the stresses in the carcass decrease by 5%, and those in the belt increase by 10–15%. Illustrations are given for inflated shapes, cord loads, and lower sidewall displacements.
A Thermomechanical Model to Predict the Temperature Distribution of Steady State Rolling Tires
Authors: Yavari B. , Tworzydlo W. W. , Bass J. M. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The thermomechanical behavior of pneumatic tires is a highly complex transient phenomenon that, in general, requires the solution of a dynamic nonlinear coupled thermoviscoelasticity problem with heat sources resulting from internal dissipation and contact and friction. This highly complex and nonlinear system requires indepth knowledge of the geometry, material properties, friction coefficients, dissipation mechanisms, convective heat transfer coefficients, and many other aspects of tire design that are not fully understood at the present time. In this paper, a simplified approach to modeling this system that couples all of these phenomena in a straightforward manner is presented in order to predict temperature distributions in static and rolling tires. The model is based on a one-way coupling approach, wherein the solution of a mechanical rolling contact problem (with friction and viscoelastic material properties) provides heat source terms for the solution of a thermal problem. The thermal solution is based on the thermodynamics of irreversible processes and is performed on the deformed tire configuration. Several numerical examples are provided to illustrate the performance of the method.