bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Polychlorinated Biphenyls
Authors: Safe Stephen , Wu Fei 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were widely used industrial formulations noted for their lipophilicity and stability, and these properties contributed to their use as solvents and dielectric fluids for transformers and capacitors. PCBs were first identified in the environment in the 1960s, and their subsequent detection in almost every component of the global ecosystem including fish, wildlife, and humans resulted in a ban on their manufacture and use in most countries during the 1970s. PCBs are complex mixtures of congeners, which include several nonortho‐substituted compounds such as 3, 3′, 4, 4′, 5‐pentachlorobiphenyl which bind and activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). The potential adverse effects of individual PCB congeners and defined mixtures on laboratory animals have identified multiple effects and toxicities. Major human health concerns are focused on neurodevelopment effects of PCBs; however, the observed effects are highly variable and require further investigation. Risk assessment of individual PCBs that are AhR agonists utilize an additive toxic equivalency factor approach; however, risk and hazard assessment of PCB mixtures and their interactions is not well defined.
Reliability Demonstration
Authors: Mease David , Nair Vijayan N. , Robinson Jeffrey A. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Reliability demonstration test plans are used in industry to verify that the reliability of a product meets a specified target with a certain degree of confidence. This article provides an overview of reliability demonstration plans from a statistical perspective and gives some examples for illustration. Bayesian techniques and extreme testing, two general approaches for increasing the efficiency of test plans and reducing sample sizes, are also discussed.
Systems Reliability
Authors: Andrews John D. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
It is necessary to make predictions of the failure frequency or likelihood of systems operating in many industrial sectors. The techniques available to conduct this type of assessment require the component failure and repair characteristics along with information defining the system structure. This article describes the features of some of the techniques that can be used to conduct such system reliability assessments. For each method discussed, an overview of its capability is provided. Consideration is given to the use of systems reliability assessment techniques in the context of risk assessment. Finally, a discussion addresses when each of the methods described should be used.
Reliability of Large Systems
Authors: Kołowrocki Krzysztof 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This article is concerned with the application of limit reliability functions to the reliability evaluation of large systems. Two‐state large nonrepaired systems composed of independent components are considered. The asymptotic approach to the system reliability investigation and the system limit reliability function are defined. Two‐state homogeneous series and parallel systems are defined and their exact reliability functions are determined. The classes of limit reliability functions of these systems are presented. This article contains an exemplary application of the presented facts to the reliability evaluation of large technical systems. The accuracy of this evaluation is illustrated. Brief review and the latest references on limit reliability functions of two‐state and multistate homogeneous and nonhomogeneous series, parallel, and other systems are presented as well.
Repairable Systems Reliability
Authors: Rigdon Steven E. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Nonrepairable systems fail just once, so models for nonrepairable systems must account for random lifetimes. It is often reasonable to assume that different units have random lifetimes that are independent and follow the same distribution, leading to the usual i.i.d. (independent and identically distributed) assumption. By contrast, models for repairable systems must account for successive failures in time. For a given system, these times between failure are often not independent and not identically distributed. Various assumptions about the failure process lead to different models for repairable systems. In this article, we present the nonhomogeneous Poisson process (NHPP), the renewal process, the piecewise exponential model, and the modulated power law process (a compromise between renewal process and NHPP). Inference for a single system as well as for multiple copies of a system is discussed. We also discuss briefly the use of covariates or concomitant variables.
Human Reliability Assessment
Authors: Kirwan Barry 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses the nature, role, and maturity of human reliability assessment (HRA). The origins of the approach are described, and the generic process of HRA is defined, focusing on its core components, namely, task analysis, error identification, and quantification of human error probabilities. Validation of methods is also summarized. Contemporary issues such as errors of commission, second generation HRA methods, and the relation between HRA and safety culture are also outlined. The conclusion is that HRA is sufficiently mature to help in many industries, though its evolution is far from over.
Ultrahigh Reliability
Authors: Resnick Marc L. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Ultrareliability is a system of systems approach to modeling and achieving reliability. It seeks to increase reliability metrics and mission success by an order of magnitude or more by going beyond traditional approaches to reliability. It involves a rigorous examination of the interacting relationships among system components, people, and the external context at all stages of the system life cycle from determining requirements to system disposal. Interactions are evaluated to quantify their effects on system reliability and mission success and to discover ways to mitigate sources of error and component failure. Interactions include communication, training, operating processes and procedures, and human factors. The external context includes customers, supply chains, and culture.
There are many benefits when organizations achieve ultrareliability in their systems. Maintenance costs can often be reduced significantly because breakdowns become rare. Systems fail rarely and last longer. There are also indirect benefits such as streamlined development, increased customer satisfaction, and a better understanding of how systems operate. For many organizations, even the process of attempting ultrareliability yields several of these benefits, increasingly so as the organization develops its ultrareliability capability.
Risk Attitude
Authors: Munier Bertrand R. , Tapiero Charles 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
The concepts and analytical expressions of absolute and relative risk aversion, in both weak and strong senses, are explained and discussed. Examples are computed. The extension to multivariate risk aversion, the problem of background risk, and the relationship between mean‐variance and expected utility (EU) models are dealt with in an EU framework. Finally, new developments in relation to the question of generalized risk aversion in a non‐EU framework and to the measurement of risk aversion concepts in financial analysis are discussed.
Subjective Probability
Authors: Curley Shawn P. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
The need for subjective probabilities arises from the variability that is pervasive in our world. A subjective probability is intended to meaningfully communicate the degree of uncertainty in the face of variability. Surrounding this common theme are several different approaches to defining and using subjective probabilities. The mathematical theory of probability is summarized as a basis for understanding these approaches. This article then describes the alternative perspectives on subjective probability relative to the mathematical theory: subjective probability as one of several interpretations for mathematical probability theory, as a behavioral assessment, as an inherent aspect of all uses of probability theory, and as an uncertainty measure that can be detached from the mathematical theory. The issue of assessing the quality of subjective probabilities is also discussed as it relates to these approaches.
Supra Decision Maker
Authors: Morton Alec 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Decisions about the regulation of risks typically impact on a number of different sectors of society, and so have to take cognizance of the views of a variety of stakeholders. One way to conceptualize such decisions is to think of the regulatory or governmental decision maker as a “supra decision maker” (supra DM). The notion of a supra DM represents a distinctively decision‐theoretic take on the aggregation of individual preferences, whereby stakeholders' value functions are arguments in the supra DM's utility function. A normative theory of the supra DM exists, which provides conditions for an additive representation of the supra DM's value function, but this theory avoids key questions about securing honest statements of stakeholders' values, and about the comparability of these statements. Despite this drawback, the idea of a supra DM is a useful frame for thinking about, and for private analysis of, decisions that impact multiple stakeholders.
Cross‐Species Extrapolation
Authors: Benignus Vernon A. , Boyes William K. , Bushnell Philip J. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
The practice of cross‐species extrapolation (CSE) in toxicology is a special case of comparative physiology in which experimental data collected in nonhumans are used to estimate or predict effects of toxicants in humans. Conceptually, data from nonhumans are adjusted to account for physiological differences between species and applied to humans. The components of the process are as follows: (a) adjust for differences in internal doses that result from differences in physiology due to body size and pharmacokinetic differences, (b) account for differences in the sensitivity of species due to physiological processes, and (c) make the adjustments in numerical terms with confidence limits. Steps (a) and (b) are usually done by applications of mathematical/mechanistic physiological models to the extent possible. Step (c) is sometimes done using mechanistic models and sometimes empirically. The state of practice and limitations are discussed. The practice is in early stages of development.
1,3‐Butadiene
Authors: Henderson Rogene F. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
1,3‐Butadiene (CAS #106‐99‐00) (BD) is a gaseous monomer used in large volumes in the manufacture of synthetic rubber and plastics. It is a four carbon compound with two double bonds, making it ideal for production of polymers and also for oxidation by enzymes in the body to form reactive epoxides that can bind to large molecules such as proteins and DNA. Acute exposures to high concentrations of BD can lead to irritation of the respiratory tract and to narcotic effects on the central nervous system. Animal studies on the effects of chronic exposure to lower concentrations of BD give varying results. In mice, BD is a potent multisite carcinogen and leads to atrophy of ovaries in females and testes in males, in addition to induction of a macrocytic anemia. In rats, BD is a weak carcinogen in endocrine‐related organs and does not affect the reproductive organs or the hematopoietic system. Epidemiology studies indicate that work in the butadiene‐styrene rubber industry is associated with an increase in leukemia (all types), but the data do not allow a separation of BD as the single causative agent.
Life Insurance Markets
Authors: Driver Rebecca 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This section reviews the life insurance market, looking at both protection and investment policies. It discusses the role of life insurance products in helping households smooth their consumption and the impact of the bequest motive. It considers whether households are under‐ or overinsured, for example, in the context of mandatory annuitization. It discusses the extent to which individuals can commit to life insurance policies and the impact of this on policy design. It looks at longevity risk and investigates the extent to which adverse selection exists in annuity markets. Finally, it discusses distribution and the impact of the Internet in reducing search costs.
Comparative Efficacy Trials (Phase
III
Studies)
Authors: Goldberg Judith D. , Shao Yongzhao 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
A comparative efficacy trial (a phase III study) is a clinical trial that is designed to compare the efficacy of an experimental treatment with that of a control treatment (active or a placebo). This article provides a brief introduction to the design and analysis of phase III trials. The issues discussed include randomization and blinding, selection of populations for study, selection of efficacy endpoints, the risk of type I and II errors, the determination of sample size, multicenter trials, interim analysis, and the assessment and comparison of treatment effects between/among different treatment groups.
Scenario Simulation Method for Risk Management
Authors: Jamshidian Farshid , Zhu Yu 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
The scenario simulation method described in this article is a computationally efficient alternative to the traditional Monte Carlo method. The method applies principal component analysis to select key factors, and approximates a multidimensional lognormal distribution of interest rates and exchange rates by a multinomial distribution of key factors. The computational efficiency is further enhanced by stratified sampling at multicurrency stage. Because of the efficiency, the model can afford a large sample size to obtain a satisfactory representation of return distribution for multicurrency fixed‐income and derivative portfolios. The method has wide applications in risk management.
Basic Concepts of Insurance
Authors: Kunreuther Howard 
Published: September 2008

Abstract

Insurance is an economic institution that allows the transfer of financial risk from an individual to a pooled group of risks by means of a two‐party contract. Insurance markets can exist because of
the law of large numbers
, which states that, for a series of independent and identically distributed random variables (such as automobile insurance claims), the variance of the average amount of a claim payment decreases as the number of claims increases. However, natural hazards‐such as earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes—are classified as
catastrophic risks
. There is a high probability that many structures would be damaged or destroyed at the same time. One way that insurers reduce the magnitude of their catastrophic losses is by employing high deductibles. The use of coinsurance, whereby the insurer pays a fraction of any loss that occurs, produces an effect similar to a deductible. Another way of limiting potential losses is for the insurer to place caps on the maximum amount of coverage on any given piece of property. An additional option is for the insurer to buy reinsurance.
Moral Hazard
Authors: Kunreuther Howard 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Moral hazard refers to an increase in the probability of loss caused by the behavior of the policyholder. Providing insurance protection to an individual may lead that person to behave more carelessly than he or she did before having coverage. If the insurer cannot predict this behavior and relies on past loss data from uninsured individuals to estimate rates, the resulting premium is likely to be too low to cover losses. Ways to avoid moral hazard are to raise the premium, introduce deductibles or coinsurance as part of the insurance contract, place upper limits on the amount of coverage an individual or enterprise can purchase, or require specific mitigation measures as a condition of insurance.
Protection of Infrastructure
Authors: Banks David L. , Hengartner Nicholas 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Critical infrastructure consists of the basic mechanisms and services essential for a society to function. It must be protected against natural and deliberate damage. These protective efforts should be selected according to careful risk analysis, with consideration of opportunity costs and the interactions between different kinds of investment. For natural threats, there is a large literature that often focuses on the extreme events; for deliberate threats, one must also consider game theory.
Ethical Issues in Using Statistics, Statistical Methods, and Statistical Sources in Work Related to Homeland Security
Authors: Seltzer William , Anderson Margo 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
The article emphasizes that there are distinctive ethical, as well as scientific and legal, issues involved in deploying statistical methods and data for homeland security, even as we note the overlaps between science and ethics on the one hand and law and ethics on the other hand. The article discusses (a) ethical challenges that arise from using inappropriate methods, whether they are “quick‐fix” shortcuts and approximations or elaborate models; (b) the ethical imperative to avoid causing harm to innocent people embodied in the need to respect the principle of statistical confidentiality and the need to take into account the intermediary and long‐term substantive objectives of any risk assessment; and (c) the common ethical failure involved in using only the technical indicator, “risk of disclosure”, rather than its ethically informed counterpart “the harm arising, given the disclosure”, in the assessment of the efficacy alternative approaches. The special ethical challenges that arise when data systems are used to target individuals or population subgroups based on racial, ethnic, religious, or similar attributes are also discussed. The article concludes by stressing the importance of establishing a mechanism for appropriate ethical review and oversight lest, in our untempered zeal for the value of the data and methods we employ or the important objectives of work on homeland security, we become complicit in harming innocent individuals or vulnerable population subgroups.
Cancer Risk Evaluation from Animal Studies
Authors: Melnick Ronald L. , Kissling Grace E. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Data from properly designed and evaluated studies in experimental animals have been and continue to be reliable sources of information for the identification of potential human health hazards and the estimation of risks in exposed human populations. Properly designed studies must include (a) animal models that are sensitive to the endpoints under investigation, (b) adequately challenging doses, (c) adequate durations of exposure (at least 2 years for carcinogenicity studies in rats and mice), (d) sufficient numbers of animals per dose group to have adequate statistical power to detect a true effect, (e) multiple dose groups to allow characterization of dose–response relationships, (f) complete and peer‐reviewed histopathological diagnoses, and (g) pair‐wise comparisons with the control group and analyses of trends based on survival‐adjusted tumor rates. Mechanistic information and pharmacokinetic models that have been adequately tested may have an impact on the characterization of dose–response relationships and the estimation of cancer risk at human exposure levels. Setting occupational or environmental exposure standards based on animal carcinogenicity data provides a prudent public health approach to reduce the burden of cancer in exposed populations. More work is necessary to understand the basis for interindividual differences in susceptibility and to properly establish health‐based exposure standards that protect the most vulnerable segments of the general population.
Operational Risk Development
Authors: Davies Brandon J. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This paper looks at the application of operational risk ‘models’ under Pillar 1 of the Basel II regulatory framework. It looks both at the conceptual problems underlying the definition of operational risk and the practical issues of data collection associated with modeling operational risk events. It also looks at operational value at risk (Op. VaR) as a measure of operational risk and the issues associated with implementing such a measure; it contrasts Op. VaR with an expected shortfall approach as used in the insurance industry. When managing operational risk, it is proposed that a process control approach operational risk management has many advantages especially when implemented through conformance to ISO and similar standards.
Dioxin Risk
Authors: Charnley Gail 
Published: September 2008

Abstract

The term
dioxin
refers to a large group of structurally related chemicals that are unintentional byproducts of combustion and certain industrial processes. They are environmentally and biologically persistent. They produce a variety of adverse effects in laboratory animals, but the extent to which environmental levels of dioxin pose a risk to humans is controversial.
Genetic admixture of eight Mexican indigenous populations: Based on five polymarker, HLA‐DQA1, ABO, and RH loci
Authors: Buentello‐Malo Leonora , Peñaloza‐Espinosa Rosenda I. , Salamanca‐Gómez Fabio , Cerda‐Flores Ricardo M. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis study explores the genetic admixture of eight Mexican indigenous populations (Otomi‐Ixmiquilpan, Otomi‐Actopan, Tzeltales, Nahua‐Milpa‐Alta, Nahua‐Xochimilco, Nahua‐Zitlala, Nahua‐Ixhuatlancillo, and Nahua‐Coyolillo) on the basis of five PCR‐based polymorphic DNA loci (LDLR, GYPA, HBGG, D7S8, GC), HLA_DQA1, and the blood groups ABO and Rh (CcDEe). Among the indigenous populations, the highest gene frequencies for O and D were 0.9703 and 1.000 for Zitlala (State of Guerrero) and 0.9955 and 0.9414 for Tzeltales (State of Chiapas), respectively. Maximum likelihood estimates of admixture components yield a trihybrid model with Amerindian (assuming that Nahua‐Zitlala is the most representative indigenous population), Spanish, and African ancestry with the admixture proportions: 93.03, 6.03, and 0.94 for Tzeltales, and 28.99, 44.03, and 26.98 for Coyolillo. A contribution of the ancestral populations of Ixhuatlancillo, Actopan, Ixmiquilpan, Milpa‐Alta, and Xochimilco were found with the following average of admixture proportions: 75.84, 22.50, and 1.66. The findings herein demonstrate that the genetic admixture of the Mexican indigenous populations who at present speak the same Amer‐Indian language can be differentiated and that the majority of them have less ancestral indigenous contribution than those considered as Mestizo populations. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.