bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Statics and Dynamics of Income Distribution: An Introductory Survey
Authors: Creedy John 
Published: January 2008

Abstract This article discusses some of the issues involved in making comparisons of income distributions using cross‐sectional data and in examining the dynamics of income distribution using longitudinal data. Any study of income distribution must consider the unit of analysis, the time period and the measure of income, and these are the focus of the article. Section 2, on annual incomes, begins with problems of intra‐household income sharing and the measure of income used, including household production. Comparisons among households of different size are discussed, involving the choice of equivalence scales, the use of decomposition analysis and more general dominance conditions. The role of value judgments in the use of equivalence scales is stressed. Section 3 is concerned with dynamic aspects of income distribution. It discusses methods of constructing synthetic cohorts for use in simulation exercises, the varieties of longitudinal data available, sample attrition and the unit of analysis. An appendix provides further references to the literature and data sources.
Unfinished Business
Authors: Vines David 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis article is about three phases in Australian trade policy: protectionism, unilateral liberalisation, and participation in regional trade liberalisation. Australia used to have one of the most protected economies in the world. The last dozen years have seen a radical transformation of Australian economic policy: Australia is in the process of becoming one of the most open economies in the world. The last five‐to‐ten years have also seen a related transformation of Australian foreign economic policy. This policy is now centrally concerned with promoting the process of international economic integration within the Asian region; particularly through the APEC process. Should Australia be pursuing ‘open regionalism’ in the Pacific? or promoting an Asia Pacific trading bloc? or concentrating on its own unilateral trade liberalisation? or using its energy to press for global liberalisation through the GATT? I argue that there remains a deep contradiction in the APEC process; that ‘open regionalism’ is in Australia's interests, and that the critical test of Australia's conversion to liberalisation will come in this third phase, in the future answers that it gives to these questions.
Macroeconomic Policy and Employment Growth in Australia
Authors: Phipps A. J. , Sheen J. R. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis article, which explores various aspects of macroeconomic policy and employment growth, is prompted by the relative lack of attention given to these issues in the Green and White Papers on unemployment. The problem of hysteresis reinforces the generally recognised need to reduce the excessive volatility of output and employment growth in Australia. International comparisons presented in the article suggest that Australian output and employment growth have been more volatile than those of the three major OECD countries. Reduction in macroeconomic volatility requires more effective short‐term demand management than we have had in the recent past, and in turn, means that we must know more about the strength and timing of the effects of major macroeconomic policy instruments on employment growth and unemployment. This article presents employment growth equations for Australia over the period 1979–93 which incorporate domestic macroeconomic policy effects as well as the influences of the international business cycle. We show that monetary and fiscal policy have had a significant impact on the evolution of employment in Australia and, in particular, that tight monetary and fiscal policy contributed substantially to the recession of 1990–92.
The Influence of Financial Factors on Corporate Investment
Authors: Mills Karen , Morling Steven , Tease Warren 
Published: January 2008

Abstract Recent theoretical developments have shown that cash flows and the structure of a firm's balance sheet may have an important influence on investment. Establishing a link between cash flows, leverage and investment provides insights into the way that monetary policy and cyclical factors more generally influence the corporate sector. If cash flows are an important determinant of investment then changes in monetary policy (by changing interest rates) will influence investment through a cash flow effect as well as through altering the rate at which the returns to investment are discounted. If this is the case, the higher leverage of the corporate sector implies, other things being equal, that monetary policy may have a larger impact on investment than in the past. In this article we use panel‐data analysis to examine the impact of financial factors on investment decisions of firms in the Australian corporate sector. We find strong support for the influence of financial factors on investment decisions. Leverage, internally generated cash flows, and the stock of cash and liquid financial assets are all important influences on investment behaviour, particularly for smaller firms, highly leveraged firms, and firms with high retention ratios.
Australian Capital City Real House Prices, 1979–1993
Authors: Bourassa Steven C. , Hendershott Patric H. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractReal house prices have increased by 35 per cent in Australian capital cities during the last 15 years, with Brisbane, Canberra, and Sydney experiencing rises of 48 to 61 per cent and Adelaide, Melbourne and Perth having increases of 20 per cent or less. This article estimates a single model for the six cities to explain the divergent real price behaviour over time and space. It is concluded that the fundamental forces driving real house prices are the growth rate in real wage income (primarily due to employment growth) and the growth in population caused by net overseas migration.
Private Sector Involvement in Infrastructure Projects
Authors: Quiggin John 
Published: January 2008

Abstract There has been little systematic discussion of the issues associated with private involvement in infrastructure. Analysis of the relative performance of the private and public sector in different phases of infrastructure provision suggests that, in most cases, the private sector will be most efficient in the construction phase but the public sector will be best equipped to handle the risks associated with ownership. The situation is less clear‐cut with respect to operation—a mixture in which core operations are undertaken by the public sector owner with peripheral operations being contracted out may be optimal in many cases.
Protection and Liberalisation in Australia and Abroad
Authors: Corden W. Max 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis article reviews changes in Australian protection policy between 1967 and 1995, particularly the political economy aspects. The story is quite complex, and until 1974 was unusual by international standards, with a sophisticated Australian tariff debate and the remarkable transparency role of the Industry Assistance Commission (IAC), and its predecessor, the Tariff Board. The role of Alf Rattigan, Chairman of the Tariff Board and later the IAC, is stressed. Liberalisation since 1988 has been drastic, so that most tariffs will be brought down to 5 per cent by the year 2000. All quotas were ended by 1993. This can be contrasted with very high protection levels in 1967 and quite high levels even in 1987. Substantial unilateral trade liberalisation normally requires exchange rate depreciation, and the floating of the Australian dollar made the tariff reductions possible. The motives for Australian trade liberalisation in the 1980s are compared with those for similar liberalisations in many developing countries.
Engel Scales for Australia, the Philippines and Thailand: A Comparative Analysis
Authors: Valenzuela Ma. Rebecca J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThe purpose of this study is to explore the question of how similar or how different are equivalence scales of selected countries in the Asia‐Pacific region. In particular, the article investigates whether equivalence scales for Australia, the Philippines and Thailand are comparable. That the Philippines and Thailand are two countries which are strikingly similar in their levels of socioeconomic development suggests the possibility that the relative income needs of households of different sizes in these countries are similar. In contrast, Australia is seen as an industrialised nation unlikely to have scales similar to the two other countries.The comparability problem is addressed via the widely used Engel estimation methodology applied to similarly selected samples and a common model specification. It is found that the level of agreement between the country‐specific scales is highly dependent on what ‘basket of necessities’ is used as an indicator of welfare. An interesting outcome that may well be of useful empirical significance is that with necessities defined to include food, clothing, and housing (and possibly, medical care as well), the equivalence scales for the Philippines, Thailand and Australia are more or less invariant; no such regularity exists if the definition of necessities is confined to food alone.
THE BIOCHEMICAL ASPECT OF THE RECAPITULATION THEORY
Authors: NEEDHAM JOSEPH 
Published: January 2008

Summary.A discussion of the transitory functions of embryonic life introduces an account of the theory of recapitulation as it stands at the present time. The similarity between organiser phenomena and the formative stimuli provided by recapitulated structures is pointed out, and it is concluded that recapitulation itself cannot be regarded as an explanation of anything. A survey is given of the chemical events in embryonic development which seem to possess recapitulatory significance. Recapitulation may be regarded as fundamentally the result of the necessary passage from simplicity to complexity, from low to high organisation, which is entailed by the metazoal sexual system of reproduction, with its single egg cell. The retention of visible organs or structures from lower ontogenies in a given ontogeny is only a special case of this general rule and probably depends on the presence in them of essential formative stimuli.
VISCOSITY OF PROTOPLASM AS DETERMINING THE RATE OF BIOLOGICAL REACTIONS
Authors: STILES WALTER 
Published: January 2008

Summary.A review of the available data shows that in solutions of non‐electrolytes and in heterogeneous systems the coefficient of diffusion of substances is not inversely proportional to the viscosity of the medium. Consequently there is no basis for Bělehradek's theory, based on such a supposed relation, that viscosity of the protoplasm, by determining rate of diffusion, determines the rate of biological reactions.
RESULTS OF SOME RECENT STATISTICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF INVERTEBRATE FOSSILS
Authors: TRUEMAN A. E. 
Published: January 2008

Summary.Statistical investigations of Lamellibranchs and Gastropods show that there is considerable variation in any series collected at one horizon. The variation is greatest in such sedentary forms as Gryphaea and Carbonicola, but the variations appear to be similar in character, although they are not so wide in range, in certain Gastropods.At each horizon variation appears to be continuous, and the characters, on the whole, vary independently. Each community is apparently homogeneous and indivisible. It is suggested that such an evolving stock must be regarded as a “plexus” or bundle of anastomosing lineages.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES UPON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMPHIBIAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
Authors: DETWILER S. R. 
Published: January 2008

Summary.An account is given of certain experiments which bear upon the problems of morphogenesis in the central and peripheral nervous system. By means of grafting embryonic limbs and other rudiments it has been possible to alter the direction of growth in spinal nerves. These responses are discussed in relation to the probable nature of forces responsible for the general growth and connection of nerves.Experiments involving limb and somite excision and grafting are described as they bear upon the development of primary somatic sensory and motor neurones, and upon the segmentation of spinal nerves. The results indicate a fundamental difference in the growth response of motor and sensory neurones to peripheral changes. They also support the theme that segmentation in the spinal cord is entirely subservient to mesodermic metamerism.The autoplastic interchange of various embryonic spinal cord segments, as well as heterotopic grafting experiments, are described as they bear upon the problem of cellular proliferation and differentiation within the embryonic spinal cord. These results, in combination with those following limb and somite excision and grafting, indicate that forces within the central nervous system are chiefly responsible for proliferation therein, rather than growth influences from the periphery.
PROGRAMME‐EVOLUTION IN THE GRAPTOLITES
Authors: BULMAN O. M. B. 
Published: January 2008

Summary.1. As an illustration of the occurrence of programme‐evolution among the graptolites, some of the series included within the “isolate” line of thecal elaboration in the monograptids have been selected.2. These are represented in the Lower Silurian (Valentian) rocks of Sweden, Britain, Germany and Bohemia. When the species constituting these series in any one area are compared with those of another, as is attempted here for the British and German forms, they are found often to exhibit slight differences in form (although occupying the same relative positions in precisely comparable evolutionary series), and possibly also in time‐range. It is suggested that this local aspect is probably to be attributed largely to direct environmental influence.3. Against the view that the thecal elaboration is adaptive, it is pointed out that several distinct progressive and regressive lines of development, not only in the isolate line, but also in the hooked and lobate lines, occur simultaneously (while simple unmodified thecal types also persist), and all these are represented by species which, as far as can be ascertained at present, lived under the same environmental conditions.4. There is evidence of certain definite periods of evolutionary activity (represented by a marked abundance of species and particularly of new species), again suggesting the operation of what may be referred to as some “internal” factor in the evolution of the race. None of the explanations which has been advanced in the interpretation of similar series in other groups of animals seems applicable here, but no alternative is offered.
THE IN VITRO CULTIVATION OF FILTERABLE VIRUSES
Authors: EAGLES G. HARDY 
Published: January 2008

Summary.The two generally held theories of the nature of the filterable viruses affecting animals are outlined. The living, particulate nature of these is discussed in the light of present research and their almost certain affinities with the known bacteria. The weight of evidence is almost wholly in favour of this view.The importance of cultivation as evidence in favour of the living nature of the viruses is pointed out and the cultivation of vaccinia virus discussed in some detail. A short survey of the cultivation of some other viruses is given mainly to show that the methods successful in vaccinia have proved successful with other viruses.The requirements of filterable viruses for successful culture are discussed in so far as knowledge at present permits. The bulk of opinion is in favour of an intimate relation between living susceptible cells and the elementary bodies which constitute the virus. The possibility of culture in the absence of cells is dealt with and the evidence on this point outlined. The significance of the interrelation of elementary bodies, virus inclusion bodies and cultivation is indicated.
THE COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF COLOUR RESPONSE IN REPTILES AND FISHES
Authors: SAND A. 
Published: January 2008

Summary.1. There is evidence that in both reptiles and teleost fishes the melanophores react to light in two ways:(a) Expansion in response to illumination of the body surface or some part of it.(b) Adaptation to shade of background.2. Both processes must be considered in the formulation of a theory of coordination of pigmentary response.3. Such a theory is discussed, and is shown to be applicable to the minnow and the chameleon.4. The lipophores are concerned in adaptation of fishes to the colour of the background.5. Recent work shows that they are controlled by endocrine agencies, which may also influence the melanophores to some extent.
THE SYSTEMATIC VALUE OF CUTICULAR CHARACTERS IN RECENT AND FOSSIL ANGIOSPERMS
Authors: EDWARDS W. N. 
Published: January 2008

Summary.The study of cuticular structure as an aid to identification and classification, first extensively applied to fossil plants (particularly gymnosperms), is being increasingly used in recent taxonomic researches.The investigation of spodograms (the characteristic figures due to siliceous skeletons, crystals, and the like seen in the residue of leaves slowly reduced to ash) has proved of great value in the Gramineae especially, and among dicotyledons in the Urticales. Attempts to apply the method to fossil plants have not so far led to any results.Prat's analysis of epidermal characters in the Gramineae indicates the principles on which detailed taxonomic work should be based, and the systematic results he has so far obtained in this family are supported by evidence from other sources. Similar surveys of dicotyledonous families have scarcely yet been attempted; Bandulska's work on the Lauraceae is especially worthy of mention.The available evidence suggests that in cases of convergence of leaf form, structural differences in the cuticle will almost always provide a means of distinguishing isolated leaves.The distribution of cuticular elements may often furnish a means of discriminating closely related taxonomic groups which cannot be differentiated by purely structural characters.Statistical characters such as size or frequency of the elements, though often of value, must always be used with extreme caution. The ratio of stomata to epidermal cells (the stomatal index) is less variable than mere stomatal frequency.Individual cuticular and other epidermal characters cannot be considered in isolation in taxonomic work. As with other features used in classification, the sum of the available characters must be taken as the basis.The literature on fossil angiosperms, here summarised, is already extensive, particularly on the dicotyledons. Valuable results, however, can only be expected from full and detailed investigations of well‐preserved cuticles, together with a close comparison with a wide range of living forms.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN INTERMITTENT LIGHT, IN RELATION TO CURRENT FORMULATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC MECHANISM
Authors: BRIGGS. G. E. 
Published: January 2008

Summary.We have shown that the effect of such factors as concentration of chlorophyll, concentration of carbon dioxide, intensity of illumination, and poisons, on the rate of photosynthesis in continuous illumination can be interpreted on the basis of a mechanism of photosynthesis suggested in an earlier paper. Other suggested mechanisms are shown to be inadequate.The results of the recent experiments of Emerson and Arnold with flashing light have been shown to be in harmony with the schema, but further experiments are necessary before the full significance of the results can be ascertained. This necessity has been emphasised by a comparison of the results with the earlier work of Warburg with intermittent illumination.
CEPHALIC SUTURES AND THEIR BEARING ON CURRENT CLASSIFICATIONS OF TRILOBITES
Authors: STUBBLEFIELD C. J. 
Published: January 2008

Summary1. The cephalic sutures are defined; their distribution and interrelationships discussed. Few facts are available concerning the evolutionary movements of these, but various theoretical deductions have been made.2. Opinion on the supposed function of these sutures is summarised and it is concluded that the sutures probably did not exist solely for the purpose of ecdysis.3. Consideration is given to the historical aspect of trilobite classification into three orders where the ordinal character is the course taken by some of the cephalic sutures. This classification has been adversely criticised; attention is called to the fallacy of assuming that the chosen cephalic sutures were:(a) relics of primary segmentation,(b) homologous in all groups,(c) in themselves alone of phylogenetic significance.4. Three orders have been erected in turn to accommodate, according to their founders, the most primitive trilobites; none contains a single family in common with another of the orders. Pompeckj's and Swinnerton's objections to Beecher's order Hypoparia are upheld, as are Warburg's and Rud. Richter's objections to Swinnerton's order Protoparia.5. The order Mesonacida (as defined by Poulsen) has a unique position; Poulsen regarded it as the most primitive group of known trilobites; Raw, as the most specialised group at least as far as the cephalic “segmental” spines and sutural evolution is concerned. Disagreement is expressed with this opinion of Raw's, essentially because of a more probable interpretation of the particular segmental origin of one series of spines homologised by Raw, and because there are doubts whether the remaining two spine pairs are necessarily of metameric (segmental) origin.6. Though absolute proof is as yet lacking, Swinnerton and Poulsen are thought to have justifiably stated that the absence of true facial sutures in Mesonacidae is primary; some of the supposed primitive features of the family (or order using Poulsen's restricted sense) are discussed.7. The bearing of recent ontogenetic work on the relationship of Proparia and Opisthoparia suggests that the proparian condition may be regarded as arrested development, and therefore previous failure to recognise this has resulted in the establishment of a group here held to be polyphyletic.8. A satisfactory classification of the group might be evolved, as sufficient reliable knowledge accumulates, by combining allied families into superfamilies. Two attempts at this form of classification are discussed and summarised; these however are based on the primary ordinal value of the supposed (adult) static condition of part of one of the cephalic sutures, and can only be regarded as provisional.