bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Notes on Colossal Head No. 2 from Tres Zapotes
Authors: Heizer Robert F. , Smith Tillie , Williams Howel 
Published: April 2006

AbstractOne of the eleven known colossal stone heads attributed to the Olmec culture of southeastern Mexico has not been previously published. It is now in the town of Santiago Tuxtla, Veracruz, and was brought there in 1951 from a locality about 2 mi. north of the village of Tres Zapotes. It is designated as Tres Zapotes Colossal Head No. 2, even though it is probably not associated directly with the Tres Zapotes site which produced Tres Zapotes Colossal Head No. 1. The sculpture weighs about 8.5 short tons and is made of a distinctive olivine-and augite-rich basalt from the Cerro el Vigia not more than 5 mi. away.
Solutrean Settlement of North America? A Review of Reality
Authors: Straus Lawrence Guy 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe Solutrean techno-complex of southern France and the Iberian Peninsula is an impossible candidate as the “source” for either pre-Clovis or Clovis traditions in North America. Primarily this is because the Solutrean ended ca. 16,500-18,000 B.P. (at least 5,000 years before Clovis appeared) and was separated from the U.S. eastern seaboard by 5,000 km of ocean. In addition, there are major differences between the Solutrean and Clovis (and even more between it and “pre-Clovis”) in terms of the composition of lithic and osseous technologies and with regard to evidence of artistic activity. Nor is there any evidence that Solutrean people had navigation, deep-sea fishing, or marine mammal hunting capacities which could have made a transatlantic crossing even conceivable. Furthermore, there is no evidence that people lived above about 48° N latitude in western Europe during the Last Glacial Maximum, making a “jumping-off” point from the (then largely glaciated) area of the current British Isles unlikely. The peopling of the Americas, even if the result of several “migrations,” was from Asia.
The Bluegrass Fauna and Changes in Middle Holocene Hunter-Gatherer Foraging in the Southern Midwest
Authors: Stafford C. Russell , Richards Ronald L. , Anslinger C. Michael 
Published: April 2006

AbstractA shift in Archaic foraging to a largely logistic collector strategy by the middle Holocene is indicated by the presence of rock-filled middens in the U.S. southern Midwest. This change has usually been attributed to the development of super-rich wetland habitats in large river valleys. Analysis of a well-preserved faunal assemblage from the Bluegrass site, a late Middle Archaic base camp/mortuary occupation, located in an interior upland drainage basin of southwestern Indiana, suggests that small-bodied terrestrial mammals and reptiles were substituted for aquatic animal foods. Comparisons with faunal assemblages from other base camps in a diverse set of habitats in the southern Midwest indicates that white-tailed deer and hickory nuts were the basis for the logistical foraging strategy rather than aquatic resources. It is proposed that a change in forest composition from a mesic closed canopy to an open oak-hickory association by the middle Holocene increased the abundance of deer and nut mast leading to a coarse-grain use of the landscape.
Cremated Human Remains from Point of Pines, Arizona: A New Approach
Authors: Merbs Charles F. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe traditional approaches of comparative human osteology have proven largely unsatisfactory in attempts to determine biological relationships among human populations which cremated their dead. However, one category of information, that of discrete traits or skeletal anomalies, has been largely ignored. Cremations from Point of Pines, Arizona, were analyzed to determine if this kind of information, along with that usually sought from skeletal material, could be obtained in sufficient quantity to make comparative biological studies feasible. The results were encouraging, but they indicate that extraordinary care will be required in the future excavation and storage of cremated material.
The First New World Cereal
Authors: Callen E. O. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractSetaria, foxtail millet, was eaten in quantity in Tamaulipas, Mexico, in 4000-3500 B.C., with selection for grain size during the following 1,500 years, before maize was introduced to the valley. Setaria was eaten in quantity in Tehuacan, southern Puebla, Mexico, in 5500 B.C., but maize was being cultivated there by 4500 B.C., and there is no increase in Setaria grain size. Grinding techniques with Setaria are shown to have changed between 5200 B.C. and 900 B.C.
Archaeological Potential of the Atlantic Continental Shelf
Authors: Emery K.O. , Edwards R.L. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractEarly man lived in eastern United States 11,000 years ago when most of the now-submerged continental shelf was exposed. The shelf almost certainly was ranged by nomadic hunters and possibly by marine fish- and mollusk- eaters. As the sea level rose at the end of the latest glacial epoch, the advancing water disrupted and submerged any habitation sites.The oldest radiocarbon dates for kitchen middens of marine refuse along the present shore appear to be younger than the oldest dates for kitchen middens of non-marine content. Older marine middens may be deeply submerged far out on the continental shelf. Greatest success in future exploration for these sites is likely in areas of the shelf which have received little or no cover of postglacial sediment and where rivers formerly crossed the shelf.
Incipient Urbanization and Secularization in Tiahuanacoid Peru
Authors: Schaedel R. P. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis paper shows that two previous lines of evidence (radiocarbon dating and historic dynasty lists) for calculating absolute dates in prehistoric northern Peru produce a hiatus between the regional Classic and the late periods (kingdoms and confederations), which can best be resolved by expanding the time span of the Tiahuanacoid (Middle) period. Material evidence is adduced for this longer period by quantifying total construction for the last three precolonial periods on both the northern and central coasts. This procedure indicates that the last two periods combined were only half as long as the preceding Tiahuanacoid period and provides the temporal basis for postulating that the late-period trends, such as urbanization and secularization, were evolved largely during Tiahuanacoid times.
New Discoveries at the Clovis Site
Authors: Warnica James M. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractExcavations at the Clovis site near Portales, New Mexico, in 1962 and 1963 produced much new information on the Llano complex. This work, which was done principally by the El Llano Archaeological Society (Portales, New Mexico), yielded the skeletons of four mammoths and other Pleistocene faunal remains and enlarged the tool inventory of the Llano complex. Significant ancestral ties with the Upper Paleolithic of Siberia, which have been postulated on the basis of prismatic blades and blade-tools collected from the Clovis horizon seem to be further confirmed. Further information on the size range of Clovis projectile points has been obtained from small projectile points found in the mammoth-bone bed. Analysis of lithic materials from the Clovis site reveals extensive use of Alibates flint from the Canadian River valley of Texas.
Paleoindian Colonization of the Americas: Implications from an Examination of Physiography, Demography, and Artifact Distribution
Authors: Anderson David G. , Gillam J. Christopher 
Published: April 2006

AbstractGIS-based, least-cost analyses employing continental scale elevation data, coupled with information on the late glacial location of ice sheets and pluvial lakes, suggest possible movement corridors used by initial human populations in colonizing the New World. These routes, demographic evidence, and the location of Paleoindian archaeological assemblages, support the possibility of a rapid spread and diversification of founding populations. Initial dispersal, these analyses suggest, would have been most likely in coastal and riverine settings, and on plains. The analyses suggest areas where evidence for early human settlement may be found in North and South America. In some cases, these areas have received little prior archaeological survey. The method can be used to explore patterns of human migration and interaction at a variety of geographic scales.
Settlement and Sea-Levels on the Central Coast of British Columbia: Evidence from Shell Midden Cores
Authors: Cannon Aubrey 
Published: April 2006

AbstractCoring of shell-midden sites provides a regional chronology of site settlement in the Namu vicinity on the central coast of British Columbia. Coring proved an accurate and cost-effective alternative to traditional test-excavation, and its application in only two short field seasons doubled the number of sites tested in this region. The dating of basal cultural deposits from the cores shows initial occupation of sites ranging from 10,000 to 800 B.P. These dates exhibit a strong linear relationship with the current elevation of deposits above average high tide, suggesting that the settlement history of known shell-midden sites in this region is strongly linked to gradual long-term decline in relative sea levels.
Critique of the Claim of Cannibalism at Cowboy Wash
Authors: Dongoske Kurt E. , Martin Debra L. , Ferguson T. J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe article by Billman et al. contributes to a growing body of data that demonstrates the complex variability of the Pueblo world during the twelfth century. Although the article's title promises a comprehensive review of major cultural and environmental processes (drought, warfare, cannibalism, regional interactions), relatively little theory regarding these processes informs their research design, and much of their interpretation is based on weak inferences. Their empirical data are not used to test alternative hypotheses or rigorously examine expectations derived from modeling. Dynamic aspects of cultural patterns relating to migration, settlement, environment, abandonment, mortuary behaviors, conflict, and group identity are implicated in their research but are not adequately contextualized. Our response to the study by Billman et al. is intended to provide a critical yet constructive commentary, propose fresh ways of thinking about what assemblages of disarticulated and broken bones might mean, and reformulate how research questions are being asked.
Another Mayan Hieroglyph for “Day”
Authors: Beyer Hermann 
Published: April 2006

Charles P. Bowditch reproduces about seven different signs as hieroglyphs for Kin, “day,” in his fundamental work on the Maya calendar. They are: (1) the sun-disk, (2) the head of the sun-god, (3) the head of a sun-bird, (4) the dog's head, (5) the conch, (6) the inverted Ahau and (7) the composite glyph day-sky, sun-disc and Caban. There can be identified still a few more hieroglyphs as representing the same idea.In this paper we shall treat of a new sign, generally composed of a quincunx (a variant of the character for “greenstone”) and a skull (Figure 1, a, b and f), for which the value “day” can be proved.
Projectile Points
Authors: Browne Jim 
Published: April 2006

Due, I believe, to the lack of a working knowledge of the bow and the atlatl, the tendency with some archaeologists is to date sites by the size of projectile points. In this paper, the writer hopes to prove this method is wrong.The pre-historic peoples, and especially the nomadic peoples, lived by hunting. The atlatl and spear, or the bow and arrow, were in daily use during a period covering many thousands of years. These peoples were thinkers, inventors and experimenters, and it is reasonable to expect that they all made and used very efficient projectile points. The sole purpose of a projectile point is to pierce the hide of an animal and to enter the body cavity deep enough to cause a hemorrhage that will in time kill the animal. Two agencies will cause the penetration—speed and weight.
The Interrelation of Population, Food Supply, and Building in Pre-Conquest Central Mexico
Authors: Cook S. F. 
Published: April 2006

This paper is frankly exploratory, designed to test the possibility of applying historical and archaeological evidence to the solution of certain problems in demography and human ecology for which it is impossible to secure data of more conventional character.The Central Mexican region was selected because it contained for a very long time perhaps the densest population on the North American continent and because the annalistic as well as archaeological information concerning it is remarkably copious. Specifically the area is defined for present purposes as that included in the present states of Vera Cruz, Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, Puebla, Mexico, Federal District, Morelos, Oaxaca, Michoacan, and Guerrero. This territory is not an ethnic or economic entity since it includes both coastal and highland cultures together with numerous independent linguistic stocks. On the other hand it corresponds to the most intensive area of archaeological investigation outside of Yucatan and is more or less coterminous with the so-called “Aztec Empire” as the latter existed in 1520.
Aerial Photography and Archaeology
Authors: Reeves Dache M. 
Published: April 2006

Aerial photographs were employed in archaeological work as early as 1880. The results proved the value of aerial photographs, but the methods of raising a camera aloft were unsatisfactory until the invention of the airplane. Also the quality of cameras and sensitive plates was not very good in the early days. For these reasons, aerial photography was applied to archaeology infrequently until after the World War.Military operations accelerated the development of airplanes. Cameras were designed especially for air use and the quality of lenses and plates was improved greatly. This resulted in a rapid growth of aerial photography. The applications of aerial photographs were limited almost entirely to military uses, including mapping. The post-war development followed similar lines. Aerial photography was found to be indispensable to military operations and all air forces devoted considerable attention to this specialty.
The Eastern Dispersal of Adena
Authors: Ritchie William A. , Dragoo Don W. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractIn the upper Ohio Valley, Adena mounds and their burials are less complex than, but essentially similar to, those of the major Adena centers of Ohio and Kentucky. Chronologically, they belong in the middle and late Adena periods. Two Adena sites much farther east have been found on Chesapeake Bay; they are closer in trait inventories and in radiocarbon dates to upper Ohio Valley sites than to Adena sites farther west. A reappraisal of evidence from the Northeast, particularly the Middlesex focus of New York, strongly suggests the movement of Adena people as far as the St. Lawrence River, although the proportion of Adena traits diminishes as distance from the Ohio Valley increases. Still another Adena dispersal, probably contemporaneous with this one, has previously been postulated to account for the Copena complex of Tennessee and Alabama. The cause of these rapid and far-reaching movements was probably the arrival or growth of Hopewell people in Illinois and Indiana and soon after in Ohio.
Dating the Ulua Polychrome Complex
Authors: Epstein Jeremiah F. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractDistinctive polychromes from the Ulua valley, northwestern Honduras, formerly dated from possibly Early Classic to the conquest, are restricted to Late Classic. Ulua wares have Late Classic associations at Copan and other sites. A newly demonstrated Early Classic occupation of the Ulua valley is not found at the major polychrome sites. Plumbate is not associated with the Ulua complex and in northeastern Honduras it first appears in the Cocal horizon overlying the Late Classic Selin horizon in which Ulua pottery occurs.
Ware Groupings and Decorations of Woodland Ceramics in Illinois
Authors: Fowler Melvin L. 
Published: April 2006

This Study deals primarily with the pottery from a series of 8 Middle Woodland village sites in the central Illinois River valley (Mason, Tazewell, Fulton, Peoria, and Marshall counties in Illinois, see Fig. 62). Comment regarding 3 other sites is also included. All of these sites but one are either directly associated with Hopewellian burial mounds or have Hopewellian pottery and other artifacts scattered throughout the debris. There are numerous other sites known with material similar to these sites, but they are not included here due to the small number of sherds in each of these sites (for example, F°77, Fv88, and others reported on by Cole and Deuel in 1937).The purpose of this particular study is twofold. First of all an attempt is being made in this report to present indications of changes through time and style preferences in a rather well-known culture. It is hoped that these indications will help us to understand the temporal position of the different sites and to build up a body of information that will allow better understanding of the various cultural forms, in this particular case, pottery.
An Archaeological Site in the High Sierra of California
Authors: Lathrap Donald W. , Shutler Dick 
Published: April 2006

Along the eastern side of the Great Valley of California is the Sierra Nevada, a great mountain chain 500 miles long and 75 wide. The Sierra Nevada has a gradual western slope and an abrupt eastern face fronting the arid Great Basin. The long western side, which contains the main timber belt, was heavily populated in its lower elevations in the pre-Caucasian period. In contrast, the High Sierra above 5000 feet was visited only seasonally by aboriginal groups. The archaeology of this latter zone is little known because it has been assumed that archaeological remains are scanty, and, as a consequence, little work has been carried on. Recent investigations have demonstrated, however, that at some of the seasonal campsites repeated occupation over a long period of time resulted in fairly extensive accumulations of occupational debris.During the late fall of 1953, exploratory excavations conducted at Vermilion Valley in the High Sierra of Fresno County provided evidence of an extended period of intermittent habitation at an aboriginal camping place.
Answer to “Plaster Under the Tower“
Authors: Godfrey William S. 
Published: April 2006

The criticisms from Pohl imply that he has refuted certain contentions which I have made concerning the Newport Tower. I have refrained from anything beyond comment on his various statements.1. Only three of the columns (N, NE, E) rest on circular stones. The stone on which the SE column rests is only partially circular, the missing portion being chinked out with smaller stones. The other four columns rest on “plinths” (see point 3 below) which are composed of many small stones (Means, 1942, and personal observation).2. The stones, and the column bases, are very close to 4’ in diameter, and probably were 4’ in diameter when the mortar coating which originally covered them was in place.3. Pohl's discussion of plinths is completely immaterial. The columns did not stand on plinths, but on drums 18” high, which are now buried in the soil with the exception of their top stones. We were able to identify the original floor level in 1949, and to determine that the original floor surface was gravel (Godfrey, 1950b, 1951). The drums were mortared and plastered (or whitewashed) down to this floor.
Ceramic Sequences in El Salvador
Authors: Haberland Wolfgang 
Published: April 2006

AbstractField trips in 1953-54 and 1958 and the checking of about 150 sites provide the background for these preliminary sequences. El Salvador is divided into three cultural regions. Western El Salvador is strongly linked with Guatemala and Mesoamerica while the eastern region is basically Central American. The central part of the country is heavily influenced by both of the other regions with the Mesoamerican component predominating. In the western sequence the Atiquizaya phase is connected with the Las Charcas or Providencia phases in the Guatemalan Highlands and the Cuyagualo phase with the Full Classic material at Copán. The latest complex in the western region, the Majahual phase, possibly flourished during the conquest period on the western shore. The central sequence begins with the Tovar complex about 700 B.C. and ends with the Cihuatan phase which demonstrates the Pipil domination of this region in later times. In eastern El Salvador, where archaeological knowledge begins with the footprints of La Rama at about 1500 B.C., several complexes with wares made in the Usulutan technique developed. The eastern sequence culminates in the Lower Lempa culture about A.D. 1000.
Quantitative Analysis of Shells from a Site in Goleta, California
Authors: Greenwood Roberta S. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis shell study was designed to test and perfect methods of quantitative analysis in addition to providing the usual identification of species. Experiments were performed to determine the optimum size of sample, dimension of screen, number of samples, and the practicability of rapid analysis in the field to guide the progress of excavation. Analysis of variance was used to measure up to five variables at once; differences were shown graphically with direction of change indicated by a least-squares regression line. The analysis of 69 excavation units revealed an overwhelming preference for mud-dwelling species which showed no change in horizontal distribu-give guidance to the excavation team. Used with dry-weight analysis, field sorting would also indicate areas of richer occupation debris in time for this information to be useful. The use of applied mathematics in midden analysis adds a precise tool to the archaeological inventory. The data compiled on screen size, sample size, horizontal and vertical distributions, and such, were subjected to the analysis of variance, and where significant difference was indicated, the statistics were fitted to a regression line by the least-squares method. By using standardized systems and quantitative analysis, the archaeologist may obtain convincing evidence to support his conclusions. These procedures would be equally applicable to the study of skeletal, artifactual, or other ecological remains, and would add authority to the theories derived from such analysis.
The Type-Variety Concept as a Basis for the Analysis of Maya Pottery
Authors: Smith Robert E. , Willey Gordon R. , Gifford James C. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe method being used to analyze pottery from Uaxactún and Barton Ramie by the application of the type-variety concept is offered as an analytical approach well suited to the classification of Maya ceramics. Types and varieties are seen as the best archaeological approximation of the ceramic abstractions which existed in the prehistoric cultural configuration. The systematic application of the type-variety concept will make it possible to establish analytical ceramic units which will be comparable throughout the Maya territory, to undertake detailed chronological and areal studies, especially in areas away from the ceremonial centers, and to use ceramics as a step toward cultural interpretation. Considerable attention is given to the procedure of analysis and to the problem of naming the resulting analytical ceramic units. The most desirable nomenclature is illustrated by Aguacate Orange [type]: Holha Variety. Place names have been used for the primary type term and for the variety name, but a descriptive term is used for the second part of the type name. The desirability of keeping the variety flexible and free of bias or prejudice stemming from the nomenclature is stressed. The variety is the smallest meaningful unit of classification in the type-variety method. Sorting, naming, and tabulating begin with varieties which, in turn, lead to the recognition, naming and description of types.