bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cyclic Steaming in Heavy Oil Diatomite
Authors: Kumar M. , Beatty F. D. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Chevron currently uses cyclic steaming as a recovery method to produce economically its heavy oil diatomite resource in the Cymric field, San Joaquin Valley, California. A highly instrumented, cyclically steaming well from this field was simulated in this study to delineate important production mechanisms, to optimize operations, and to improve reser­ voir management. The model was constrained, as much as possible, by the available measured data.
Results show that fluid flow from the well to the reservoir is primarily through the hydraulic fracture induced by the in­ jected steam. Parameters with unique importance to model­ modeling cyclic steaming in diatomites are: ( 1) induced fracture dimension (length and height), (2) matrix permeability, (3) oil/water capillary pressure, (4) grid size perpendicular to fracture face, and (5)producing bottomhole pressures. Additionally, parameters important for conventional steam injection processes, such as relative permeabilities and injected steam volume, quality, and rate, are important for diatomites also. Oil production rates and steam/oil ratios calculated by this model compare reasonably with field data.
Subsidence and Well Failure in the South Belridge Diatomite Field
Authors: De Rouffignac E. P. , Bondor P. L. , Karanikas J. M. , Hara S. K. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Withdrawal of fluids from shallow, thick and low strength rock can cause substantial reservoir compaction leading to surface subsidence and well failure. This is the case for the Diatomite reservoir, where over 10 ft of subsidence have occurred in some areas. Well failure rates have averaged over 3% per year, resulting in several million dollars per year in well replacement and repair costs in the South Belridge Diatomite alone. A program has been underway to address this issue, including experimental, modeling and field monitoring work. An updated elastoplastic rock law based on laboratory data has been generated which includes not only standard shear failure mechanisms but also irreversible pore collapse occurring at low effective stresses (&lt; 150 psi). This law was incorporated into a commercial finite element geomechanics simulator. Since the late 1980s, a network of level survey monuments has been used to monitor subsidence at Belridge. Model predictions of subsidence in Section 33 compare very well with field measured data, which show that water injection reduces subsidence from 7-8 inches per year to 1-2 inches per year, but does not abate well failure.
The model has been used to infer potential well failure mechanisms resulting from fluid withdrawal policies and to estimate the impact of alternative operating policies for a 5/8-acre waterflood project; results show that aggressive operation of a newly completed producer can potentially damage a nearby well and that 1/1 producer/injector ratio results in significantly less subsidence and lower shear strains than a 3/1 ratio.
Improving Production in Steamed Wells With a Ring Seal Packer
Authors: Speirs A. B. , Webster K. D. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The Ring Seal Packer (RSP) is a newly patented1 tool used to help isolate depleted zones from producing well bores in thermally enhanced reservoirs. This paper presents the design of the RSP, deployment methods, and successful field production results.
An Overview of McKittrick Coiled Tubing Drilling Project
Authors: Ewert D. P. , Ramagno R. A. , Hurkmans R. S. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
In an effort to reduce drilling costs on thermal wells, service companies began reducing casing sizes and well pad location sizes in 1993. Based on a successful four- well pilot project completed in early 1994 at the Belridge Field, a 115-well steam injector project was completed in the McKittrick Field in late 1994, of which 68 wells were drilled with coiled tubing.
This paper will discuss why slimhole completions and coiled tubing drilling were selected for this project, the operational aspects of drilling 68 wells in 92 working days, and conclusions about the project.
Reservoir Simulation Improves Implementation of Midway Sunset Steamflood
Authors: Ellison T. K. , Clayton C. A. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Thermal reservoir simulation was utilized to understand, make development recommendations, and project the performance of the Monarch C steamflood in a portion of Mobil’s South Midway Sunset field. The Monarch, a thick sequence of complex turbidite deposition, is characterized by extreme geological heterogeneity (lithofacies-controlled permeability and saturation variation, and mudstone barrier layers). Steamflood performance in the Monarch is related directly to the reservoir quality, and the path of steam flow is significantly influenced by the numerous laterally extensive mudstone barriers. The fine grain clay-bearing sediments were deposited on the anticline, distal from the source, whereas the coarser grain sediments, with little clay, were deposited on the more proximal syncline and steep dip areas. Consequently, steamflood performance improves relative to the crest since reservoir quality improves (including oil saturation), clay content decreases, and structure (dip) becomes more pronounced.
The simulation models were constructed to capture the heterogeneity. Two models were constructed, a single pattern model for a pattern with good performance, and a multi-pattern strip model that linked patterns of good performance with poorly performing patterns on the crest of the structure. Simulation results indicated the initial completion strategy, that ignored the mudstone barriers, often resulted in misalignment between injector and producer completions that severely limited performance. A complete overhaul of the well completions was required to improve die steamflood. Subsequent to the simulation work, the steamflood was re-engineered, based on intensive pattem-by-pattem and well-by-well reviews, to include producer recompletions and limited entry steam injectors. Steamflood performance improved following the redesign.
New Models for Natural and Hydraulic Fracturing of Heterogeneous Rock
Authors: Sahimi Muhammad 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
The development of fracture networks in heterogeneous rock during natural or hydraulic fracturing is studied using discrete network models of rock and Monte Carlo simulations. The models produce complex fractal networks of interconnected fractures whose structures depend on the spatial distribution of the heterogeneities of the rock. The resulting fracture patterns and their properties are shown to be in agreement with those of field-scale porous media. Thus, given the distribution of the heterogeneities of rock, one can simulate its fracturing process, and obtain an accurate map of its fracture network.
The Role of Latent Heat in Heat Management of Mature Steamfloods
Authors: Kimber K. D. , Emerson G. G. , Luce T. H. , Deemer A. R. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Proper heat management practices are critical to the economic success of many heavy oil steam floods. In relatively thick reservoirs such as those found in Kern River Field, California, strong steam override and gravity drainage of heated oil and water typify the after steam breakthrough stage of oil production. At this stage, many steam flood operators minimize operating costs by injecting only enough energy to maintain the growth of the steam chest and sustain the gravity drainage process. Injection rates and/or injected steam quality can be reduced to meet these reduced energy requirements. The form of the energy (i.e., steam vapor or hot water) dictates the efficiency by which oil is heated as well as the effectiveness of various mechanisms responsible for its production.
The economic value of various heat delivery strategies for mature steam floods was investigated. Recommendations are given as to whether the total heat or the latent heat injected is the controlling factor in meeting the minimum energy to be delivered for economically optimal oil recovery from mature steam floods. The contribution of sensible heat on oil recovery and its impact on the economics of mature steam floods is also discussed.
Kern River Revisited: Life After Steam Flood
Authors: Jones Jeff , McWilliams Michael , Sturm David 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Santa Fe Energy Resources operated a fully developed, 2-1/2 acre, inverted 5-spot steam flood in the Kern River field in the lower Kern River series sand from1980 through 1986. Original reservoir depletion plans envisioned sequentially flooding shallower sand packages, however plans to redeploy the steamflood in the next interval have been postponed due to weak oil price. Since 1989, Santa Fe has been in an intensive cyclic steam development program including innovative facilities configurations and well work. The result is production equal to the peak rates observed during the steam flood with lower lifting costs.
Biological Treatment of Drilling Waste
Authors: PERIE F. H. , SERIS J. L. , MARTIGNON A. P. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Off shore operators are now faced with more stringent forthcoming regulations regarding waste discharge. Several aspects are to be taken into account when considering waste disposal in the sea; among them, the total amount of COD and the toxicity. While, in many regards, the problem caused by the processing fluids toxicity has been addressed, the elimination of residual COD from the waste is yet to be solved. Biodegradation of drilling waste is one of the major routes taken by third party contracters to address the reduction of COD in sea-discharged cuttings.
This report describes a technique specifically developed to enhance drilling waste biodegradation under selected conditions. The suggested treatment involved biological catalysts used in conjonction with or prior to the biodegradation. We demonstrated that the considered environment-compatible substitute for oil-based mud could be more efficently biodegraded if an enzymatic pretreatment was carried out prior to or during the actual biodegradation. The biodegradation rate, expressed as CO2 evolvement, was significantly higher in lipase-treated cultures. In addition, we demonstrated that this treatment was applicable to substrates in emulsion, suspension, or adsorbed on solid.
Proactive Participation in the Education Process
Authors: Ordway H. E. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Education of the younger generation as to the importance of energy and its recovery methods is essential to foster an informed public. Additionally, these educational programs help to generate interest in careers in scientific fields. The younger generation is the technical resource of the future energy business.
A quality approach to educating school children ages 5 through 12 about the everyday efforts people make to produce oil and natural gas in concert with the environment has been developed and evolved over the past years. The school presentation while designed for children includes discussions of environmental risk analysis as well as production and exploration techniques. The teaching aides include colorful graphics and an "environmentally aware" kit fox character named "Pockets", as well as local field examples and hands-on experiences. The program is most successful when developed for the regional geographic setting allowing children to relate to the examples, however, the teaching techniques developed through the experience can be adapted throughout the industry.
We've Got the Laws-What about the Communication?
Authors: Mollock G. N. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Each month, governmental and industry publications discuss proposed and newly enacted environmental legislation. At first glance, the most difficult aspects of new environmental regulations are to understand and implement the requirements. In reality, these are secondary, compared to assuring that our field employees "buy in" to the requirements. Experience has proven to me that our responsibility as environmental managers includes, not only understanding the requirements, but "selling" them to our field employees. That means explaining the rationale for the law and ultimately asking our field employees for the best way to implement performance related requirements. Our field employees have the "hands on" experience to solve problems using the wisdom gained from years of field work. Once they are involved in the process, accountability for the results demanded by government is more easily achieved. Here is an example of what I mean.
Texas Railroad Commission Rule 91 requires cleanup to 1% TPH within one year of an oil spill. Prior to Rule 91 becoming law, we explained the proposed requirements and their rationale to our Texas field employees. They assisted us with our comments on the proposal. When Rule 91 was enacted in November 1993, our field employees were already aware of the requirements and enthusiastic about trying various amendments to remediate oil spills. In other words, we had involved the people most closely affected by the law, in the legislative process.
Not all field employees have bought into this process, but more and more are coming on board every day. At times, we may become frustrated with the process, but the results are well worth the effort.
Economic Impact of Potential NORM Regulations
Authors: Smith G. E. , Fitzgibbon Timothy , Karp Steven 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Oil and gas field wastes and sites contaminated with naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) have quickly become a focus of substantial attention by regulators both at the state and federal level. Although currently regulated in a number of states, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has indicated a desire to develop federal regulations to address management and disposal of NORM-contaminated wastes.
This paper provides a brief overview of current state NORM regulations, currently available technologies for managing and disposing NORM wastes, and the cost of employing these techniques. Based on these characterizations and alternative assumptions about the volume of NORM wastes, four alternative scenarios have been developed to bracket potential future NORM requirements. These scenarios have been used as the basis for an analysis of the potential economic and supply impacts of NORM requirements on the U.S. oil and gas industry.
The results illustrate that a reasonable approach to regulation that focuses only on those NORM wastes that pose a risk and allows producers to use safe, low cost disposal methods (downhole or other) would have minimal economic impacts on the oil and gas industry. A very stringent regulatory approach that covered large volumes of wastes, required the use of higher cost disposal techniques, and required extensive site clean-up activities could have a substantial economic impact, resulting in a loss of up to 20 percent of U.S. oil production and 8 percent of U.S. gas production by 2000. The costs of compliance with these alternative approaches could range from $71 million to over $14 billion annually. Between these two cases lies the opportunity for regulators to develop requirements for management and disposal of NORM wastes that will address any environmental and human health risks posed at industry sites without imposing unnecessarily costly regulations on the U.S. oil and gas E&P industry.
Radiological Dose Assessment Related to Management of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials Generated by the Petroleum Industry
Authors: Smith K. P. , Blunt D. L. , Williams G. P. , Tebes C. L. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
A preliminary radiological dose assessment related to equipment decontamination, subsurface disposal, landspreading, equipment smelting, and equipment burial was conducted to address concerns regarding the presence of naturally occurring radioactive materials in production waste streams. The assessment evaluated the relative dose of these activities and included a sensitivity analysis of certain input parameters. Future studies and potential policy actions are recommended.
Oil & Gas Exploration and Production Waste – RCRA Exemptions and Non-exempts
Authors: Dutta S. , Alam W. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Petroleum industry generates substantial amounts of wastes that is related to exploration, drilling, production, and development activities. Management of these wastes is essential to ensure protection of human health and the environment and also to comply with the regulations that govern them. These regulation were based mainly upon a study done by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) on the impact of these wastes on environment while considering the economic impact of subjecting these wastes to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), Subtitle C regulations.
Based on this study, exemption is granted to petroleum wastes that results from exploration, drilling, production, and development activities. Under this exemption petroleum wastes are not considered hazardous wastes. To address the diverse environmental and programmatic issues posed by these petroleum wastes, EPA has taken a three-pronged approach: (1) Improving Federal programs under authorities in Subtitle D of RCRA, the Clean Water Act (CWA), and the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA); (2) Working with States to encourage changes in their regulations and enforcement to improve some programs; and (3) Working with congress to develop any additional statutory authorities that may be required. Confusion about the exempt and non-exempt status of wastes from the exploration and production (E & P) activities in the petroleum industry seem to be quite prevalent, especially in light of the State and local requirements being different in many cases. This paper is an attempt to clarify the exempt and non-exempt status of wastes and to provide a clear understanding of the regulations that the industry must abide by in order to comply with both State and Federal requirements. Acceptable methods of waste handling and management are also discussed in this paper which should help the industry in pollution prevention and resource conservation aspect of waste management.
Removal and Treatment of Mercury Contamination at Gas Processing Facilities
Authors: Wilhelm S. Mark , McArthur Alan 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Processing of gas containing mercury invariably leads to contamination of equipment and can generate waste in the form of sludge and spent adsorbent materials. Occasional accidents can also lead to soil contamination. This paper reviews mercury contamination in the gas processing industry and discusses newly developed methods for clean-up and disposal of mercury waste.
Research and development (sponsored by the Gas Research Institute) have produced new technology for mercury removal from complex matrices. Equipment decontamination is accomplished using chemical cleaning solutions that selectively oxidize and complex elemental mercury deposits. These cleaning formulations include aqueous base solutions containing iodine as the complexing agent and organic (alcohol) base solutions using complexing agents.
Soil, sludge, and debris must be thermally processed to remove (recycle) mercury. Thermal systems use vacuum, inert gas, or air as the carrier medium. If air is used, sulfur In the matrix Is converted to SO2 and hydrocarbons are oxidized as well, depending upon design. Anaerobic thermal systems employ selective condensation and/or adsorption to separate sulfur and hydrocarbons from mercury. Spent adsorbent materials are also thermally processed using strictly anaerobic conditions to avoid exothermal reactions involving carbon.
The regulatory climate relative to mercury is changing rapidly. Regulations covering treated debris and soils may require total mercury concentrations of less than 2 mg/kg for burial. Total mercury analysis rather than leaching procedure (TCLP) is becoming the norm in regulations and specifications. Sampling and analysis procedures for contaminated surfaces are under development.
Reducing Costs with a Corporate Waste Management Team
Authors: Redweik R. J. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
In an attempt to minimize cost and potential future liability associated with hazardous waste disposal, a corporate Waste Site Management Team was established to review and approve all hazardous waste sites used by the corporation. Due to the ever changing legal and regulatory climate, the focus of the Team has evolved and broadened during the past decade. With a new name in 1993, the Waste Management Team expanded its focus to cover the management of all wastes being generated. Although the Team is still responsible for the review and approval of hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal (TSD) facilities, the focus is broadening to nonhazardous waste sites and recycling facilities. The mission of the Team is now to identify and maintain reliable waste management options, assist in the review and assessment of waste management alternatives that include source reduction and recycling, facilitate cross-functional cooperation between the Shell companies and divisions, and reduce the total cost of waste management for the corporation. A major source of cost savings has resulted from membership in an auditing cooperative and revisions to the site inspection frequency.
Health Risk Assessment for Radium Discharged Offshore in Produced Water
Authors: Meinhold A. F. , Holtzman S. , Hamilton L. D. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
This paper reports on a probabilistic risk assessment of estimated incremental individual lifetime fatal cancer risks to recreational fishermen from radium in produced water discharged by offshore oil production platforms. A direct approach used limited measurements of radium concentrations in fishes caught near three shallow offshore platforms. A predictive modeling approach estimated the range of radium concentrations in fishes caught near deeper platforms. Estimated risks were described as probability distributions. Median predicted risks associated with shallow offshore platforms, representing worst-case conditions, were always less than 1 × l0−5. Median risks for platforms in deeper water were always less than 3 × 10−7.