bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
3 Measures of Food Insecurity at the Household Level
Authors: Dutta Indranil , Gundersen Craig 
Published: May 2008

AbstractFood insecurity and hunger have traditionally been measured by aggregate food supplies or by variables correlated with food insecurity. Because these measures often poorly reflect individuals' true deprivation, economists have turned to surveys with direct questions about food insecurity. This chapter proposes food insecurity measures — along the lines of the well established poverty measures — which allow us to reflect on the depth and severity, in addition to the incidence of food insecurity. Along with giving a richer picture of food insecurity in the US, these measures demonstrate that the ordering of various demographic categories differs depends on the choice of measure.
7 Food Security in Vietnam During the 1990s: The Empirical Evidence
Authors: Molini Vasco 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter finds that food security in Vietnam showed improvements that were concentrated among the richer households, although there was some improvement among the poorer strata as well. It focuses on the calorie/expenditure elasticity and compares results for the years 1993 and 1998. It shows that this link is strong and that calorie income elasticity changed in the expected direction. In general, food security improved in Vietnam during 1990s although considerable differences still remain among expenditure deciles and among regions due to the accentuated spatial difference.
Introduction
Authors: Livanios Dimitris 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter serves as an introduction to the Macedonian Question from the 1870s to the 1930s. It consists of three sections: the first section discusses the ‘national identity’ of the peasants in Ottoman Macedonia, and argues that they did not have a clear-cut national identity as they were still locked into pre-modern, and mainly religious, forms of belonging. The second section offers a narrative of the main political events in the region, and covers the emergence and role of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation (IMRO) as well as political developments in Greece, Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria with relation to Macedonia. The third section investigates the policy of the Balkan communist movement towards Macedonia, and shows that the Communists were no less divided over the issue than their respective governments.
The Difficult Withdrawal: Britain and the Bulgarian Army in Yugoslav and Greek Macedonia, September–December 1944
Authors: Livanios Dimitris 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
After the Fatherland Front came to power in Bulgaria following the coup of 9th September 1944, the Bulgarian army in Greek and Yugoslav Macedonia was metamorphosed overnight from an occupying force into an allied one. This chapter focuses on the role of the Bulgarian army in these areas (both before and after the 9th of September) and investigates Britain's intense efforts to secure their early withdrawal against Bulgarian temporizing tactics (in Greek Macedonia) and Russian plans for the use of the Bulgarian army (in Yugoslav Macedonia). The fact that the Bulgarians eventually withdrew their forces from Greece but not from Yugoslavia demonstrated Russia's intention to honour only the Greek component of the ‘Percentages Agreement’ of October, 1944.
Between Centralism and Separatism: The Emergence of the Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, 1944–1948
Authors: Livanios Dimitris 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
The single most important feature of the Macedonian Question in the 1940s was the emergence in Tito's Yugoslavia of Macedonia as a federal unit. This chapter aims at offering a new perspective on this subject with the use of British sources. After an analysis of the political and national problems and challenges that the Yugoslav republic of Macedonia faced — including the battle between centralism (imposed by Belgrade) and separatism (emanating from political forces within Macedonia) — the chapter explores the function of the Macedonian national ideology. It is argued that the main purpose of that ideology (and the principal reason behind its acceptance by the local population) was to serve as a legitimate vehicle for anti-Serbianism, which was the only sentiment shared by the overwhelming majority of the Macedonians.
Britain and the Macedonian Question, 1945–1949
Authors: Livanios Dimitris 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
The first post-war years witnessed the rapid consolidation of the Cold War camps in the Balkans, and further Yugoslav attempts to absorb Bulgarian Macedonia and bring about a Bulgar-Yugoslav federation. For the British, whose main interest in the region remained the protection of Greece from her communist neighbours, these were ominous signs. This chapter covers British views of the new shape of Bulgar-Yugoslav relations, their assessments of the Bled Agreement — concluded between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia in 1947 — and the impact of the Tito-Stalin split. It argues that although Britain's ability to intervene had diminished, her determination to protect Greece (and to rally the United States to the cause) had not.
Reference and Reasons
Authors: Peacocke Christopher 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter examines the link between reference and reasons. It argues that if the hypothesis linking reference and reasons is correct, the norms distinctive of a particular concept cannot be elucidated solely at the level of sense independently of considerations at the level of reference. The hypothesis also bears upon what is thought to be a rivalry between use theories of content and meaning on the one hand, and truth-conditional theories on the other. A full defence of the main thesis needs to contain both a positive part and a negative part. The chapter focuses just on the positive part of the task, and simply acknowledges that the negative part must be carried out too.
Representing Thoughts
Authors: Peacocke Christopher 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThe ability to think about Thoughts was presupposed in the discussions of self-ascription and in the discussion of other-ascriptions of actions, judgements, and other events and states with conceptual intentional content. In making such self- and other-ascriptions, a thinker is engaged in thinking about Thoughts. This chapter offers some elucidation of this capacity, and proposes a solution to a puzzle about the classical Fregean hierarchy of the senses. It argues that a good elucidation of this capacity puts us in a position to answer the doubts, still present in some distinguished contemporary writers, about the reconcilability of privileged self-knowledge with externalism about intentional content.
The Nature of Normativity
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis book presents a complete theory about the nature of normative thought, that is, the sort of thought that is concerned with what ought to be the case, or what we ought to do or think. This theory implies a kind of metanormative realism, according to which normative truths or facts are genuinely part of reality. At the same time, the theory aims to provide a substantive account of the nature of these normative facts, and a substantive explanation of how it is possible for us to know these facts and to refer to them in language or thought. In providing these explanations, the theory relies on a version of the idea (which has been much discussed in recent work in the philosophy of mind) of the normativity of the intentional. This is the idea that there is no way to explain the nature of the various sorts of mental states that have intentionality or representational content (such as beliefs, judgments, desires, decisions, and so on) without stating normative facts. This idea provides the basis for a systematic theory that deals with the following three areas: the semantics of normative statements (which investigates the meaning of statements about what ought to be); the metaphysics of normative facts (about the nature of the facts stated by these statements); and the epistemology of normative belief (about what justifies us in holding beliefs that these statements express).
The Status of Normative Intuitions
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: May 2008

AbstractPart III of the book is devoted to epistemological issues. If there are objective normative truths, then how could we ever know them? How could we even have any rational or justified beliefs in normative propositions? This chapter argues that the idea that the ‘intentional is normative’ supports a new solution to these epistemological problems: it allows us to give a new account of where a thinker's so-called ‘normative intuitions’ come from, and why (and under what conditions) it is rational for the thinker to trust them. It is argued that this account is preferable both to the rival versions of intuitionism about normative beliefs, and to those epistemological accounts that are incompatible with intuitionism.
Conclusion
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis concluding chapter gives a final overview of the whole theory that has been outlined in the previous chapters, by outlining the theory's implications for various other branches of philosophy. Specifically, it outlines the theory's implications for the following four branches of philosophy: (i) the philosophy of mind and language; (ii) the theory of rational belief and rational decision; (iii) first-order normative ethical theory; and (iv) the philosophy of religion.
3 Christology in Coptic Pilgrimage and the Cult of the Saints
Authors: Davis Stephen J. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Christian pilgrimage can be described as a set of practices oriented towards the Incarnation as an accessible event that — when imaginatively and physically claimed by imitation or re-enactment — helps facilitate for the participant a proleptic transformation in status from the earthly to the heavenly. In this way, pilgrimage, as a form of ritual, reaffirms the differences or boundaries between the sacred and the profane (the divine and the human), while at the same time allowing these boundaries ‘for a few careful minutes’ to break down. Re-enactments of the Incarnation took place in various locales, and in the process, not only the participants, but also the places themselves became sacralized; bodies and territory transformed into ritual sites where the earthly and heavenly came into creative contact. This chapter highlights how the late antique and early medieval landscape of Upper Egypt served as a setting for ritual re-enactment in Christian pilgrimage practice.
5 Incarnation and Christian–Muslim Apologetics in the Tenth‐Century Writings of Sāwīrus ibn al‐Muqaffaʿ
Authors: Davis Stephen J. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter traces key developments in Copto-Arabic Christology and Christopraxis from the 10th to the 13th century, beginning with the so-called ‘father’ of Copto-Arabic literature, Sāwīrus ibn al-Muqaffa. Topics covered include the emergence of a Copto-Arabic theological tradition; the textual and historical construction of a Copto-Arabic Christological Canon; Sāwīrus ibn al-Muqaffa's addressing of authority and identity in relation to his contemporary medieval context; and biblical, sacramental-liturgical, and social dimensions of Christological mimesis.
6 From Alexandria to Cairo: The Medieval Golden Age of Copto–Arabic Christology
Authors: Davis Stephen J. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter traces key developments in Copto-Arabic Christology and Christopraxis from the 10th to the 13th century. The Christology of Būlus Al-Bushī, and Christology of Awlād Al-AssālBulus Al-Bushi Awlad Al-Assal are discussed.
On Self‐Defence and Utilitarian Calculations: Democritus of Abdera and Hermarchus of Mytilene
Authors: Osborne Catherine 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter looks at the idea that some beasts threaten human well being, while others are conducive towards it. The views of Hermarchus on the need to wage war on the undesirable creatures, and to protect those that are useful are examined, along with his and other ancient attempts to analyse morality as based on rules drawn up on anthropocentric utilitarian lines. This utilitarian account of morality is compared with that of Socrates to indicate why Socrates' claim that it is beneficial to the agent to act morally well is not a utilitarian account, because for Socrates the benefit is explained by the moral goodness, whereas for the Utilitarian the moral goodness is explained by the benefit.
Military Educations
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter argues that even during its pre-war days, England was far better prepared to embark on a war than either contemporary studies have suggested. This pre-war preparation was of two kinds: the first was literary and intellectual, the second practical and professional. The literature of war and pre-war military education and training for Englishmen in the early 17th century are discussed.
Reciprocity, Negotiation, and Surrender
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter focuses on negotiation and surrender at the end of the siege of Colchester. It argues that the treatment of prisoners, methods of negotiation, and conceptions of honour retained their traditional character despite the strains the siege placed on conventional observance, and despite the animosities that had replaced the civilities of Boarstall. However, when the siege ended, a new severity seemed to threaten the bonds not only of civility but also of honour and professionalism that had hitherto moderated relations between enemies.
Colchester: The Aftermath
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the aftermath of the siege of Colchester. Parliament's victory at Colchester did not lead to immediate relaxation and reconstruction. To most parliamentarians, danger and instability still threatened; to some royalists, resistance and new ventures still beckoned. For the civilians of Colchester there was no happy return to their normal lives in the spring of 1648, while the thousands of prisoners, joining other prisoners of the second war, faced uncertain and varied futures.
IV ‘City is history incarnate’: writing the past of thepolis
Authors: Clarke Katherine 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the fragments of Greek city-histories. It explores the relationship between ‘great’ historiography and local historiography, before examining how the configuration of time can contribute to these discussions, not least through the use of local and Panhellenic chronological systems. Although much attention has focused on Athens — partly because of the survival of evidence and the existence of Jacoby's Atthis, which has been fundamental in the study of local historiography — by considering the fragments of local histories from elsewhere in the Greek world, it is possible to see Atthidography as being typical of the attempts of many cities to formulate and present their pasts. On the other hand, the extant fragments of historiography from Attica and Sicily do have a different quality from those concerning other parts of the Greek world, and their status as bridges between local and universal is considered.
Persuasion and plausibility: history and rhetoric in thepolis
Authors: Clarke Katherine 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter focuses on a different form of evidence for the creation of the Athenian past, namely its public oratory. Through the public speeches of Demosthenes, Aeschines, and Isocrates, as well as of fragmentary texts, it examines the parameters of plausibility within which the orator was free to construct history, both buying into a commonly shared past and moulding that past for his audience. It considers whether orators favoured particular exemplary moments in history and, if so, whether these were the same as those which were dominant in local historiography. The orator, like the historian or the dramatist, played a vital role in helping the polis to formulate a past which was relevant to the present through its inclusion both of exemplary figures and events and of characteristics, which remained constant across time.
3 On the Explanation of Typologically Unusual Structures
Authors: Harris Alice C. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter argues that languages are ‘bundles of historical accidents’. It further argues that unusual or rare features are unusual or rare because they are the accidental result of many different circumstances or conditions that have been lined up in just the right way. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 3.2 discusses the structure of the argument and compares the explanation with other general approaches. Sections 3.3 and 3.4 describe a very rare structure in Georgian and in Udi, respectively, and show that each may be explained by the approach adopted here. Section 3.5 discusses the Uniformitarian Principle in this context, and Section 3.6 presents some conclusions.
8 Creating Economical Morphosyntactic Patterns in Language Change
Authors: Haspelmath Martin 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter presents five main points. First is that a very large number of morphosyntactic implicational universals can be explained by invoking economic motivation: more frequently used expressions are shorter than semantically similar, but more rarely used expressions, because they are more predictable. Second, all universal morphosyntactic asymmetries are economically motivated. Third, economical patterns are created by speakers in language use, and when innovative patterns spread through the community, they are manifested in the results of language change. Fourth, there are at least three different diachronic paths through which economical patterns arise: differential phonological reduction, differential expansion of a new construction, and selective analogical change. Fifth, one obvious possible diachronic path does not seem to be well attested: differential morphosyntactic reduction. However, this generalization is problematic, because morphosyntactic reduction is not easy to differentiate from phonological reduction, and counter-examples have been noted.
9 On the Explanatory Value of Grammaticalization
Authors: Kuteva Tania , Heine Bernd 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter shows that grammaticalization theory can explain not only the regular patterns, the non-exceptions, but also the exceptions. For both of these, it is not only language-internal grammaticalization but also contact-induced grammaticalization that is important. It discusses two situations relating to the area of definiteness marking in European languages. Employing the theoretical apparatus of a so-called integrative grammaticalization theory — that is, a theory of grammaticalization taking into account both contact-related and non-contact-related situations — an explanation of these seeming ‘exceptions’ is proposed in terms of (i) a diachronic overlap stage in the course of language-internal grammaticalization and (ii) both a diachronic overlap stage and a synchronic Buffer Zone in the case of contact induced grammaticalization. In the latter case, the two explanations reinforce each other, and are fully in accordance with the insight gained from the study of areal grammaticalization: contact-induced grammaticalization simultaneously implies both external and internal language change.
Post-release movement of propagules
Authors: Cousens Roger , Dytham Calvin , Law Richard 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter discusses the main types of dispersal vector, the characteristics of their behaviour relevant to dispersal, their effects on the trajectory of single propagules, and the final distances moved under their influence. The development of models to predict the trajectories of individual propagules in air and water is reviewed: the key to success has been the development of a mechanistic understanding of the behaviour of the dispersal vector. This is contrasted with models of movement by animals, which are based largely on descriptive data from tracked animals. Approaches for achieving more mechanistic models of animal dispersal are discussed.
9 The International Mobility of Cultural Talent
Authors: Addison Tony 
Published: May 2008

AbstractArtists, musicians, and writers have always been great travellers. Today, their talent circulates in new ways, and takes new forms, as the creative industries expand globally in a marriage of media technology and the traditional arts. The growing international market for cultural talent can do much to help countries diversify their economies, and improve quality of life more broadly. The creative industries are subject to strong clustering effects, with talent moving swiftly to the most vibrant clusters, not always to the advantage of the poorer countries which can lose talent to the richer world. Countries that protect intellectual property rights, educate and train their talent, and maintain politically open and liberal societies will have a head start in the global creative economy.
2 Legitimacy: The Caliphate and the State
Authors: Black Antony 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
In Europe, separate states acquired legitimacy; in Islam the universal caliphate and 'umma retained the fullest respect. Muslim philosophers, not unlike Augustine and Hobbes, derived the need for the Shari'a and caliph from the strife-prone nature of humans. Some Western thinkers adopted the view of Cicero (and later of Locke) that human society and the state develop by consensus. Marsilius of Padua's theory of the state in some ways resembled the Muslim theory of the caliphate; he was probably influenced by Ibn Rushd, but Marsilius was without influence. Muslims, drawing on Iranian monarchical theory, saw the ruler's responsibilities as extending to the social and economic infrastructure. Europeans saw the state, Muslims the caliphate, as impersonal offices.
4 Regimes: Europe, Islam, and Byzantium
Authors: Black Antony 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
The ideology of sacred monarchy prevailed in all three cultures, absolutism in Byzantium and Islam. Monarchs had a duty to rule justly, which in Islam meant according to the Shari'a. European views of justice derived partly from Roman law and Stoicism. In all three, justice included ruling according to the laws. Constitutionalism developed partly out of the separation of roles between rulers and clergy or 'ulama. The Sunni caliph and Byzantine emperor were, in theory, appointed by election. Both caliph and king were tied to their subjects by oath, but only in Europe were legal restraints made specific and formal. Islamic jurists preferred, on prudential grounds, non-resistance. In Europe, the king's power was balanced by parliaments claiming to represent the whole kingdom. There was no corporate representation in Byzantium or Islam. In Europe, city republics were ruled by elected officials.
6 Approaches to Political Thought
Authors: Black Antony 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Despite their shared Abrahamic and Platonic legacies, Europe and Islam developed markedly different approaches to theology, philosophy, and political theory. Muslim philosophers used Plato and Aristotle to provide a rational understanding of the caliphate and the Shari'a. Even this attempt at rationalism did not take root. Muslim political thought became dominated by the ‘consensus’ established, solely on the basis of revealed texts, by orthodox jurists. Reason was a supreme value but it did not mean open-ended enquiry. Problems were to be solved by a more thorough application of religious norms. Philosophy, seen as a means of better understanding revealed truths, revived in Europe from the 12th century and developed continuously. Western thinkers developed a distinction between faith and reason. They saw Cicero and Aristotle as complementing scripture. This eventually made possible non-religious theories of the state and its constitution.