bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hilbert's Programme
Authors: Potter Michael 
Published: May 2007

AbstractBy the time Hilbert's first series of published research on the foundations of mathematics came to an end around 1904, he had formulated but not solved the problem of finding — for a formal system of arithmetic such as that supplied by Peano — proof of consistency not reliant on the construction of a model. Even if he succeeded in obtaining such a non-semantic proof, there would remain two substantial objections to placing any philosophical significance on the result. First is Frege's objection that the consistency of a list of axioms does not in itself ensure the existence of anything satisfying them. Second is Poincaré's objection that the proof of consistency must make use of the principle of mathematical induction, and is therefore inherently circular. This chapter studies how Hilbert maintained the centrality to his project of finding a consistency proof for arithmetic while adopting a sort of formalism that transformed the significance of such a proof so as to address these two objections.
Conclusion
Authors: Potter Michael 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis concluding chapter summarizes the discussion in the preceding chapters. The book sought an answer to the question: can we give an account of arithmetic which does not make it depend for its truth on the way the world is? And if so, what constrains the world to conform to arithmetic? All the accounts we have considered have turned out to be flawed. But what is striking is how often an account was rejected not for philosophical reasons but for technical ones. It is shown that since the problem of arithmetic participates in the larger puzzle of the relationship between thought, language, experience, and the world, we can distinguish accounts that look to each of these to supply the content we require.
The Emotions As Value Judgements In Chrysippus
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractChrysippus (Stoic, 3rd century BCE) gives an intellectualist account of emotions: they are value judgements stating that the situation is good or bad, and that it is appropriate to react accordingly. In appetite and fear, pursuit and avoidance, in pleasure and distress, a felt expansion or sinking (contraction) of soul are judged appropriate. All other emotions fall under these four generic emotions. Shocks to soul (e.g., expansion and sinking) and to body are not part of the emotion, but only necessary accompaniments. The judgements are not involuntary appearances, but voluntary assents to how things appear. Most should be reconsidered, as mistaken, assent withheld, and the emotion thus eradicated. This leaves motivation intact, since we can keep both good emotions which involve no mistake (eupatheiai), and unemotional judgements (eklogai) about what is natural and preferable, though it falls short of being good. Preferable things can be desired ‘with reservation’.
The Arts
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractAccording to Seneca, the arts, including tragedy and music, can only produce first movements. So Aristotle's claim that tragedy and comedy produce catharsis by arousing emotion is wrong, as is Posidonius' belief in wordless music changing emotion without changing judgements. But, pace Seneca, there is a residue of cases of genuine emotion about the content of the play or about the melody, and a better defence of Stoicism in these cases would be that the relevant judgements are there. But when wordless music changes emotion, Posidonius prefers to say that the emotion is non-judgemental; Philodemus, his Epicurean contemporary, says that the emotion persists and one is merely distracted. The debate involved Pythagoreans, the Stoics Zeno and Diogenes of Babylon, and later Augustine.
The Concept Of Will
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe term ‘free will’ appears first in Lucretius' Latin, but will plays little role in accounts of freedom until Augustine, and that innovation was not clarifying. The concept of will was composed by Augustine out of elements that had flourished better in pagan philosophy when separate. ‘Will’ translates Greek boulêsis or thelêsis. Freedom and responsibility are treated together in Plato's Republic, but will power is treated separately, and none are discussed under the name boulêsis by him or until Posidonius. In Aristotle, boulêsis is a rational desire for end not means, and for good not pleasure or honour, but it is not closely connected with freedom, responsibility or will power. A connexion between will (voluntas) and responsibility (voluntarius) emerges in Seneca's Latin, but his will is not distinct from reason. Alexander (Aristotelian) follows Epictetus (Stoic), who first tied responsibility closely to Aristotle's prohairesis, rational desire for means.
From First Movements To the Seven Cardinal Sins Evagrius
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractEvagrius (4th century CE Christian) found himself as desert hermit assailed by the eight involuntary bad thoughts of gluttony, lust, avarice, distress, anger boredom (akêdia), vanity (concern with others' opinions), and pride (belief in self-sufficiency). These evolved into the seven cardinal sins, but they were not yet sins nor emotions, only temptations. It was up to us whether they turned into emotions or lingered. Like Origen, he pictures the bad thoughts sometimes being presented by crafty demons who know how innocent thoughts can be used to lead to bad ones. In the counter-attack, one must notice in what sequences thoughts come, the timings of the bad ones, and how thoughts of lust and vanity can repel each other, or conquest of gluttony defeat lust. We need to know which thought is helped, which inflamed, by leaving one's cell. Thus, we may progress towards the Stoic goal of apatheia.
Imagination and Emotion
Authors: Schroeder Timothy , Matheson Carl 
Published: May 2007

AbstractTheorists in the philosophy of art and philosophy of psychology are converging on the view that imagining is a distinct propositional attitude. When one imagines that P (while engaging with a fiction, daydreaming, contemplating, etc.), one tokens a representation that P, and this representation plays the functional role that is distinctive of imagining. In particular, this representation plays a role that is distinct from the role of belief, but that also triggers the kinds of strong feelings (emotions) that beliefs trigger. This chapter begins by surveying this trend to convergence and the evidence presented for it, and then turns to adding a further piece of evidence. The claim imagining that P can cause strong feelings is, at bottom, a causal claim amenable to neuroscientific investigation. But philosophers have not yet paid much attention to the available evidence from neuroscience. This chapter rectifies this omission, tracing the causal network between tokenings of representations that P, on the one hand, and strong feelings, on the other. It concludes that there is all but decisive evidence in favour of the view that imagining is a propositional attitude, distinct from belief, and capable of causing the strong feelings associated with its exercise.
Imagination and Misimagination
Authors: Morton Adam 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter tries to say what it is to misimagine another person's mind. The idea that misimagination of mind is possible, that there is a difference between correct or accurate imagination of another and faulty imagination, is not obviously right. A defence of the possibility of misimagination is constructed in terms of one person's grasp of the perspectives in terms of which another operates. The chapter also discusses ways in which we systematically misimagine other people, and relates this to the depiction of character in literature. It is possible that many vivid literary personalities could not exist in real life, since we can easily imagine people having characteristics that humans in fact do not have. Imagining people's minds is closely related to intuitive understanding of others' actions, since in both cases one has to grasp the perspectives that organize a person's actions. An analysis is given of what these perspectives consist; reproducing them accurately is an important aspect of accurate imagination. One consequence is that imagining someone's imagining is more likely to be accurate than simple imagining.
Why Pretend?
Authors: Carruthers Peter 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter studies the question of children's motivations to engage in pretence, using an account provided by Nichols and Stich in 2003 as a stalking horse. It argues that they are correct about much of the basic cognitive architecture necessary to explain pretence, but wrong on the question of motivation. Following a discussion of the views of Currie and Ravenscroft in 2002 on this issue, the chapter draws on Damasio's 1994 description of the way in which emotions enter into practical reasoning involving mental rehearsal. It concludes by defending a novel explanation of the motivations underlying pretence.
On the (So‐called) Puzzle of Imaginative Resistance
Authors: Walton Kendall 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
What has been called the ‘puzzle of imaginative resistance’, sometimes attributed to David Hume and discussed recently by Tamar Gendler and others, is actually a collection of related but distinct puzzles, none of them aptly described by that phrase. They include the aesthetic puzzle, in several varieties (Do moral failings of a work of art affect its aesthetic value?); the imaginative puzzle, which also divides into several (Why do we refuse to, or why are we unable to, engage in certain imaginings?); and the fictionality puzzle (Why do we resist allowing that certain propositions are fictional, true in a fiction — notably principles of morality that we strongly disagree with?). Only by disentangling these puzzles can we hope to make progress in solving them.
Risk
Authors: Wolff Jonathan , De-Shalit Avner 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
This chapter argues the importance of examining not only what functionings a person achieves, but also his or her prospect of securing and sustaining a level of functioning should he or she attempt to do so. Key determinants of their prospects are: their probability of success, and what they have to sacrifice to achieve that probability of success. Thus, a key aspect of disadvantage is for one's functionings being or becoming insecure involuntarily, or when in order to secure certain functionings, one is forced to make other functionings insecure in a way that other people do not have to do. Accordingly, a policy of rectifying disadvantage would need to pay special attention to the question of how to secure functionings and how to avoid cross-category risk, i.e., when a risk spreads to other functionings. It is suggested that if a snapshot of a person's functioning is to be represented as a bar chart, the heights and widths of each bar should represent the functioning level achieved and the functioning's security, respectively.
Oral and Written Texts
Authors: Samely Alexander 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
Rabbinic documents present themselves to some extent as having their root in the oral transmission of information. This chapter attempts to summarize some important aspects of the rabbis' own explanation of this, nowadays treated under the label ‘oral Torah’. It then explores the hermeneutic effect of oral contexts, as well as the constitution of ‘social texts’ in the interaction of several voices in conversation. For the latter, two scenarios are considered: the selective use of an existing text in a discussion setting; and a kind of ‘committee’ meeting in which a record of rabbinic information is created from scratch. The chapter concludes with a critique of the idea that rabbinic texts were shaped by or for oral performance.
The Talmud as Conversation and Repository
Authors: Samely Alexander 
Published: May 2007

Abstract
This chapter examines the literary features in the Babylonian Talmud. The Gemara's use of earlier rabbinic voices appears partly carefully orchestrated and partly merely accumulative. The lemmatic division which defines the Gemara as a commentary of sorts on the Mishnah is described, the dialectical conversation which gives it its ‘talmudic’ flavour is analyzed, and some recurrent drills by which the Gemara interprets the Mishnah are listed. The way in which the Gemara suggests that the statements it quotes were historically connected, while presenting itself in an unbounded diversity of form and contents, is discussed.
Alterations of the Biochemical Pathways of Plants by the Air Pollutant Ozone: Which are the True Gauges of Injury?
Authors: Heath Robert L. 
Published: May 2007

Plant strategies to survive ozone stress include exclusion or tolerance of ozone. If these processes fail, past observations of ozone injury have indicated many physiological and metabolic changes then occur; most of these changes are likely to have been initiated at the level of gene expression, suggesting signal transduction. In the last decade considerable understanding of the biochemical process within plants has been developed. Currently there are several hypotheses regarding a response of plants to ozone fumigation: [1] membrane dysfunction and alteration of purpose; [2] stress ethylene interactions; [3] impairment of photosynthesis via changes in Rubisco levels and the guard cells so that the stomata do not track correctly the environment; [4] antioxidant protection through metabolites and enzyme systems to reduce the oxidant load; and [5] general impairment or disruption of metabolic pathways.Many believe that free radicals and other oxidative products, formed in plant leaves under ozone exposure, are responsible for much of the spread of the biochemical alterations. There are obvious chemicals that may account for the changes that are observed, such as hydrogen peroxide. Once the ozone enters the tissue, evidence suggests the first line of defense is a range of antioxidants, such as ascorbate, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase. If overwhelmed, subsequent events occur which are highly suggestive of systemic acquired resistance. Furthermore, other defensive indicators, such as salicylic acid and jasmonic acid, tend to increase, but more slowly than ethylene, and spread their signaling effects more widely in the plant.The primary set of metabolic reactions that ozone triggers is thought to be “wounding“ responses with a secondary response of senescence. The dramatic strides in understanding the genetic make-up of plants, gene control, and signal transduction/control over the last few years will only accelerate in the future. We need now to have an understanding of those events that can be translated into more detailed schemes of how ozone alters much of the basic metabolism of plants and how plants counteract or cope with ozone. What is now known about how varied biochemicals and their pathways are changed upon ozone exposure will be discussed.
Development of indole chemistry to label tryptophan residues in protein for determination of tryptophan surface accessibility
Authors: Ladner Carol L. , Turner Raymond J. , Edwards Robert A. 
Published: May 2007

AbstractSolvent accessibility can be used to evaluate protein structural models, identify binding sites, and characterize protein conformational changes. The differential modification of amino acids at specific sites enables the accessible surface residues to be identified by mass spectrometry. Tryptophan residues within proteins can be differentially labeled with halocompounds by a photochemical reaction. In this study, tryptophan residues of carbonic anhydrase are reacted with chloroform, 2,2,2‐trichloroethanol (TCE), 2,2,2‐trichloroacetate (TCA), or 3‐bromo‐1‐propanol (BP) under UV irradiation at 280 nm. The light‐driven reactions with chloroform, TCE, TCA, and BP attach a formyl, hydroxyethanone, carboxylic acid, and propanol group, respectively, onto the indole ring of tryptophan. Trypsin and chymotrypsin digests of the modified carbonic anhydrase are used to map accessible tryptophan residues using matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry (MALDI‐TOF MS). Tryptophan reactivity is determined by identifying peptides with tryptophan residues modified with the appropriate label. The reactivity is calculated from the frequency that the modification is identified and a semiquantitative measure of the amount of products formed. Both of these measures of tryptophan reactivity correlate significantly with the accessible surface area of tryptophan residues in carbonic anhydrase determined from the X‐ray crystal structure. Therefore the photochemical reaction of halocompounds with tryptophan residues in carbonic anhydrase indicates the degree of solvent accessibility of these residues.
Inhibition of ex vivo neutrophil activation by oral LY293111, a novel leukotriene B4 receptor antagonist
Authors: MARDER P. , SPAETHE S. M. , FROELICH L. L. , CERIMELE B. J. , PETERSEN B. H. , TANNER T. , LUCAS R. A. 
Published: May 2007

1The effects of orally administered LY293111 on ex vivo neutrophil Mac‐1 upregulation were determined in a total of 24 healthy male subjects within three study periods. 2In the first period, eight volunteers received 60 mg LY293111 or placebo three times daily in 22 total doses over 8 days followed by a 1 week follow‐up. The average ex vivo Mac‐1 response of the LY293111 group was 56% of the pre‐dose control (95% confidence interval (CI) 44.3 to 67.9%; P<0.01). The inhibitory effect was maximum at the end of dosing and had disappeared by day 14. 3In the second period, eight subjects received 120 mg LY293111 or placebo three times daily in 22 total doses over 8 days followed by a 1 week follow‐up. The average response of the LY293111 group was 70% of the pre‐dose control (95% CI 59.7 to 81.0%; P<0.01). The inhibitory effect was maximum the day following the initial dose and continued throughout the dosing period. 4In the third period, eight subjects received 200 mg LY293111 or placebo twice daily in 15 total doses over 8 days followed by a 1 week follow‐up. Mac‐1 upregulation was 64% of pre‐dose levels (95% CI 53.8 to 75.1%; P<0.01) over the course of the study period. The inhibition had disappeared 2 days following the final dose. Alternate neutrophil stimulation by fMLP was not inhibited. 5No statistically significant inhibition was observed for placebo‐treated subjects. 6No statistically significant differences were apparent between the active dose regimens. 7The results indicate that orally administered LY293111 is pharmacologically active in humans. Results from this study may be useful in determining dose selection for efficacy trials.
Altered cardiovascular vagal responses in nonelderly female patients with subclinical hyperthyroidism and no apparent cardiovascular disease
Authors: Portella Renata Boschi , Pedrosa Roberto Coury , Coeli Claudia Medina , Buescu Alexandru , Vaisman Mario 
Published: May 2007

SummaryObjective  Subclinical hyperthyroidism (SH) has been associated with exercise intolerance, changes in cardiac morphology, atrial arrhythmias and sympathovagal imbalance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the vagal reserve and modulation by a sympathetic stimulus in nonelderly patients with SH without cardiovascular problems.Design  We carried out a cross‐sectional study, comparing data of the heart rate variability (HRV) of SH patients and healthy controls at rest and after vagal and sympathetic stimulation.Patients  We studied 16 female patients with at least 6 months of SH and 16 healthy female controls with the same median age (40 vs. 34·5 years).Measurements  We used the tilt test, with electrocardiographic record at rest, during the respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) manoeuvre and after tilting, in order to analyse HRV in the frequency domain (%high frequency (HF) and low/high frequency ratio (LF/HF) using Biopotentials Captation System software.Results  The median TSH level was 0·03 mU/l in patients and 1·37 mUI/l in controls. The median free T4 was 1·37 ng/dl in patients and 1·20 ng/dl in controls. Patients demonstrated a significantly smaller difference between %HF during the RSA and %HF at rest than controls (median –7·5 vs. 36·6, P < 0·001). There was a lower difference between LF/HF ratio after tilting and LF/HF ratio at rest in patients than in controls (1·5 vs. 5·3, P = 0·005).Conclusion  Subclinical hyperthyroidism affects cardiovascular autonomic balance in otherwise apparently healthy nonelderly females by blunting vagal responses.
The use of an automated image cytometer for screening and quantitative assessment of cervical lesions in the British Columbia Cervical Smear Screening Programme
Authors: ANDERSON G. , MACAULAY C. , MATISIC J. , GARNER D. , PALCIC B. 
Published: May 2007

The use of an automated image cytometer for screeing and quantitative assessment of cervical lesions in the British Columbia Cervical Smear Screening ProgrammeThe development of an automated device to screen cervical cytology slides for the detection of pre‐invasive lesions of the cervix has been the goal of many individuals for over 30 years. The increasing sophistication of the technology of automation and increasingly powerful computer technology have enabled a number of these systems to reach the stage at which they have become a practical reality. The Department of Cancer Imaging at the British Columbia Cancer Agency has developed such a device over the past few years. This study reports the preliminary results of a trial to determine the reliability of the device for the screening and quantitative assessment of cervical cells. A training set of over 1000 cervical slides was used to train the image cytometer. A test set of 1030 slides was screened by the image cytometer and in the Cytology Screening Laboratory. At the 50% sample split the sensitivity of the image cytometer was 95% for severe dysplasia and 90% for moderate dysplasia, compared with a sensitivity of 90% for both of these lesions using conventional screening. A combination of nuclear texture features was found which can be used for the quantitative assessment of both abnormal cells and apparently normal intermediate cells.
Evaluation of PAPNET‐assisted cervical rescreening
Authors: DOORNEWAARD H. , WOUDT J. M. C. , STRUBBE P. , VAN DE SEIJP H. , VAN DEN TWEEL J. G. 
Published: May 2007

Evaluation of PAPNET‐assisted cervical rescreening We have compared the results of targeted manual rescreening of 1211 randomly selected smears with the results of PAPNET‐assisted rescreening of 1613 cervical smears, containing at least 6.3% low‐grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (SIL). PAPNET diagnosis and the targeted rescreening diagnosis were compared with the initial report, issued on the corresponding smear. Reproducibility scores for inadequacy, presence of endocervical and endometrial cells, specific infections and squamous cell abnormalities were determined. The reproducibility scores for the diagnosis of inadequate smears and specific infections were lower with the PAPNET‐assisted rescreening. The detection of squamous cell abnormalities was excellent for both methods (>0.95), with a higher detection rate for false‐negative smears with the PAPNET testing system.