bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Utilitarianism and Human Rights
Authors: Gibbard Allan 
Published: January 2009

INTRODUCTIONWe look to rights for protection. The hope of advocates of “human rights” has been that certain protections might be accorded to allof humanity. Even in a world only a minority of whose inhabitants live under liberal democratic regimes, the hope is, certain standards accepted in the liberal democracies will gain universal recognition and respect. These include liberty of persons as opposed to enslavement, freedom from cruelty, freedom from arbitrary execution, from arbitrary imprisonment, and from arbitrary deprivation of property or livelihood, freedom of religion, and freedom of inquiry and expression.Philosophers, of course, concern themselves with the theory of rights, and that is partly because of the ways questions of rights bear on fundamental normative theory. By far the most highly developed general normative theory has been utilitarianism. Now many opponents of utilitarianism argue that considerations of rights discredit utilitarianism, that utilitarianism yields conclusions about rights that we would normally regard as faulty, and that moreover, the reasons for regarding those conclusions as faulty turn out, upon examination, to be stronger than the reasons forregarding utilitarianism as valid. A valid theory cannot have faulty conclusions, and so thinkingabout rights shows utilitarianism not to be a valid normative theory.Jeremy Bentham, the founder of the utilitarian movement in nineteenth century England, accepted the incompatibility of utilitarianism and “the rights of man, ” and rejected talkof the latter as “anarchical fallacies”. His great successor John Stuart Mill, however, argued that a perceptive and far–sighted utilitarianism supports strong rights both of democratic participation and of individual freedom of action.
The Primacy of Welfare Rights
Authors: Golding Martin P. 
Published: January 2009

This paper deals with three topics: (1) types of rights, (2) the development of the terminology of rights, and (3) the question of the primacy of welfare rights. Because these topics are interrelated, my exposition does not observe rigid boundaries among them. There is no pretence at all that any of these subjects is fully covered here; nor is it proposed, except for one writer, to touch upon the contemporary literature on rights, as noteworthy as some of that literature is. In order to gain entrance into the field, on which the writing has grown to massive proportions, I shall begin with an interesting historical phenomenon, some of whose philosophical import I want to explore.I should say at the outset, however, that the general motivation of this paper is the problem of the significance of the language of “rights.” Does it really make a difference, for instance, to speak of the “rights of man” rather than the “common duties of humanity”? Does the term “rights” add anything of special significance or is its only significance rhetorical and ideological? Can we dispense with the language of rights and still say everything we need to say about our moral relations? I confess to a moderate skepticism about the necessity of the language of rights in the last analysis. At any rate, this paper is intended as a contribution, however small, to this problem. The historical phenomenon with which I am going to begin will enable us to bring into focus the issue of the meaning of “rights.”
All-China Federation of Trades Unions beyond Reform? The Slow March of Direct Elections
Authors: Howell Jude A 
Published: January 2009

AbstractSince the mid-1990s trade union leaders in Zhejiang, Guangdong, Shandong and other coastal provinces have been quietly introducing direct elections for grassroots trade union cadres, in order to nurture a stratum of grassroots trade union cadres who prioritize workers' interests. Yet these elections have not been generalized across the country, been institutionalized through legislation or drawn droves of international observers in the way that village elections did in the 1980s and 1990s. What might have promised to be China's “second silent revolution” has failed to take off. This article explores the political, structural and institutional reasons behind the piecemeal and slow spread of direct basic union elections in China. In doing so it analyses the parameters constraining the reform of the All-China Federation of Trades Unions in the direction of a more effective, worker-oriented organization.
Estimated mortality and hospital admission due to rotavirus infection in the WHO European region
Authors: WILLIAMS C. J. , LOBANOV A. , PEBODY R. G. 
Published: January 2009

SUMMARYIn 2006 two rotavirus vaccines were licensed for use in young children in Europe. This study aimed to estimate the mortality and hospital admissions due to rotavirus in children aged <5 years in the WHO European region using data from routine sources and published literature. We grouped 49/52 countries in the region by their World Bank Gross National Income (GNI) per capita. We obtained for children aged <5 years: populations, hospital discharges for diarrhoeal disease, estimated mortality rates and the percentage of deaths attributable to diarrhoeal disease, from WHO data sources or published literature, and combined them to estimate country-specific diarrhoeal disease mortality. Rotavirus-attributable percentages of hospital admissions due to diarrhoeal disease were obtained through a literature search, and an income-group median applied to countries in each GNI category. In the countries we studied in the WHO European region, rotavirus infection causes an estimated 6550 deaths (range 5671–8989) and 146 287 (range 38 374–1 039 843) hospital admissions each year in children aged <5 years. Hospital admission rates were similar across income groups (medians 2·0, 2·8, 4·2 and 1·9/1000 per year in low-, lower-middle-, upper-middle- and high-income countries, respectively). Seven countries, mostly in the low- and lower-middle-income groups, accounted for 93% of estimated deaths. Disease burden varied dramatically by income level in the European region. Rotavirus vaccination in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Turkey could potentially prevent 80% of all regional rotavirus deaths. Data from low-income countries is still sparse, and improved disease burden studies are required to better inform regional vaccine policy.
Is Rotavirus contributing to an increase of diarrhoea in a region of Spain?
Authors: GERSTEL L. , RODRIGO M. P. , ADIEGO B. , LUQUERO F. J. , REVILLO M. J. , CASTILLO F. J. , BARRASA A. , VALENCIANO M. 
Published: January 2009

SUMMARYDiarrhoeal illnesses are the most frequent of notifiable diseases in Aragon. Physicians notify diarrhoea cases with presumed infectious origin on a weekly basis. Following an increase in 2005–2006, we aimed to identify the responsible organism(s) in order to inform control measures. We described seasonality of diarrhoea notifications for 1998–2004 and 2005–2006. We calculated correlations between diarrhoea notifications and enteric pathogens diagnosed in two Aragonese laboratories, and applied linear regression using coefficients of determination (r2). In 2005–2006 the winter peak of diarrhoea notifications increased from 2494 to 3357 weekly cases (34·6%) and the peak in Rotavirus diagnoses from 15 to 39 weekly cases. The correlation of diarrhoea notifications with Rotavirus was 0·05 in 1998–2004 and 0·42 in 2005–2006. The model for 1998–2004 included Salmonella enterica, Giardia lamblia and Clostridium difficile (r2=0·08) and for 2005–2006 Rotavirus and Astrovirus (r2=0·24). Our results suggest that Rotavirus contributed to the increase of diarrhoea notifications. We recommend determining the disease burden of Rotavirus in order to guide vaccination policies.
Farm-level risk factors for fluoroquinolone resistance inE. coliand thermophilicCampylobacterspp. on finisher pig farms
Authors: TAYLOR N. M. , CLIFTON-HADLEY F. A. , WALES A. D. , RIDLEY A. , DAVIES R. H. 
Published: January 2009

SUMMARYLogistic regression, supported by other statistical analyses was used to explore the possible association of risk factors with the fluoroquinolone (FQ)-resistance status of 108 pig finisher farms in Great Britain. The farms were classified as ‘affected’ or ‘not affected’ by FQ-resistantE. coliorCampylobacterspp. on the basis of isolation of organisms from faecal samples on media containing 1 mg/l FQ. The use of FQ was the most important factor associated with finding resistantE. coliand/orCampylobacter, which were found on 79% (FQ-resistantE. coli) and 86% (FQ-resistantCampylobacter) of farms with a history of FQ use. However, resistant bacteria were also found on 19% (FQ-resistantE. coli) and 54% (FQ-resistantCampylobacter) of farms with no history of FQ use. For FQ-resistantE. coli, biosecurity measures may be protective and there was strong seasonal variation, with more farms found affected when sampled in the summer. For FQ-resistantCampylobacter, the buying-in of grower stock may increase risk and good on-farm hygiene may be protective. The findings suggest that resistant organisms, particularlyCampylobacter, may spread between pig farms.
Daily Hazard of Acquisition of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection in the Intensive Care Unit
Authors: Marshall Caroline , Spelman Denis , Harrington Glenys , McBryde Emma 
Published: January 2009

Objective.Increasing length of hospital stay is associated with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) acquisition. The exact risk of becoming colonized with MRSA on a given day has not been clearly elucidated. We determined the hazard of MRSA acquisition in relation to the length of time spent in an intensive care unit in which only standard precautions were used for MRSA-colonized and MRSA-infected patients.Methods.This study took place at a tertiary referral hospital intensive care unit in which patients were screened for MRSA at hospital admission, at hospital discharge, and twice weekly during intensive care unit stay. We analyzed the hazard of MRSA acquisition by using a statistical smoothing kernel for hazard with a width of 5 days. Patients were stratified according to age, sex, medical unit, and length of hospital stay.Results.Of the patients who were at risk of colonization or infection, 12.8% acquired MRSA. The mean length of stay in the intensive care unit was 7.2 days. The daily hazard of acquiring MRSA was less than 1% at admission to the intensive care unit and increased linearly to more than 2% risk per day by day 12, followed by a leveling out of risk.Conclusions.The daily hazard of acquiring MRSA is not constant. This has implications for studies that assume a constant hazard in their analysis and should be considered.
Vertical movements of “escaped” farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)—a simulation study in a western Norwegian fjord
Authors: Skilbrei Ove T. , Holst Jens Christian , Asplin Lars , Holm Marianne 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
Skilbrei, O. T., Holst, J. C., Asplin, L., and Holm, M. 2009. Vertical movements of “escaped” farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)—a simulation study in a western Norwegian fjord. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66: 278–288. To study the vertical distribution of fish that had been allowed to escape, farmed Atlantic salmon were tagged with acoustic tags equipped with depth sensors, and then released on five different dates in the course of a year from two fish farms in the Hardanger Fjord in western Norway. Release stimulated the fish to dive to deeper than 15 m during the first hours or days post-release, often down to 50–80 m. However, during the following 4 weeks, most of the escapees spent most of their time above the pycnocline at depths of 0–4 m. The fish were more widely distributed in the water column after release during winter, but still spent most of the time in the cold surface layers. There was a wide range in the vertical distribution of individual fish, and the proportion of detections below 14-m depth ranged from 0 to 90%. There was a significant diurnal cycle in all seasons except midsummer, when the fish were less abundant in the upper layer during daylight, especially on brighter days. The results suggest that salmon diving activity following escape may complicate the recapture of escaped fish at the farm site but that the subsequent tendency of most fish to stay near the surface, virtually irrespective of the time of year, may facilitate recapture.
Repeated high‐frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex reduces cigarette craving and consumption
Authors: Amiaz Revital , Levy Dino , Vainiger Dana , Grunhaus Leon , Zangen Abraham 
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACTAims  To evaluate the effect of repeated high‐frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), combined with either smoking or neutral cues, on cigarette consumption, dependence and craving.Design  Participants were divided randomly to real and sham stimulation groups. Each group was subdivided randomly into two subgroups presented with either smoking‐related or neutral pictures just before the daily TMS intervention. Ten daily rTMS sessions were applied every week‐day and then a maintenance phase was conducted in which rTMS sessions were less frequent.Setting  Single‐site, out‐patient, randomized, double‐blind, sham‐controlled.Participants  Forty‐eight chronic smokers who smoked at least 20 cigarettes per day and were motivated to quit smoking. Healthy males and females were recruited from the general population using advertisements in newspapers and on internet websites.Intervention  Ten daily rTMS sessions were administered using a standard figure‐8 coil over the DLPFC. Stimulation included 20 trains/day at 100% of motor threshold. Each train consisted of 50 pulses at 10 Hz with an inter‐train interval of 15 seconds.Measurements  Cigarette consumption was evaluated objectively by measuring cotinine levels in urine samples and subjectively by participants' self‐reports. Dependence and craving were evaluated by standard questionnaires.Findings  Ten daily rTMS sessions over the DLPFC reduced cigarette consumption and nicotine dependence. Furthermore, treatment blocked the craving induced by daily presentation of smoking‐related pictures. However, these effects tended to dissipate over time.Conclusions  Multiple high‐frequency rTMS of the DLPFC can attenuate nicotine craving.
A randomized, placebo‐controlled study of the effects of naproxen, aspirin, celecoxib or clopidogrel on gastroduodenal mucosal healing
Authors: DIKMAN A. , SANYAL S. , VON ALTHANN C. , WHITSON M. , DESAI J. , BODIAN C. , BROOKS A. , BAMJI N. , COHEN L. , MILLER K. , AISENBERG J. 
Published: January 2009

SummaryBackground  Many individuals with gastroduodenal ulcers require on‐going, non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drug (NSAID) or anti‐platelet therapy.Aims  To evaluate the effects of these agents on gastroduodenal mucosal healing.Methods  Helicobacter pylori‐negative volunteers were randomized to receive naproxen, celecoxib, aspirin, clopidogrel or placebo. Antral and duodenal lesions were created endoscopically with a biopsy forceps. After 7 days of medication dosing, each lesion was scored [from 0 (low) to 8 (high)] using a validated methodology. The primary endpoint was the mean injury score. The secondary endpoint was the percentage of subjects with ≥1 unhealed lesion.Results  In all, 108 subjects completed the study. Naproxen impaired antral lesion healing more than placebo, clopidogrel, aspirin or celecoxib (mean injury score of 4.3 vs. 3.0, 2.7, 3.2, and 3.2, respectively, P < 0.05). Naproxen impaired duodenal lesion healing more than placebo, clopidogrel or aspirin (mean injury score of 4.0 vs. 2.4, 2.6, and 2.2, respectively, P < 0.05). More subjects taking naproxen than placebo or clopidogrel had ≥1 unhealed antral lesions (72.2% vs. 36.0% and 32.0%, respectively, P < 0.05) and unhealed duodenal lesions (61.1% vs. 16.0% and 28.0%, respectively, P < 0.05).Conclusions  Naproxen may impair gastroduodenal healing more than aspirin or celecoxib in H. pylori negative subjects. Clopidogrel did not impair mucosal healing.
Review article: pain and chronic pancreatitis
Authors: LIEB II J. G. , FORSMARK C. E. 
Published: January 2009

SummaryBackground  Pain in chronic pancreatitis chronic pancreatitis is a frustrating and challenging symptom for both the patient and clinician. It is the most frequent and most significant symptom. Many patients fail the currently available conservative options and require opiates or endoscopic/surgical therapy.Aim  To highlight the pathophysiology and management of chronic pancreatitis pain, with an emphasis on recent developments and future directions.Methods  Expert review, utilizing in addition a comprehensive search of PubMed utilizing the search terms chronic pancreatitis and pain, treatment or management and a manual search of recent conference abstracts for articles describing pain and chronic pancreatitis.Results  Pancreatic pain is heterogenous in its manifestations and pathophysiology. First‐line medical options include abstinence from alcohol and tobacco, pancreatic enzymes, adjunctive agents, antioxidants, and non‐opiate or low potency opiate analgesics. Failure of these options is not unusual. More potent opiates, neurolysis and endoscopic and surgical options can be considered in selected patients, but this requires appropriate expertise. New and better options are needed. Future options could include new types of pancreatic enzymes, novel antinociceptive agents nerve growth factors, mast cell‐directed therapy, treatments to limit fibrinogenesis and therapies directed at the central component of pain.Conclusions  Chronic pancreatitis pain remains difficult to treat. An approach utilizing conservative medical therapies is appropriate, with more invasive therapies reserved for failure of this conservative approach. Treatment options will continue to improve with new and novel therapies on the horizon.
Clinical course of hepatitis B virus infection during pregnancy
Authors: NGUYEN G. , GARCIA R. T. , NGUYEN N. , TRINH H. , KEEFFE E. B. , NGUYEN M. H. 
Published: January 2009

SummaryBackground  For women with hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, little is known about the natural progression of the disease during pregnancy or its impact on pregnancy outcomes.Objectives  To investigate the natural progression of HBV infection during pregnancy or its impact on pregnancy outcomes.Methods  In this retrospective cohort study, we reviewed medical records of all patients who were pregnant and presented with HBsAg‐positivity between 2000 and 2008 at a community gastroenterology practice and a university hepatology clinic. Maternal characteristics were analysed according to maternal and perinatal outcomes.Results  A total of 29 cases with at least 2 measurements of either HBV DNA or alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels were included. Older age was the only predictor of a trend towards higher risk of an adverse clinical outcome [OR = 1.21 (0.97–1.51), P = 0.089], defined as either a negative foetal outcome (premature delivery, spontaneous abortion), or a negative maternal outcomes (gestational diabetes mellitus, pre‐eclampsia, hepatic flare, liver failure). This trend for age remained even after adjusting for baseline ALT. Baseline serum HBV DNA, ALT, hepatitis B e antigen status, gravida and parity were not significant predictors for adverse clinical outcomes. Four patients developed liver failure.Conclusions  Maternal and neonatal outcomes are highly variable in this clinic‐based patient cohort. Severe complications due to HBV infection can occur during pregnancy in previously asymptomatic patients. It is unclear how generalizable the results observed in this cohort would be to the general population; therefore, further studies are needed to identify reliable predictors for significant adverse outcomes and until more data are available, pregnant patients with HBV infection should be monitored with periodic serum HBV DNA and ALT levels.
Ondansetron has similar clinical efficacy against both nausea and vomiting
Authors: Jokela R. M. , Cakmakkaya O. S. , Danzeisen O. , Korttila K. T. , Kranke P. , Malhotra A. , Paura A. , Radke O. C. , Sessler D. I. , Soikkeli A. , Roewer N. , Apfel C. C. 
Published: January 2009

SummaryOndansetron is widely believed to prevent postoperative vomiting more effectively than nausea. We analysed data from 5161 patients undergoing general anaesthesia who were randomly stratified to receive a combination of six interventions, one of which was 4 mg ondansetron vs placebo. For the purpose of this study a 20% difference in the relative risks for the two outcomes was considered clinically relevant. Nausea was reduced from 38% (969/2585) in the control to 28% (715/2576) in the ondansetron group, corresponding to a relative risk of 0.74, or a relative risk reduction of 26%. Vomiting was reduced from 17% (441/2585) to 11% (293/2576), corresponding to a relative risk of 0.67, or a relative risk reduction of 33%. The relative risks of 0.67 and 0.74 were clinically similar and the difference between them did not reach statistical significance. We thus conclude that ondansetron prevents postoperative nausea and postoperative vomiting equally well.
Open vs specific questioning during anaesthetic follow‐up after Caesarean section
Authors: Nguyen T. , Slater P. , Cyna A. M. 
Published: January 2009

SummaryWords with negative emotional content such as pain or itch may enhance perception of these symptoms. We assessed open and direct questioning for symptoms in 100 women following Caesarean section. Of the 65 women reporting pain, 25 (39%) did so only when questioned specifically. Similarly, three women with bothersome pain (5%), and two requesting analgesia (3%), failed to disclose pain until questioned specifically. None of the 46 women with pain scores < 6 on a verbal numerical rating scale requested additional analgesia. Of 31 women with pruritus, two (6%) stated it bothered them and requested treatment and one (3%) failed to disclose pruritus on open questioning. Most women with bothersome pain or who request analgesia reveal this with open questioning. However, specific questioning is required to elicit pain in all patients. Most patients are bothered by pain at pain scores ≥ 6, while those with scores < 6 are unlikely to request additional analgesia.