bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Life Cycle of Chlorine, Part II: Conversion Processes and Use in the European Chemical Industry
Authors: Ayres Robert U. , Ayres Leslie W. 
Published: May 2006

SummaryThe major purpose of this article is to construct a plausible emissions profile for the European chemical industry from process data and mass balance considerations.' In it we describe this industry and its major conversion processes and emissions. Four major process chains, beginning with methane, ethylene, propylene, and benzene are analyzed, along with five important stand‐alone processes. A self‐consistent version of the industry is constructed for 1992, based on data from a variety of sources.In 1992 Europe consumed 9,297 metric kilotons as measured by weight of chlorine (kMT[CI]) of salt and 2 I I kMT(CI) of recycled hydrochloric acid (HCI) to produce 86 I0 kMT of virgin elemental chlorine, plus 278 kMT(CI) of virgin by‐product HCI. Total chlorine input to the industry was 8,689 kMT including I2 kMT(CI) of recycled chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHCs) and (net) 79 kMT(CI) of HCI. Shipments of chlorine and HCI to other sectors was 1,367 kMT(CI), while 7,322 kMT(CI) was embodied in products or lost within the sector: Of this subtotal, 350 kMT(CI) was used to manufacture identified inorganic chemicals, 5,694 kMT(CI) for identified organic chemicals, and 1,278 kMT(CI) for “other unspecified” chemicals.We estimate that products account for 41.6% of inputs (measured at the “fence”), while wastes account for 24.7%
Chlorine in the Netherlands, Part II: Risk Management in Uncertainty for Chlorine
Authors: Tukker Arnold , Kleijn René , van der Voet Ester , Smeets Edith R. W. 
Published: May 2006

SummaryThe debate over chlorine in industrialized economies has become extremely polarized in the last decade. Environmental pressure groups are striving for a virtual phaseout of chlorine and chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHCs), because they are convinced that the risks cannot be managed. Industry argues this is not necessary because environmental risks can be controlled, nor is it feasible, because at least 60% of all firms use CHCs, produds made with CHCs, or elemental chlorine. In an attempt to give this discussion a more factual basis, the Dutch minister of environment launched a strategic study on chlorine (see Kleijn et al. I997;Tukker et al. 1995). Using all available knowledge about emissions and contemporary evaluation methods, the study found only a limited number of environmental issues outstanding related to the chlorine chain: however, it also found important uncertainties. This article describes the outstanding uncertainties in more detail. It defines which uncertainties have to be regarded as chlorine‐specific and the extent to which additional research can resolve them. For the remaining uncertainties the potential benefts of uncertainty reduction strategies are evaluted, relying mainly on the precautionary principle
Towards a Sustainable Paper Cycle: A Summary
Authors: Grieg‐Gran Maryanne , Bass Stephen , Bishop Joshua , Roberts Sarah , Sandbrook Richard , Robins Nick , Bazett Michael , Gadhvi Varsha , Subak Susan 
Published: May 2006

SummaryThe production of paper is a key economic activity accounting in value terms for about 2.5% of the world's industrial production and 2% of world trade. Paper products make a vital contribution to education, communications, packaging, and health care. In recent years the paper cycle has become the focus of environmental concerns about the impacts of forestry pollution from manufacturing, and waste. To address these concerns, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development commissioned the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) to examine the sustainability of the paper cycle. The first phase ofthe study involved a review of literature related to the paper cycle to identify the main debates and gaps in knowledge. This was followed by a journal of Industrial Ecology wide‐ranging program of research and consultation on various aspects of the paper cycle. This article summarizes the key findings of the study for different stages of the cycle covering issues such as the impacts of forestry, the outlook for fiber supply, the role of nonwood fiber; the environmental and social impacts of pulp and paper manufacturing, the choice of options for wastepaper and the contribution of the paper cycle to greenhouse gas emissions. The study makes a number of recommendations for the pulp and paper industry, governments, international agencies, consumers, and nongovernmental organizations
Perspectives on the U.S. Paper Industry and Sustainable Production
Authors: Smith Maureen 
Published: May 2006

SummaryIn the past decade and a half, the U.S. paper industry became the target of an unusual convergence of environmental concerns. These concerns have focused on the industrys role in forest and biodiversity depletion, the municipal solid waste management crisis, and various toxic chemical pollution problems. Although such concerns are traditionally treated as distinct environmental policy areas, the prominence of the paper industvs impacts in each area gave rise to an increasingly integrated environmental perspective fixed on the system of paper production and consumption, and on the paper industry itself. The argument advanced here suggests that the structure of the modem industry itself must be a central focus in a more integrated environmental perspective that can meaningfully accommodate the multiple social, economic, and ecological goals of sustainabilrty. Two issues, paper recycling and the use of nonwood fiber sources, are discussed from this point of view. The article concludes with a discussion of how a sectoral analysis of environmental problems can be Addrw correspondence tot used to frame a comprehensive strategic vision of attemative futures in the industry, and to design effective public policies and strategies
Measuring Corporate Environmental Performance: The ICI Environmental Burden System
Authors: Wright Michael , Allen David , Clift Roland , Sas Hein 
Published: May 2006

SummaryThe Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) group has developed a method, called the “environmental burden system” to rank the potential environmental impacts of its emissions and wastes. The method uses potency factors to characterize the potential environmental impacts of wastes and emissions in ten major impact categories. When compared to the more traditional approach of reporting the total mass of emissions and wastes, the environmental burden approach provides a more meaningful picture of the potential impact of emissions: it helps identi?. the most harmful wastes and emissions; it provides the public with a better understanding ofthe potential impact of company operations: and it helps communicate the effectiveness of waste and emission reduction programs
Economic Consequences of Increasing Polymer Content for the U.S. Automobile Recycling Infrastructure
Authors: Isaacs Jacqueline A. , Gupta Surendra M. 
Published: May 2006

SummaryEnvironmental awareness regarding resource use and emissions over the life cycle of the automobile has heightened the concerns for end‐of‐life (EOL) vehicle disposal. With increasing use of lighter materials to enhance fuel economythe steel dominated content of automobiles is changing to include a greater fraction of polymers. In light of impending regulations for vehicle disposal, various alternatives for remanufacturing and reuse of components and material disposal are under investigation. For example, if shredder operations are used to reclaim metallic materials, then the extent of disassembly will significantly affect proftability as well as the environment.Using goal programming, we explore changes to the current US. vehicle recycling infrastructure for their effects on dismantler and shredder proftabilities. To investigate the effect of lightweighting on the profrtabilrty of the recycling infrastructure, two specific vehicle designs are compared: a steel unibody and a polymer‐intensive vehicle. Other scenarios examine the outcomes for mandating removal of polymer materials during disassembly and for increasing the disposal cost of scrap polymer to that of hazardous waste. The results indicate that, if properly controlled, the current automobile recycling infrastructure in the United States can remain economically viable while it improves with respect to environmental considerations. Alternatively, implementation of certain policies that reduce profitability could cause disastrous consequences, resulting in the economic collapse of the infrastructure.
Recycling Postconsumer Nylon Carpet
Authors: Lave Lester , Conway‐Schempf Noellette , Harvey James , Hart Deanna , Bee Timothy , MacCracken Christopher 
Published: May 2006

SummaryEach year 34 billion pounds of nylon carpet are discarded into landfills in the United States. As a case study we examine the technical and economic feasibility of recycling a portion of this source of discarded plastic. The carpet could be (I) shredded for use as daily cover at landfills or as a strengthening component of concrete, (2) sheared or chemically processed for reuse as recycled nylon or as pure nylon feedstock, or (3) made into a new type of plastic. We estimate the costs of a recycling facility to handle 450,000 Ib of discarded nylon carpet each month in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. We found that with current technology, regulations, and markets, only the recycling of carpet from commercial settings using shearing or chemical processing is economical and only under very narrow circumstances. We learned four lessons from this study, First, collection costs are high and can dominate the economics of recycling. Second, given time and incentives, collection costs can be reduced. Third, trying to recycle products not designed to be recycled leads to many problems. Carpet could be redesigned to make recycling easier by making the carpet out of a single material and using an adhesive that can be removed easily. Fourth, recycling processes should be designed to produce an existing material if at all possible, because new materials present marketing problems.
An Environmentally Conscious Decision Support System for Life‐Cycle Management
Authors: Biswas Gautam , Kawamura Kazuhiko , Hunkeler David , Dhingra Rajive , Caffey Lochlin , Huang Ellen 
Published: May 2006

SummaryAn Internet‐based environmentally conscious decision support tool (EcoDS) has been developed for life‐cycle management EcoDS involves an initial vertical streamlining step, where the significant life‐cycle stages, stressors, and impact categories are selected and cross‐correlated. Because the streamlining is performed prior to the inventory, the approach expedites data collection. Comparisons among alternative product designs or manufacturing processes are based on two metrics: financial risk (or cost) and “residual” risk. For purposes of evaluation these two indicators are individually aggregated using a user or organization‐specified value system. A salient feature of EcoDS is that this output can be condensed into a single summary matrix akin to a hybrid pro forma income statement and environmental balance sheet. The clear delineation between the tradeoffs involved in each alternative facilitates decision making by upper management. A case study on painting attematives is presented to illustrate the methodology
Industrial Ecology and Competitiveness
Authors: Esty Daniel C. , Porter Michael E. 
Published: May 2006

SummaryIn the emerging field of industrial ecology one of the unsettled questions is the degree to which design for the environment, closing energy and materials loops, and other industrial ecology concepts apply at the firm level. In this article we examine this issue with a particular focus on whether industrial ecology can guide company strategy and efforts to enhance competitiveness.We conclude that industrial ecology thinking will often be useful for firms seeking to improve their resource productivity and thus their competitiveness. The systems perspective that industrial ecology promotes can help companies find ways to add value or reduce costs both within their own production processes and up and down the supply chain. But industrial ecology cannot always be counted upon to yield competitive advantage at the firm level. In some cases, the cost of closing loops will exceed the benefits. In other cases, regulatory requirements do not fully internalize environmental costs, and thus polluting firms may gain temporary or permanent cost advantages relative to companies that attempt to eliminate all emissions. Finally, because industrial ecology focuses attention on materials and energy flows, it may not optimize other variables that contribute to competitiveness within the corporate setting.
Trade‐off Modeling for Product and Manufacturing Process Design for the Environment
Authors: Camahan James V. , Thurston Deborah L. 
Published: May 2006

SummaryThis article presents a method for integrating pollution prevention and concurrent engineering (simultaneous design of products and the manufacturing processes used to produce them). The central issue is unavoidable trade‐offs, such as those among pollution, manufacturing cost, and quality. The probabilistic nature of the manufacturing process is exploited as an opportunity for pollution preventi0n.A decision tool in the form of a mathematical model is presented, which can be used by engineers and others with whom these trade‐offs must be negotiated, Specifically, the method integrates statistical manufacturing process control into a mubobjective design optimization formulation. First, the framework of a multiattribute utilty function is developed to determine which objectives are both relevant and negotiable. Then, a statistical manufacturing process control experiment is conducted to formulate some of the constraints that prevent all objectives from being maximized. Simultaneously, information obtained from the experiment is also used to fine‐tune the upper and lower bounds in the utility functions. The results of an industrial case study of a floor tile manufacturer are presented, from the manufacturer's viewpoint. The material choice and manufacturing process settings that result in the best combination of the conflicting objectives of product quality (measured in terms of scrap rate), air pollution, and manufacturing cost are determined. The analysis also reveals the irony that for this manufacturer; efforts to reduce solid waste through greater use of scrap materials increase air pollution levels
The Economic and Environmental Impact of Wastepaper Trade and Recycling in India
Authors: van Beukering Pieter , Duraiappah Anantha 
Published: May 2006

SummaryThere have been increasing pressures by governments and nongovernmental organizations to restrict international trade in waste in the conviction that each nation has to take care of its own waste. We develop a sectoral flow model to investigate if free trade in nontoxic waste can support economic development and simultaneously reduce environmental degradation. The model is formulated as a nonlinear programming model with an objective function that minimizes environmental and economic costs. The model in principle describes the life cycle of Indian paper: Preliminary results suggest that trade in wastepaper is both economically and environmentally advantageous. The results also show that domestic and imported waste‐paper are complementary and that import of wastepaper does not “crowd out” the domestic waste paper sector. This implies that the current trend of increasing trade of wastepaper does contribute to a more sustainable paper cycle in India.
Western European Materials as Sources and Sinks of CO2
Authors: Gielen Dolf J. 
Published: May 2006

SummaryMaterials use is an important factor influencing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions because significant amounts of carbon dioxide are released during the production of materials from natural resources, and because products and wastes can function as important sinks for CO2. This article analyzes the impact of Western European materials use on CO2emissions. The material flows for steel, cement, petrochemicals, and wood products are analyzed in more detail. The analysis shows that particular characteristics of the materials system must be considered in the development of emission reduction strategies. It is important to select a relatively closed system for policymaking, as in Western Europe, in order to prevent unwanted transboundary effects. The materials stored in the form of products, and the net exports of materials, products, and waste limit the potential of a recycling strategy. Carbon storage in products and waste disposal sites is significant both for synthetic and natural organic materials, but is not accounted for in natural organic materials in current emissions statistics. Accordingly the emissions accounting practices should be modified to reflect the storage of such materials.
Influence of Inventory Data Sets on Life‐Cycle Assessment Results: A Case Study on PVC
Authors: Peereboom Eric Copius , Kleijn René , Lemkowitz Saul , Lundie Sven 
Published: May 2006

SummaryThis study compared six widely used European life‐cycle assessment (LCA) inventory data sets, identified those, data elements that introduce major differences, and quantitatively determined the influence of these data elements for a cradle‐to‐gate LCA o f polyvinyl chloride (PVC).Large differences in data (10‐ I 100%) were found. Data on substances with recognized high environmental impact and easily determined emissions and environmental impacts, like those related to energy, show the least differences. Process‐specific emissions show larger differences. Substantially more substances emitted t o air than t o water or soil are reported, and differences between the values are less. Furthermore, various inventory data sets donot always cover the same substances. Often, individual substances, such as specific (chlorinated) hydrocarbons and metals, are collectively categorized rather than individually reported. Specific data elements o f the inventory causing many differences were geographical, temporal, and technological representativeness; categorization o f substances; naming of substance categories; use of different category definitions: system boundaries; and allocation method. The influence of these differences on LCA results, determined through sensitivity analysis, was significant, typically 10‐ 100%. Results emphasize the importance of appropriate and explicitly described data sets and the necessity o f sensitivity analyses. Results also show the need for a regularly updated and openly available database with high quality data. The availability of such a database would improve the reliability of LCA and thereby stimulate its application.
Applying Material Flow Accounting: Ecoauditing and Resource Management at the Kambium Furniture Workshop
Authors: Liedtke Christa , Rohn Holger , Kuhndt Michael , Nickel Regina 
Published: May 2006

SummaryThe European Commission has established the Eco Management and Auditing Scheme (EMAS) to promote and institutionalize corporate environmental management and environmental audits. This article summarizes a study primarily concerned with the execution of an ecoaudit in a medium‐sized furniture enterprise according to the rules of EMAS. Material flow accounting was used to assess and analyze the “gate‐to‐gate” and “cradle‐to‐grave” environmental impacts related to the firm's products and activities. A resource management strategy was developed that permits the determination of methods for firm‐specific material flow management, product management, and ecological product design to improve environmental performance as seen from the vantage point of resource efficiency
Indicators of Dematerialization and the Materials Intensity of Use
Authors: Cleveland Cutler J. , Ruth Matthias 
Published: May 2006

SummaryWe review the major empirical analyses of the related concepts of dematerialization and intensity of use. Dematerialization refen to the absolute or relative reduction in the quantity of materials used and/or the quantity of waste generated in the production of a unit of economic output A common indicator is the intensity of material use, which is the quantity of material used per unit of economic output. Our discussion focuses on seven topics: the environmental Kuznets curve for materials, material use and long wave theory material decomposition analysis, statistical, inpuboutput and dynamic models of material use, and analyses of national material use. We examine the measurement of aggregate material use and waste emissions, hypothesis testing, the importance of imports, and forces that countervail dematerialization such as rising affluence and the “rebound effect.” We conclude that: our knowledge of the extent of and mechanisms behind the patterns of material use are limited largely to individual materials or very specific industries, and most of those examples are metals; the economy is getting “lighter” but the aggregate economic significance of that trend, if any, is unknown; there is no compelling macroeconomic evidence that the US. economy is “decoupled” from material inputs; and we know even less about the net environmental effects of many changes in materials use. We caution against gross generalizations about material use, particularly the “gut” feeling that technical change, substitution, and a shift t o the “information age” inexorably lead to decreased materials intensity and reduced environmental impact. We end with some suggestions for research that may help answer these important questions.
Talking with the Donkey: Cooperative Approaches to Environmental Protection
Authors: Harrison Kathryn 
Published: May 2006

SummaryIn recent years, governments throughout the world have expressed growing interest in cooperative approaches to environmental protection, including negotiated rulemaking, flexible approaches t o enforcement, and voluntary codes and agreements. It is often argued that cooperative approaches are more cost effective, more conducive t o innovation, and better able t o promote fundamental attitudinal change than traditional “command and control” regulation. However, the overly broad term “cooperative approaches” fails t o acknowledge fundamental differences among these novel po I icies, including distinct ions between mandatory and voluntary programs and between those that involve bipartite negotiations between government and business and those that invite participation by a broader range of interests. This article analyzes these cooperative approaches first by offering a framework to distinguish among various cooperative policy instruments. Second, the article critically examines theoretical arguments and empirical evidence concerning one class o f cooperative approaches, voluntary challenges and agreements. The most striking finding is how little we know about the effectiveness of voluntary approaches. This is a function not only of the quite recent experience with these approaches, but also of more fundamental inattention t o program evaluation and obstacles to evaluation inherent in voluntary programs. The article concludes with a call for a more rigorous program of research to examine the effectiveness of the new policy instruments and t o compare them with traditional regulation and market‐based incentives.