bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Finland's Security Policy in the I970's
Authors: Pajunen Aimo 
Published: March 2007

The author traces the development of Finland's security policy through the 1960's and the beginning of the 1970's. Finland's foreign policy activity has inreased beginning with membership in the United Nations Security Council. The preparations for the European Security Con ference have given Finland the opportunity of working positively for European security. The Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union was renewed in 1970 for a further twenty years. Trade policy has created certain problems for Finland. A free trade agreement with the EEC has been initialled but not yet signed. The Parliamentary Defence Committee presented its conclusions in 1971, and defence policy has become the subject of greater interest for all political parties.
National Interests and Foreign Policy: On the National Pursuit of Material Interests
Authors: Knudsen Olav 
Published: March 2007

Knudsen, O. National Interests and Foreign Policy: On the National Pursuit of Material Interests. Cooperation and Conflict, XIV, 1979, 11-19. The classical concept of 'the national interest' is not at issue here. Rather, an attempt is made to systematize some quite simple and familiar ideas about 'what is to the material advantage' of a state in given situations of choice. The basic argument is that most current explanations of foreign-policy activity stress bureaucratic/administrative factors and overlook the possible significance of the material benefits at stake. 'National interests', in this usage, are the prospective national gains or losses in a concrete decisional situation. The article sets out the outline of a procedure by which objective estimates (i.e. based on the analyst's systematic criteria rather than the participant's own evaluations) of material advantage may be made. Examples of such studies are given. The last part of the article raises the question of what can and cannot be explained by this approach, and compares it with reasoning based on interest groups and decision-making factors. The conclusion emphasizes that our knowledge of the true significance of interest groups and decision-making factors is very limited as long as such models are not tested against the predictions of a 'national-interest model'.
The Nordic Countries and the New International Economic Order: Consensus and Disagreement within the Nordic Group
Authors: Huldt BO 
Published: March 2007

Huldt, B. The Nordic Countries and the New International Economic Order: Consensus and Disagreement within the Nordic Group. Cooperation and Conflict, XIV, 1979, 149-157. The unity among the Nordic countries in the UN, as measured quantitatively by voting agreement rates, has been demonstrated in several studies. The Cold War conflict has been regarded as the major constraint upon Nordic unity, Finland being the country most often deviating from the group. Through the relative lack of great power conflict involved, the NIEO issues would appear to offer ideal ground for Nordic unity. The present paper discusses voting positions and official declarations made by the various Nordic UN delegations 1974- 77. The analysis suggests that there is apparent disagreement, Denmark now being the deviating group member. Membership of the European Community seems a decisive factor. In the future, however, other (national, perhaps, rather than international) factors may also become increasingly important. Growing difficulties in maintaining Nordic unity could also imply added urgency to demonstrate such unity - when and where it might be found. The ambiguity of such projections should be considered when trying a realistic approach to the concept of like-mindedness.
Foreign Investment and Multinational Corporations in the Nordic Countries
Authors: Knudsen Olav 
Published: March 2007

Knudsen, O. Foreign Investment and Multinational Corporations in the Nordic Countries. Cooperation and Conflict, XV, 1980, 209-215. The main question here is: How exposed are the Nordic countries to the political influence of multinational corporations? The article briefly surveys and compares the Nordic regulatory systems for foreign business. Concerning the nature of the political influence of MNCs, it is argued that geographical dispersion is a key variable, assuming centralized corporations: The more geographically extended a company's commitments, the greater its bargaining power vis-à-vis host countries. To answer the initial question therefore requires a differentiation of data pertaining to geographically dispersed, from those pertaining to geographically concentrated, corporations. The article presents such data for the Nordic countries, and shows significant differences between them.
The Further Shores of Finlandization
Authors: Maude George 
Published: March 2007

Maude, G. The Further Shores of Finlandization. Cooperation and Conflict, XVII, 1982, 3-16. This article first traces the origin of the controversial term 'Finlandization'. It is noted that the most vociferous proponents of Finlandization theory have been people with little first-hand knowledge of Finland. Rather, the fundamental problem that seems to worry them is the effect of detente, which they have seen as Soviet advancement by other means. One essential feature of the Finlandization theory is that Finnish experience is torn out of its context and thrown into a world of generalized experience. Yet certain factors make Finland sui generis, especially the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union. No other Western or Northern European parliamentary democracy has a treaty of this kind nor is likely to have one. Moreover, many of the phenomena in Finland that are often compre hended as being directly due to the impact of the Soviet Union on Finland are in fact the result of other causes, relating to deep problems of Finnish society and national character. At its deepest level the theory of Finlandization, imprecise and overloaded as it is, nevertheless ought to lead us to consider one basic moral problem: the trust a democracy is expected to exhibit towards the foreign and security policy made in its name by the decision-makers.
Sweden's Defence Doctrines and Changing Threat Perceptions
Authors: Andrén Nils 
Published: March 2007

Andrén, N. Sweden's Defence Doctrines and Changing Threat Perceptions. Coop eration and Conflict, XVII, 1982, 29-39. Sweden has for a long time consistently adhered to defence doctrines emphasizing the need for a large, conventional anti-invasion defence in which army and air strength is neatly balanced and supplemented with a relatively weaker navy. Nuclear arms have been rejected and the nuclear threat, in the official defence doctrines, attributed only little probability. The fact that a stranded, obsolete, Soviet submarine trespassing on Swedish territorial waters is likely to have carried nuclear arms has released strong emotions but hardly changed this evaluation. Recent experiences have indicated the existence of a very different threat, based on the vulnerability of the modern industrial society, against not only various forms of destruction but also major international disturbances without direct bearing on the Swedish society. Much in the contemporary debate deals with these issues, and much in the political conflict concerns different evaluations of security and defence, of old threats and new threats.
Patterns of Norwegian Foreign Policy Behavior: An Exploratory Analysis
Authors: Knudsen Olav Fagelund , Underdal Arild 
Published: March 2007

Knudsen, O.F. and Underdal, A. Patterns of Norwegian Foreign Policy Behavior: An Exploratory Analysis. Cooperation and Conflict, XX, 1985, 229-251. In this article the authors use events data for a 7-month period in 1978-9 to explore the following question: Who (in Norway's governmental apparatus) does what to whom (meaning to other states, societies, or inter- and trans-national organizations)? The findings reported indicate support for some of the 'conventional wisdom' propositions on small state behavior, such as a leaning towards cautiousness and instruments of international law and order, but Norway emerges as more of a concerned, perhaps officious, 'citizen' of the world community than 'small state realism' would suggest. The patterns of behavior revealed by this 'snapshot' clearly reflect a relationship of complex interdependence to neighbors in northwestern Europe, expressed in inter alia, a high level of attention, a concentration on matters of 'economic wealth', and a prominent role for 'domestic' sectors of government. By contrast, despite receiving a fair amount of attention, the Third World countries appear essentially as 'faraway strangers', left to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Norway's relationship to the USSR seems to be rather heavily loaded with issues concerning inter-state norms, rights, and duties, and is also characterized by a significantly higher proportion of conflict behavior than is interaction with the West.
Peaceful Settlement of Disputes by the United Nations and Other Intergovernmental Bodies
Authors: Skjelsbæk Kjell 
Published: March 2007

Skjelsbæk, K. Peaceful Settlement of Disputes by the United Nations and other Intergovernmental Bodies. Cooperation and Conflict, XXI, 1986, 139-154. The resolution of dangerous conflicts is among the most important tasks entrusted to the UN and other intergovernmental organizations (IGOs). Arguably, their per formance in this field is declining. Nevertheless, these organizations have at their disposal a range of instruments for peaceful settlement of disputes: Public appeals, channels of communication, mediators, fact-finding commissions, peacekeeping forces, humanitarian aid programs, and international courts. The effect of each of these instruments, or combinations of them, is often, but not always, disappointing. There are cases where public appeals are heeded to; fact-finding commissions often succeed in dispelling fear based on rumors, and peacekeeping forces by and large accomplish their mission. The success of the UN and other IGOs hinges on a number of factors, including the size of their membership, the political divisions among their members, and the economic resources available. Conflicts between major members tend to paralyze all IGOs, while it is easier to cope with conflicts between smaller states. Neither the UN nor regional IGOs are supposed to intervene in domestic conflict. This rule limits their effectiveness in those interstate conflicts where domestic strife is an important element.
Peace and Security in Europe: The Context for Denmark's Choices
Authors: Sørensen Georg 
Published: March 2007

Sørensen, G. Peace and Security in Europe: The Context for Denmark's Choices. Cooperation and Conflict, XXI, 1986, 219-240. The article first explores the conceptual problems of peace and security. It proceeds to discuss four issues relevant for Denmark's security situation: the military balance in Europe; the shift in the hierarchy of powers in the West and its implications for stability; the dynamics of the Soviet Union and its European allies; and finally, the prospects for increased cooperation in Europe. It then turns to the national context, looking at the constraints on Danish security strategies from this angle, including a brief discussion on possible directions of change in the prevailing security policy. The conclusion stresses the following points: (1) The security issue is extremely complex, because it involves a vast number of threats to the individual and to the nation-state, and because the international system poses severe constraints on the possibility of coping with security challenges. (2) The threat of less stable and peaceful conditions in Europe is not only, or even primarily, related to the build-up of armaments. Increased tension on the military front has non-military roots. (3) The present Danish debate on security is rather narrow, focused on military and strategic issues. There is urgent need for a more comprehensive approach.
Cognition and International Negotiation: The Historical Recovery of Discursive Space
Authors: Bonham G. Matthew , Jönsson Christer , Persson Stefan , Shapiro Michael J. 
Published: March 2007

Bonham, G. M., Jönsson, C., Persson, S., Shapiro, M. J. Cognition and International Negotiation: The Historical Recovery of Discursive Space. Cooperation and Conflict XXII, 1987, 1-19. The research reported in this article represents a continuation of work begun earlier on developing a cognitive mapping approach to collective decision-making. It is based on two shifts in the structure of previous theoretical thinking. First, the emphasis is on discursive rather than psychological imagery. Second, the idea chain or "path" is privileged over the person or the "actor". The cognitive map is thus conceived less as a psychological template than as a discursive space. Rather than conceiving of persons having positions which they bring to decisions and then hold to them or alter them in confrontation with other positions, we conceive of positions as having persons. As a process of negotiations unfolds, its degree of success, within our conception, is to be related to the degree to which the parties can construct a shared discursive space, which amounts to their building of a shared "reality". The new model is situated with respect to extant game-theoretical, "manipulative", and "cybernetic" conceptions of bargaining. By way of illustration, applications of cognitive mapping to the negotiations on the dissolution of the Swedish-Norwegian union in 1905 and the 1919 Paris Peace Conference are analyzed.
The Situational Imperative: A Predictive Model of Foreign Policy Behavior
Authors: Hudson Valerie M. , Hermann Charles F. , Singer Eric 
Published: March 2007

Hudson, V. M., Hermann, C. F., Singer, E. The Situational Imperative: A Predictive Model of Foreign Policy Behavior. Cooperation and Conflict, XXIV, 1989, 117-139. Foreign policy behaviors, defined in terms of the intensity of affect and commitment an actor conveys to external recipients using various instruments of statecraft, are explained in terms of a situational model. The model represents an externally-defined predisposition that will influence any group of policy-makers to act in a certain way once they recognize a specific foreign problem. In addition to different types of situations, the model includes as its variables the configuration of roles assumed in a situation by other international entities. It also includes a set of relationships, each capable of assuming different values, that exist between the actor and other role occupants. For each type of situation a decision logic is developed and expressed in a decision tree. Each branch of the decision tree constitutes a hypothesis about the configuration of behavior properties that will likely result. The model is illustrated by reference to two cases of foreign policy decision-making — the Zambian government's response to the Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the white regime in Rhodesia in 1965 and the response of the United States government to the impending war between Britain and Argentina over the Falklands in 1982.
Decade Ahead in Aseptic Canning
Authors: Johnson Fred M. 
Published: March 2007

The art of canning is not new, although the past decade has seen an increasing use of high- temperature short-time preservation of foods. 1 Recently developed processing systems permit operating H.T.S.T., and with the use of aseptic canning systems full advantage of high-tempera ture short-time sterilization is possible. By aseptic canning we refer to a method whereby the product and the package are sterilized independently and assembled under aseptic conditions. This is in contrast with con ventional canning and terminal sterilization where the product is sealed into the package and then the entire assembly is heated for a suffi ciently long time to sterilize both the container and the product. In this paper we will use canning in its broad est terms, not limiting to the round metallic con tainer but to all forms of cans, bottles, jars, bags or boxes which may be used to store a pre served food product and permit and provide for an hermetic seal.-F. M. J.
Purchasing Food, Supplies, and Equipment
Authors: Bloch Jules W. 
Published: March 2007

Montefiore Hospital and Medical Center, lo cated in Bronx, New York, is a private, non-pro fit general hospital with 800 beds. The patients are about 2% private, 72% semi-private, and 26% service. The average length of stay is around 15 days. Food service is basically conventional, and is prepared on the premises from raw products. Mr. Bloch writes: "Payroll is approximately double the cost of raw foods. It is larger than in some other hospitals because of the physical layout of the Montefiore Medical Center (pa tients are housed in six buildings connected by tunnels) and because of the hospital's extensive teaching, research, and diet therapy programs. There are 23 floor dietitians. "In many hospitals, trays are served to patients by nursing personnel and between-meal nourish ments by volunteeers. At Montefiore, all of these services are provided by dietary personnel. There are 17 employees involved in cooking; 65 in other kitchen duties; and 73 full-time and 49 part-time employees involved in patients' ser vice — tray assembly, delivery of food carts and tray service to patients, collecting trays after meals and returning the carts to the dishroom. "Our food service people, as well as most other personnel of the hospital, have been unionized since 1959. The union contract determines exact ly the number of hours worked per week and the fringe benefits such as vacations, sick leave, holidays, and so on. There are job descriptions for all dietary personnel which have been agreed upon by the hospital and the union." Jacques W. Bloch is the Assistant to the Admin istrator of Montefiore Hospital and Medical Cen ter and has been in complete charge of food operations for the past 18 years. Previously he served as food production manager at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore. A graduate of the College Technique Hotelier, Strasbourg, France, Mr. Bloch has lectured at Columbia and Cornell universities and is a past president of the American Society of Hospital Food Ser vice Administrators. He is food service con sultant to the American Hospital Association.
The Grand Jury-Its Use and Misuse
Authors: Cobden Lynn 
Published: March 2007

Although the grand jury is an important component of the court system, the general public has little knowledge of its origin, its function, and its mode of operation. This study argues in favor of reforming it. A brief account of its history is followed by a description of make-up, function, and proceedings. Cases are then related to show how the grand jury has been used politically during the last decade, pointing out how the inherent weaknesses of the present grand jury system have permitted it to be misused in various ways. Finally, the study marshals various informed suggestions for reform and stresses the urgency of reform to return the grand jury to its rightful role: investigator of sus pected crime and protector of individual liberty.
Economic Implications of Standards Affecting Correctional Programs
Authors: Singer Neil M. 
Published: March 2007

Many of the specific recommendations of the Corrections Task Force of the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals have impacts that cut across traditional administrative or program designations. Two broad sets of such standards are examined here: parole programs and procedures, and proposals for changes in institutional work experiences. In both cases the Task Force standards might be expensive to implement by themselves, but individual proposals generate a cost saving in other activities that partially or even completely offsets the budgetary impact of the standard. The Task Force's recommendations on parole procedures include intensive supervision, financial support and job placement for parolees, and expansion of parolee rights in grant and revocation hearings. Standards in each of these matters could add as much as $700 per case to current parole costs. But all of the recommendations are designed to increase the likelihood of parolee success and thus to reduce institutional populations. The average cost per inmate in major institutions is approximately $5,000. Some of the Task Force standards can be expected to reduce institutional populations by more than enough to offset the additional costs of parole, while in other cases the Task Force proposals would probably impose net-but small-budgetary costs on correctional systems. The Corrections report's proposals for changes in prison work experiences and pay imply basic restructuring of institutional work programs. Upgrading prison industries would impose enormous costs on either correctional systems or private employers who might be invited to operate establishments in prisons. In return, either correctional systems or private employers would generate enormous increases in output and sales, which would more than repay the costs of new capital equipment and higher inmate wages as long as the goods could be sold in markets that historically have been closed by law and custom. The Corrections standard for prevailing wages for maintenance workers, in contrast, would generate cost offsets only if some maintenance workers could be reassigned to profitable prison industries. On balance, the net cost of implementing all the standards dealing with institutional work and pay is likely to be very close to zero.
Economic Analysis of the Criminal Justice System
Authors: Monzingo John E. 
Published: March 2007

Economic analysis of problems of the criminal justice system following the model developed by Gary Becker is based on assumptions about what motivates criminal activity. According to this model, criminals are motivated by the expected net gain from the use of available resources in criminal activity compared with the expected net gain from the use of the same resources in legitimate activity. When the expected gain from crime is higher than the gain from legitimate activity, individuals can be expected to engage in criminal activity. Based on this assumption, policies may be adopted which increase the cost of crime to those who engage in it, reducing the expected net gain and therefore the amount of crime engaged in. Because increasing the cost of criminal activity to criminals may be very costly, the total loss to a community from crime will have to include not only the direct costs of crime but the indirect costs associated with the suppression of crime. It is assumed that policy will be designed to minimize the total loss from crime. Two possible standards are proposed, "efficiency" and a Pareto test. While most of those who adopt this model concentrate on the deterrent effect of pu nish ment, raising the cost of engaging in crime, other less punitive policies for increasing legitimate opportunities and equalizing the distribution of wealth are equally consistent with the assumptions of this model.