bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
When the outgroup becomes ingroup and when the ingroup becomes outgroup: Xenophobia and social categorization in a resource allocation task
Authors: Sanchez‐Mazas Margarita , Roux Patricia , Mugny Gabriel 
Published: May 2007

AbstractSubjects classified as more or less xenophobic allocated resources to SWISS nationals (ingroup) and foreign residents (outgroup) in three intergroup judgement modes: negative interdependence, independence and positive interdependence. When both groups were assessed together as a single beneficiary (positive interdependence) they were allocated more resources than those provided to the outgroup under negative interdependence or independence. More xenophobic subjects, however gave less resources to both groups together under positive interdependence than to the ingroup under independence. In contrast, less xenophobic subjects allocated to both groups together a similar amount as to the ingroup under independence. These results suggest that, depending on their initial attitudes towards the outgroup, individuals will categorize a superordinate entity either more as an ingroup or more as an outgroup.
Children's understanding of public ownership
Authors: Cram Fiona , Ng Sik Hung 
Published: May 2007

AbstractChildren's understanding of public ownership was examined in two studies. In the first, descriptive study, children in three age groups (5–6, 8–9. and 11–12 years) were interviewed about ownership of their school and the city's buses. The hypothesis, that with increasing age the children's understanding of public ownership would change from being based on physical to abstract concepts, was supported. In the second, experimental study, a different sample of children (mean age = 7.5 years) from those in Study 1 were interviewed about bus ownership. Children who thought that the bus driver owned the buses were selected and formed into friendship dyads. Prior to interaction one member of each dyad was shown a video depicting a bus driver receiving instructions from another person whereas their partner viewed a neutral video unrelated to the bus driver Half of the dyads then discussed bus ownership, the remaining dyads discussed a neutral topic. The bus driver video alone was insufficient to enable children to infer that drivers did not own the buses. Peer discussion about bus ownership had a far greater positive effect. This effect was strongly related to the making of rejection and transaction statements that were indicative of an active reappraisal of the initial concept of bus ownership.
Towards a theory of collective phenomena. II: Conformity and power
Authors: Galam Serge , Moscovici Serge 
Published: May 2007

AbstractA new theory of power is presented using the concept of symmetry breakdown in small and large groups. Power appears to result from the building up of conflicts within the group. Introduction and support of these conflicts requires an internal organization of the group. The organization‐associated complexity is a decreasing function of group size. Thus small groups have more difficulties in generating internal conflicts than large ones. This group dynamic is characterized by two states which are different in their nature. The group is first built within the paradigmatic state aimed to determine and reproduce group conformity The group challenge is then to reach the transitional state which enriches the group possibilities through the inclusion and stabilization of internal conflicts.
Effects of social value orientation on expecting and learning others' orientations
Authors: Iedema Jurjen , Poppe Matthijs 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe influence of an individual's own social value orientation on the orientation expected from others and on the learning of others' social orientations was examined. The subjects (N = 148) were classified according to theirown social value orientation. The orientations they generally expected from others were assessed as well. Each subject learned the choices of five other persons, representing the orientations altruism, cooperation, equality, individualism, and competition. With respect to subjects' expectations of others' orientations the triangle hypothesis was not fully supported: only individualists expected their orientation in high frequencies. The false consensus hypothesis received more support. Generally an orientation was expected more frequently by subjects who themselves had that particular orientation than by subjects with other orientations. With regard to the learning of others' orientations support was found for the predictions derived from the triangle and the false consensus hypothesis. Cooperators and individualists were the best overall learners, followed by egalitarian and maximum subjects, and at the lowest level competitors. In addition, nearly every orientation was learned better by subjects who had that orientation than by subjects with a different orientation.
An ethnic bias in scientific citations
Authors: Greenwald Anthony G. , Schuh Eric S. 
Published: May 2007

AbstractRecent experimental findings of subtle forms of prejudice prompted this search for a similar phenomenon outside the laboratory. In Study 1, with a sample of more than 12 000 citations by North American social scientists, names of both citing and cited authors were classified as Jewish, non Jewish, or other Author's name category was associated with 41 per cent greater odds of citing an author from the same name category Study 2 included over 17 000 citations from a much narrower research domain (prejudice research), and found a similar (40 per cent) surplus in odds of citing an author of the author's own ethnic name category. Further analyses failed to support two hypotheses — differential assortment of researchers by ethnicity to research topics, and selective citation of acquaintances' works — that were plausible alternatives to the hypothesis that the observed citation discrimination revealed implicit (unconsciously operating) prejudicial attitudes. Given the sociopolitically liberal reputation of social scientists (and of prejudice researchers especially), it seems unlikely that the observed bias in citations reflected conscious prejudicial attitudes.
Social representations, group affiliation, and projection: Knowing the limits of validity
Authors: Wagner Wolfgang 
Published: May 2007

AbstractIt is argued that social representations and similar constructs can only be conceived of as mental structures containing meta‐information about the group, within which the representation was formed and where it is part of social identity. The most important information will be to know the limits of its validity, that is, to know to which social group a representation pertains. Experiments on social projection have shown that people tend to project their opinions onto others, if they are perceived as being similar in background values. Such projection cannot be expected with idiosyncratic attitudes and beliefs. Consequently it is hypothesized that idiosyncratic and private attitudes, opinions, etc., are not attributed to specific social groups, whereas knowledge pertaining to social representations the subject subscribes to is projected onto the ingroup and less on the outgroup. This effect is expected to be independent of the relative number of people holding this opinion. This is what was found in a quasi‐experimental questionnaire study. Implications of the findings are discussed with regard to the definition and criteria ofsociul representations and to the structure of the theory.
Contextual determinants of strategic choice: Some moderators of the availability bias
Authors: Stapel Diederik A. , Reicher Stephen D. , Spears Russell 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThree studies explored how the influence of the ‘availability heuristic’ on frequency judgement is mediated and moderated by the perceived meaning of the task, the perceived relevance of information for the task, and the salience of differential memorability of information. All studies adapted the ‘fumous names ’paradigm (Tversky and Kahneman, 1973) in which subjects are required to listen to a list of names of known personalities of both sexes and then judge the frequency of men and women. The availability heuristic (Tversky and Kahneman, 1973) posits that classes whose instances are easy to imagine or recall will be perceived as relatively frequent, so that when names of one sex are more famous and thus memorable this category will be rated as more numerous even when it occurs less frequently. Consistent with the notion that the use of availability is sensitive to task interpretation, we showed that the availability effect is eliminated over successive trials (Study 1) and moderated when task instructions render different categories salient (Study 2). In the third study it is shown that conditions which facilitate awareness of the biasing relationship between gender and fame (memorability), decrease the use of the availability heuristic by moderating frequency estimates of the more famous category. Results of these studies emphasize the context‐bound and strategic aspects of judgement.
Prototypical similarity, self‐categorization, and depersonalized attraction: A perspective on group cohesiveness
Authors: Hogg Michael A. , Hardie Elizabeth A. , Reynolds Katherine J. 
Published: May 2007

AbstractIn contrast to traditional approaches that widely equate group cohesiveness with interpersonal attraction, self‐categorization theoryargues that self‐categorization depersonalizes perception in terms of the group prototype, and transforms the basis of interindividual attitude (liking) from idiosyncracy into prototypicality. An implication is that while attraction in interpersonal relationships relates to overall similarity, attraction among group members is based on prototypical similarity. To test this idea, subjects (N = 219) participated in an experiment in which they reported their attitude towards an individual who would be their partner, or a fellow group member (of either group ‘Visual’ or group ‘Tactile’) for a subsequent task. Subject‐target similarity varied on each of two dimensions: dimension ‘A’ was more prototypical of group ‘Visual’, and dimension ‘F’ of group ‘Tactile’. The independent variables of social orientation (interpersonal, group ‘Visual’, group ‘Tactile’), similarity on dimension A (A ±), and dimension F(F±) were manipulated in a 3 × 2 × 2 design. The three hypotheses tested in this experiment were generally supported. Subjects preferred prototypically similar group members to interpersonal partners, and downgraded prototypically dissisimilar group members (HI). Identification was positively related to target evaluation (H2), more strongly for prototypically similar than dissimilar targets (H3), and the identification‐attraction relationship was mediated by perceived prototypical similarity. Group‐based effects were independent of perceptions of overall similarity.
The minimal group paradigm: Categorization into two versus three groups
Authors: Hartstone Margaret , Augoustinos Martha 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe minimal group paradigm (Tajfel, Billig, Bundy and Flament, 1971) has been influential in the study of intergroup relations. Thus far, most minimal group experiments have divided the subjects either into two groups, or have categorized them on two separate dichotomous dimensions in cross‐categorization experiments. This study examines the minimal group paradigm using three distinct and independent groups. Comparison of the results with three minimal groups with those of a baseline two‐group experiment shows that with a three‐group structure there is no significant ingroup bias. It is suggested that the two‐group minimal group experiment shows ingroup bias because subjects access a dichotomous categorization, and that this dichotomous categorization primes a competitive orientation. A two‐group context may be particularly efective in evoking an ‘us versus them’ contrast. Self‐categorization as a group member is more likely to occur in the presence of two groups whereas three minimal groups renders an ‘us–them’ contrastive orientation less salient. The absence of intergroup discrimination found in the present minimal group study may be limited to the behaviour of minimal or artificially created groups. In the real world of intergroup relations discrimination towards multiple outgroups is a well‐known phenomenon. While this study should be regarded as only preliminary research, further elaboration and specification of the conditions under which multiple group contexts may hinder intergroup discrimination is required.
Me, us and them: Political identification and the third‐person effect in the 1993 Australian federal election
Authors: Duck Julie M. , Hogg Michael A. , Terry Deborah J. 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThree days prior to the 1993 Australian federal election 54 Australian university students who identified with one of the two major political parties were surveyed regarding their perceptions of media campaign impact on self and others. Results provided evidence of a third‐person effect (Davison, 1983) wherein respondents judged others us more influenced by the election campaign than themselves. Consistent with predictions derived from social identity theory and self‐categorization theory (e.g. Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher and Wetherell, 1987), political ingroup members were also judged as less injuenced by campaign content than political outgroup members. Respondents who identified strongly with their preferred party judged self and ingroup members as less influenced by campaign content than did other respondents, and showed more evidence of positive intergroup differentiation. At the same time, however, these respondents exaggerated self–ingroup differences, challenging the theoretical assumption that intergroup diferentiation is associated with ingroup assimilation. Judgements of media impact on self and other also depended on the direction of the campaign message. Respondents believed ‘voters in general’ were persuaded in line with the intent of campaign content, while outgroup members were seen to be persuaded by material favouring their own side but to be uninfluenced by counter‐attitudinal content. Election propaganda, irrespective of direction, was seen to amplify existing party preferences in self and ingroup members. Hence the relative invulnerability of self to media impact was pronounced when respondents judged the impact of pro‐outgroup messages. Results suggest that perceptions of self–other differences in media vulnerability are influenced by the subjectively salient social relationship between self and other, and are governed by motivational needs, such as self‐esteem, social‐identity, and differentiation from others (cf. Brewer, 1991; Hogs and Abrams, 1993).
Towards a theory of collective phenomena. III: Conflicts and forms of power
Authors: Galam Serge , Moscovici Serge 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis paper further develops a new theory of power advanced by the authors in two previous papers (Galam and Moscovici, 1991, 1994). According to this theory power results from the build up of conflicts within a group, these conflicts requiring a degree of organizational complexity which is itselfa decreasing function of group size. Within this approach, power appears to be a composite of three qualitatively different powers, institutional, generative and ecological. Levels and relationships among these forms of power are considered as a function of the diversity of the group. There exist also three states of organization associated with power evolution. At the group initial stage is the paradigmatic state. Creation and inclusion of conflicts are accomplished in the transitional state through the building of complexity. At a critical value of diversity, the group moves into the agonal state in which institutional power vanishes simultaneously with the fusion of generative and ecological powers.
Organization of person memory and retrieval processes in recognition
Authors: Petzold Peter , Edeler Brigitte 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe main concern of the present study was the question whether behavioural information and traits could be accessed independently. In a modified recognition experiment person descriptions were presented; later, a behaviour or a trait was presented as test item and subjects had to decide whether the behaviour was included in the description or the trait could be inferred. The decision time for behaviours as test items turned out to be independent of the number of traits inferrable. This finding supports two‐memory conceptions of person memory according to which of two kinds of representations are available. One representation is trait‐based and in the other one behavioural information is available. This conclusion was confirmed by the result that the decision time for traits as test items is partially invariant with respect to the number of behaviours included in the person description. Distinct individual diferences in the relation between decision time for traits as test items and the number of behaviours appeared which imply individual decision strategies in recognizing persons.
How good is good luck? The role of counterfactual thinking in the perception of lucky and unlucky events
Authors: Teigen Karl Halvor 
Published: May 2007

AbstractSpontaneous references to ‘luck’ (e.g. in the mass media) frequently occur in connection with narrow escapes from accidents. The hypothesis that lucky events are not always positive, to the same degree as unlucky events are negative, was tested by asking Norwegian and Polish students to describe incidents of good and bad luck from their own lives, These stories were subsequently evaluated by the narrators and by a group of judges. Ratings showed unlucky events to be uniformly negative whereas lucky events varied widely in attractiveness. Both were characterized by the idea that the outcome could easily have been a dramatically different one. In a parallel set of studies, pleasant and unpleasant experiences from students' everyday life were collected (without specific reference to luck) and evaluated along the same dimensions. The results confirm that unlucky and unpleasant events have more in common than lucky and pleasant ones. Pleasant and unpleasant events can be imagined to have opposite alternative outcomes, but these are felt with less immediacy than in the case of luck. It is concluded that luck attributions typically occur in situations that could easily have taken a worse turn. How lucky depends upon how easily and how much worse.
Contextualizing social identity in considerations of what it means to be a nurse
Authors: Millward Lynne J. 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis paper describes research which provide the context for a discussion of how social representations can circumscribe identity possibilities and render feasible certain groups evaluations. Specifically, a research approach is advocated in which Social Identity and Social Representation Theory are integrated within single complementary paradigm, (Breakwell, 1993). A brief but critical examination of both theoretical traditions is ofered as the backdrop to this. A case study is described as a means of illustrating the unique potential of the integrated paradigm to predict and explain the meaning of social identity and the evaluations it affords. An investigation is then described involving 178 nurses ranging from Trainee to Charge Nurse status. Nurses were invited to use Q‐sorts to describe the meaning of their group membership. As predicted from having identified the types of social representation of nurses available, two diferent identity orientations emerged: a communal‐interpersonal (Patient Centred) and instrumental‐intergroup (Professional Distinctiveness). The communal‐interpersonal identity orientation was most typical of the lower status trainee nurses and also female nurses. In turn, higher status nurses and also male nurses, articulated a primarily instrumental‐intergroup identity orientation. The evaluations signalled by group membership were also predictable from the identity orientations exhibited.
On being more than just a part of the whole: Regional identity and social distinctiveness
Authors: Simon Bernd , Kulla Claudia , Zobel Martin 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis article reports the results of a questionnaire study that examined the relationship between regional identification and perceptual accentuation of ingroup distinctiveness in a natural field setting. Respondents were male inhabitants of the Saarland which is a small German state. Half the respondents were members of the leading political party of the Saarland, while the other respondents were members of the major opposition party. As expected, the former showed more pronounced regional identification than the latter. Our main prediction was that a higher level of regional identification would be accompanied by stronger accentuation of positive distinctiveness of the regional ingroup relative to the national ingroup. The prediction was confirmed, both in terms of intergroup differentiation and perceived group homogeneity. Additional results suggest that, depending on the level of social identification, perceived group homogeneity may be either positively or negatively related to familiarity with the ingroup. Finally, we discuss the applicability of social identity theory to social contexts comprising differentially inclusive ingroups instead of mutually exclusive ingroups and outgroups.
Majority and minority influence using the afterimage paradigm: A replication with an unambiguous blue slide
Authors: Martin Robin 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis study re‐examines the afterimage paradigm which claims to show that a minority produces a conversion in a task involving afterimage judgements (more private influence than public influence) as opposed to mere compliance produced by a majority. Subsequent failures to replicate this finding have suggested that the changes in the afterimages could be attributed to increased attention due to an ambiguous stimulus coupled with subject suspiciousness. This study attempted to replicate the original experiment but with an unambiguous stimulus in order to remove potential biases. The results showed shifts in afterimages consistent with the increased attention hypothesis for a minority and majority and these were unaffected by the level of suspiciousness reported by the subjects. Additional data shows that no shifts were found in a no‐influence control condition showing that shifts were related to exposure to a deviant source and not to response repetition.
Timing of schema activation and memory: Inhibited access to inconsistent information
Authors: Dijksterhuis Ap , Van Knippenberg Ad 
Published: May 2007

AbstractIn the present experiment, recognition of consistent and inconsistent information was measured as a function of time of schema activation. A schema was either activated before or after encoding, or not at all. Schema activation after encoding reduced recognition of inconsistent information while schema activation before encoding enhanced it (in comparison to the no schema control condition). Recognition of consistent information appeared to be unaffected by time of schema activation. It is argued that an a posteriori activated schema inhibits access to inconsistent information. In the Discussion a tentative theoretical explanation is provided.