bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Defending the Khmer Rouge
Authors: Skilbeck Rupert 
Published: July 2008

AbstractThe author outlines the lengthy negotiation process to create the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia and the continued negotiations over the Internal Rules of the ECCC. The novel aspects of the procedure at the court are examined, looking at the investigation, the role of the civil party and the need for secrecy. There follows a survey of the ways in which defence lawyers have been supported in war crimes trials since Nuremberg, highlighting some of the recurring problems that have arisen and the system that is being used in Cambodia. Finally, the allegations against the five suspects before the ECCC are outlined and the legal issues that are likely to arise at the Court.
Business and Human Rights – Time to Hold Companies to Account
Authors: Leader Daniel 
Published: July 2008

AbstractIt is not widely appreciated that the recent six year conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo was the deadliest war since World War II. An estimated 3.8 million people, mostly civilians, lost their lives as a result of the conflict. The West must accept a large degree of responsibility for this tragedy as the war was fuelled to a great extent by western multinationals. These companies either directly or indirectly purchased or exploited the natural resources under the control of the various armed groups. Unscrupulous corporations can engage in this behaviour with impunity in weak governance zones. Human Rights NGOs have tried to hold some of these companies to account by filing complaints in the UK using the "soft law" mechanism of the OECD Guidelines on Multinational Enterprises. However, the British Government displayed a breathtaking unwillingness to hold companies to account. It is increasingly clear to both responsible business and the human rights community that a robust accountability mechanism must now be created.
Arab and Islamic Shari'a Perspectives on the Current System of International Criminal Justice
Authors: Maged Adel 
Published: July 2008

AbstractThe Arab World is currently witnessing various conflicts, which have resulted in the death and displacement of many innocent civilians. It is notable that the current system of international criminal justice has failed to address many of the atrocities committed during those conflicts. In order to rectify this, it is imperative that "voices of reason" accurately convey to the West the attitudes of the Arab people towards this system. This article attempts to illustrate, on the one hand, that Islamic Shari'a principles, which have had a remarkable impact on the Arab legal systems, are compatible with the provisions of the current system of international criminal justice, and to explain, on the other hand, Arab skepticism with regard to that system.
When the Child Surpasses the Father – Admissible Defences in International Criminal Law
Authors: Fournet Caroline 
Published: July 2008

AbstractDue to the heinous nature of international crimes, admissible defences in the context of international criminal justice understandably constitute an issue surrounded with controversy. Yet, while International Criminal Law precludes the use of a series of defences, it also admits that certain grounds may exclude individual criminal responsibility or mitigate punishment even in the case of the most serious international crimes. The present study thus proposes to analyse the permissibility of these defences and the availability of such grounds for excluding responsibility by drawing a comparison between Public International Law and International Criminal Law and by highlighting the differences and discrepancies between the two systems. Ultimately, this analysis aims at demonstrating that International Criminal Law, one of Public International Law's children, has now surpassed its parent to become a more sophisticated and a fairer legal and judicial system, for both the defendants and the victims.
Is the International Criminal Court the Way Ahead?
Authors: O'Callaghan Declan 
Published: July 2008

AbstractThis article charts the development of the International Criminal Court against the backdrop of shifting international relations. It identifies the expressed hopes that the perpetrators of the gravest crimes will be brought to justice and considers the initial successes of the Court. It also addresses what may be fundamental weaknesses which may ultimately undermine the rule of law. To the question posed, an answer may be that the International Criminal Court remains a revolutionary innovation but lacks the power and jurisdiction to succeed in its main goal; the provision of justice for all victims of the gravest crimes known to humanity.
On the Construction Date of the Derbend Fortification Complex
Authors: Gadjiev Murtazali 
Published: July 2008

AbstractThe paper discusses several aspects of the history of one of the great architectural and fortifying undertakings of the Sasanian period, namely the Derbend defensive wall. Comparing all the available data on the time of this construction, the author draws a picture of the key historical events of the 6th century A.D., the complicated relations of the Sasanians with their neighbours, and the phenomenon of the so-called Northern tribes, against whom, strictly speaking, the Derbend fortification complex was erected. The article gives a convincing answer to the problem of the construction date of the Derbend fortification complex, rightfully called the Great Caucasian Wall.
The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah 'Abbas the Great (1587-1629)
Authors: Mousavi Mohammad 
Published: July 2008

AbstractAmong the Safavid Shahs, 'Abbas I (1587-1629), was the chief architect of the modern Iranian state. He consolidated the state by securing the borders, establishing a central administration and bureaucracy, fortifying the economy and creating a standing army responsible not to the tribal heads but to the king as the head of the state. He turned the kingdom into a cohesive and stable monarchy. The state, with the Shah on top, using the new bureaucracy and the coercive force, reached a level of autonomy in which it was fortified by a direct access to financial resources. While bureaucracy was an instrument for regime enhancement and control, the army played the crucial role of system maintenance and was the guarantor of the Safavid rule. To achieve this objective, the state used: 1) social mobility of displacing the Qizilbash element, in favour of Caucasians, Persians and ordinaries; 2) land ownership mobility through transferring toyūls to crown estate; and 3) financial mobility.
'Ideal Scheme' or 'Passing over the Rainbow': Transmission of the Georgian Cultural Identity among the Fereydani Gorjīs
Authors: Khalvashi Tamta 
Published: July 2008

AbstractConceptualising Fereydani Georgians, who have lived in Iran for almost 400 years, I have always found myself asking how such groups manage to survive as groups at all and why these kinds of people strive to maintain their sense of identity or retain their cultural memory? I place the concept of identity at the heart of the analysis. Therefore, this article explores the main aspects of identity maintenance and transmission through the presentation of a number of ethnographic materials based on my own research among Fereydani repatriates now living in Tbilisi. I try to show how certain traditions, rituals, customs, etc. are transmitted from generation to generation in the place where the environment is not native, and how such cultural artefacts express the elements of identity.
Georgian laqe, an 'addle egg' in Kartvelian Review of a Georgian Etymology
Authors: Bläsing Uwe 
Published: July 2008

AbstractThe paper deals with the revision and correction of the etymology of GEORGIAN laqe “rotten, addle egg”, which the late Prof. Georgij Klimov considered Kartvelian in his Etymological Dictionary. On the basis of an extensive areal study it can be concluded though that the term is not genuinely Kartvelian but must stem from a non-Kartvelian source, which is most likely Persian. The subsequent spread to other regional languages such as Turkish, Armenian, Kurdish, Ossetic, Lezgian, etc. will be also discussed.
Conditional and Other Functions of Forms in /-(zα(.))r/ in Abkhaz
Authors: Hewitt George 
Published: July 2008

AbstractProtases ('if'-clauses) in the North West Caucasian language Abkhaz are mostly marked by either /-r/ or /-zα.r/, depending on the tense and/or type of verb (Stative or Dynamic) concerned. The article presents examples of this conditional usage and the role of protasis-type forms in both temporal and interrogative expressions as well as in complementiser-function. The complementisers in question share the semantic feature of irrealis with conditionals. A rhotic element is also found in the non-finite form of the Future I tense, in the Masdar (verbal noun), and in such converbs as the Purposives, the Resultative and the Future Absolute. The article attempts to link the semantic notions of futurity, potentiality, indefiniteness or general irrealis to the rhotic element and asks what might have been the historical development resulting in the forms attested today and thus their original morphological segmentation.
TABARICA II Some Mazandarani Verbs
Authors: Borjian Habib 
Published: July 2008

AbstractThis paper studies the Tabari verbs bāutεn 'to say', baitεn 'to seize', hākεrdεn 'to do', and daptuniεn 'to throw'. It proposes that the past stem of 'say' is derived from the Old Iranian *gaub- rather than the commonly assumed root *wač-. It postulates also that the nasal element in the present stem kεn- 'do' is not exclusively due to the integration of the old participial formant *-ant-, but also because the stem is an offspring of a nasalised Old Iranian present stem, as is the case with Persian kun-. The verb 'throw', largely extinct but appearing in various forms in the 19th-century documentations, is subjected to a comparative analysis against some other Iranian languages.
A New Locative Case in Turkmenistan Balochi
Authors: Korn Agnes 
Published: July 2008

AbstractThe Balochi dialect spoken in Turkmenistan possesses a case which is not seen in most other Balochi dialects. It has local/directive function, and its marker is a suffix that shows the oblique case marker suffixed to the genitive ending. The “locative” is also found in the Balochi dialect of Afghanistan, but here, the local deixis appears to always refer to a person. I argue that the locative may be interpreted within a typological framework implying that local deixis referring to persons is blocked in some languages. Instead, these languages use periphrastic constructions of the type “at a person's [place]”, as do English (e.g. at the baker's) and Old Georgian, among others. In Turkmenistan Balochi, areal influence from Russian and Turkmen, which have a separate locative case, may have played a role in the generalisation of the locative to include inanimates as well.
Iran's Contributions to Human Rights, the Rights of Women and Democracy
Authors: Borbor Dariush 
Published: July 2008

AbstractMost scholars generally pre-suppose that the concept of democracy is the exclusive creation of classical Greece and a token of the West to the rest of the world. This concept has originated mainly due to the fact that much of the ancient Iranian history was only known through classical Greek writings before the ever-increasing archaeological finds and decipherments of ancient Near Eastern primary sources, which have shed a very different light on the subject. This paper attempts to alleviate and restore a few of the more vital recurring misunderstandings, misinterpretations and misconceptions in this field, and endeavours to present them in a more realistic historic and historiographic perspective in the light of the latest available scholarship. Beginning in 2200 B.C. Old Elamite Kingdom, was the first manifestation in the world of a structured and, at times, democratically elected heads of state based on matriarchal right of descent. Beginning in Elam and continuing at least to the beginning of the Islamic period, no ancient peoples, including the Greeks and the Egyptians, have surpassed the practice of the rights of women, and the equality of men and women as in Iran. In early 7th century B.C. Iran, the pronouncement by Zoroaster, through Avestan literature, was the first manifestation of the rights of women and unequivocal equality of gender in all aspects and positions of society. In the second part of the 7th century B.C. Media, we encounter the ratification by popular vote of the first constitution for a democratically elected confederated empire, headed by Dioces, who was the first recorded popularly elected emperor. In 539 B.C., we come upon the declaration of the first generally accepted Charter of Rights of Nations by Cyrus the Great. In 522-486 B.C., in the reign of Darius the Great, appeared the first confirmation of a written entrenched democratic constitution. In the 4th century A.D. (or earlier) Sasanian Iran, the first appearance of an advanced system of Common Law based on well-documented jurisprudence was materialised. And finally, the confederated system of government in Iran, which survived the vicissitudes of history and changes of several dynasties, remained in force one way or the other to become the most enduring system of government in world history spanning a period of two-and-half millennia.
Christian Armenia, Islamic Iran: Two (Not So) Strange Companions Geopolitical Stakes and Significance of a Special Relation ship
Authors: Zarifian Julien 
Published: July 2008

AbstractThis articles aims to present and analyse the healthy relationship between the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Republic of Armenia. Although focusing on the current geopolitical stakes and realities of the relationship, this article will also use history and the perceptions it has built to understand today's situation. Based on a long common history, this relationship inscribes itself in a complex geopolitical regional situation where international and local actors interact. These ties between both countries, although poorly explored, are particularly significant in the fields of politics, economy, energy, and culture. The study of this relationship offers a new outlook of the geopolitical complexity of this part of Eurasia, and presents both actors, Armenia and Iran, in a new light.
The Effect of Topography on Storm-Track Intensity in a Relatively Simple General Circulation Model
Authors: Son Seok-Woo , Ting Mingfang , Polvani Lorenzo M. 
Published: July 2008

Abstract
The effect of topography on storm-track intensity is examined with a set of primitive equation model integrations. This effect is found to be crucially dependent on the latitudinal structure of the background flow impinging on the topography. If the background flow consists of a weak double jet, higher topography leads to an intensification of the storm track downstream of the topography, consistent with enhanced baroclinicity in that region. However, if the background flow consists of a strong single jet, topography weakens the storm track, despite the fact that the baroclinicity downstream of the topography is again enhanced.
The different topographic impact results from the different wave packets in the two background flows. For a weak double-jet state, wave packets tend to radiate equatorward and storm-track eddies grow primarily at the expense of local baroclinicity. In contrast, for a strong single-jet state, wave packets persistently propagate in the zonal direction and storm tracks are affected not only by local baroclinicity but also by far-upstream disturbances via downstream development. It is the reduction of the latter by the topography that leads to weaker storm tracks in a strong single-jet state. The implications of these findings for Northern Hemisphere storm tracks are also discussed.
Reconstructing Millennial-Scale, Regional Paleoclimates of Boreal Canada during the Holocene
Authors: Viau A. E. , Gajewski K. 
Published: July 2008

Abstract
Regional paleoclimate reconstructions for northern Canada quantify Holocene climate variability on orbital and millennial time scales and provide a context to better understand the current global warming. The reconstructions are based on available pollen diagrams from the boreal and low Arctic zones of Canada and use the modern analog technique (MAT). Four regional reconstructions document the space–time evolution of the climate during the Holocene. Highest summer and winter temperatures anomalies are found in central Canada during the early Holocene. Eastern Canada was relatively cool in the early Holocene, whereas central Canada was warmest at that time. Labrador was relatively dry in the early to mid-Holocene during which time western Canada was relatively moist. Millennial-scale temperature variations, especially the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age are seen across the continent, with some suggestion of time-transgressive changes from west to east. At the millennial scale, precipitation anomalies are of opposite signs in eastern and western Canada. The results herein indicate that modern increases in temperatures in northern Canada far exceed natural millennial-scale climate variability.
On the Stochastic Nature of the Rapid Climate Shifts during the Last Ice Age
Authors: Ditlevsen Peter D. , Ditlevsen Ove D. 
Published: July 2008

Abstract
The rapid climate shifts observed in the glacial climate are analyzed. The transitions into the warm interstadial states, the onsets, are easily identifiable in the record. The distribution of waiting times between consecutive onsets is well fitted, assuming that the remaining residence time in each state is independent of the past. This implies that it has a simple no-memory exponential waiting time distribution, but with the mean waiting time depending on the climate state. The mean waiting time from one onset to the next is around 2400 yr. The most likely (maximum likelihood) distribution derived solely from the onset sequence is rather insensitive to the mean waiting time in the warm interstadials in the range of 400–1200 yr. When extending the analysis to include the transitions from the warm interstadials to the cold stadials observed with a larger uncertainty, the distributions in the two states are well fitted to exponential distributions, with mean waiting times of around 800 yr in the warm state and around 1600 yr in the cold state. This observation is an important piece in the climate puzzle, because the fact that the climate is a no-memory process indicates that the transitions are noise induced and the mean residence time in one state indicates how stable that climate state is to perturbations. The possibility of a hidden periodic driver is also investigated. The existence of such a driver cannot be ruled out by the relatively sparse data series (containing only 21 onsets). However, because the record is fitted just as well by the much simpler random model, this should be preferred from the point of view of simplicity.
Atmospheric Circulation Trends, 1950–2000: The Relative Roles of Sea Surface Temperature Forcing and Direct Atmospheric Radiative Forcing
Authors: Deser Clara , Phillips Adam S. 
Published: July 2008

Abstract
The relative roles of direct atmospheric radiative forcing (due to observed changes in well-mixed greenhouse gases, tropospheric and stratospheric ozone, sulfate and volcanic aerosols, and solar output) and observed sea surface temperature (SST) forcing of global December–February atmospheric circulation trends during the second half of the twentieth century are investigated by means of experiments with an atmospheric general circulation model, Community Atmospheric Model, version 3 (CAM3). The model experiments are conducted by specifying the observed time-varying SSTs and atmospheric radiative quantities individually and in combination. This approach allows the authors to isolate the direct impact of each type of forcing agent as well as to evaluate their combined effect and the degree to which their impacts are additive. CAM3 realistically simulates the global patterns of sea level pressure and 500-hPa geopotential height trends when both forcings are specified. SST forcing and direct atmospheric radiative forcing drive distinctive circulation responses that contribute about equally to the global pattern of circulation trends. These distinctive circulation responses are approximately additive and partially offsetting. Atmospheric radiative changes directly drive the strengthening and poleward shift of the midlatitude westerly winds in the Southern Hemisphere (and to a lesser extent may contribute to those over the Atlantic–Eurasian sector in the Northern Hemisphere), whereas SST trends (specifically those in the tropics) are responsible for the intensification of the Aleutian low and weakening of the tropical Walker circulation. Discrepancies between the atmospheric circulation trends simulated by CAM3 and Community Climate System Model, version 3 (CCSM3), a coupled model driven by the same atmospheric radiative forcing as CAM3, are traced to differences in their tropical SST trends: in particular, a 60% weaker warming of the tropical Indo-Pacific in the CCSM3 ensemble mean than in nature.
Statistical Tests of Taylor’s Hypothesis: An Application to Precipitation Fields
Authors: Li Bo , Murthi Aditya , Bowman Kenneth P. , North Gerald R. , Genton Marc G. , Sherman Michael 
Published: July 2008

Abstract
The Taylor hypothesis (TH) as applied to rainfall is a proposition about the space–time covariance structure of the rainfall field. Specifically, it supposes that if a spatiotemporal precipitation field with a stationary covariance Cov(r, τ) in both space r and time τ moves with a constant velocity v, then the temporal covariance at time lag τ is equal to the spatial covariance at space lag r = vτ that is, Cov(0, τ) = Cov(vτ, 0). Qualitatively this means that the field evolves slowly in time relative to the advective time scale, which is often referred to as the frozen field hypothesis. Of specific interest is whether there is a cutoff or decorrelation time scale for which the TH holds for a given mean flow velocity v. In this study, the validity of the TH is tested for precipitation fields using high-resolution gridded Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) reflectivity data produced by the WSI Corporation by employing two different statistical approaches. The first method is based on rigorous hypothesis testing, while the second is based on a simple correlation analysis, which neglects possible dependencies between the correlation estimates. Radar reflectivity values are used from the southeastern United States with an approximate horizontal resolution of 4 km × 4 km and a temporal resolution of 15 min. During the 4-day period from 2 to 5 May 2002, substantial precipitation occurs in the region of interest, and the motion of the precipitation systems is approximately uniform. The results of both statistical methods suggest that the TH might hold for the shortest space and time scales resolved by the data (4 km and 15 min) but that it does not hold for longer periods or larger spatial scales. Also, the simple correlation analysis tends to overestimate the statistical significance through failing to account for correlations between the covariance estimates.