bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Opportunity Costs of Acting as a Super Power: U.S. Military Strategy in the 1980s
Authors: Goldstein Walter 
Published: March 2007

For thirty years (1945-75), the super power roles performed by the United States were based upon its pre-eminent strength in military preparedness and economic wealth. Strategic analysts and political leaders assumed that as the leader of the Western alliance the U.S. would serve as a prime mover in resolving global or regional conflicts, and that its deterrence posture would help stabilize a durable world order. These assumptions have now been called into serious question. Challenged by the superior economic performance of its allies in the Atlantic and Pacific security zones, and by the OPEC oil cartel in its economic security, the U.S. can no longer exert itself as a formidable super power. Neither can the Soviet Union, since it too, is obstructed by the nationalist challenges posed by its alliance partners. The ability of the U.S. to restore its former pre-eminence is limited by pressing economic considerations. Faced by an unprecedented threat of inflation and slow economic growth, the U.S. must limit its defense efforts in the years ahead. If it invests too many resources in defense, industrial productivity and the value of the dollar will fall; and its vulnerability to the economic maneuvers of its allies and adversaries will sharply increase. If it should invest unwisely during the 1980s in its military appropriations, the U.S. will find its political leadership position severely undermined. There are three claimants for military appropriations to prepare for the 1980s: (1) the strategic deterrent forces are to be enlarged and modernized, (2) theatre force levels in Europe are to be increased, and (3) naval deployments are to be extended in the Third World. It is questioned whether any of these increments can be successfully enlarged and if there will be a gain in political power by actually doing so. Even if $1,000 billion should be spent to improve U.S. military capabilities in the next few years, as is now planned, the U.S. will not be able to fulfill the super power responsibilities that it shouldered in the opening rounds of the Cold War. As the leading military force in world affairs, the U.S. recognizes that it must calculate economic and political opportunity costs that can only inhibit its strategic ambitions. It is evident that a new formula must be found, both in theoretical and empirical terms, to revise the expectations of what super powers can hope to do in the next round of the Cold War. Eleven Figures presenting financial and defense data accompany the analysis. The last reveals that between 1958 and 1978 U.S. military expenditures fell from 46 to 25 percent of the world outlay for defense appropriations. This trend cannot be quickly or decisively reversed.
Presidential Directive (P.D.) 59
Authors: Leitenberg Milton 
Published: March 2007

Nuclear weapons have been available to the United States since 1945, and to the USSR since 1949. Particularly in the years since 1960 the academic and analytical journal literature has contained literally many hundreds of papers dealing with the subjects of nuclear 'deterrence', 'mutual assured destruction', etc. For the most part, these papers have demonstrated a pervasive and thorough ignorance of the actual state of planning regarding the potential use of these weapons. If anything, that segment of the research community most interested in arms control has shown itself to be particularly poorly informed, and most resistant to giving up its misconceptions. These critics sought the maintenance of a fictional status quo. Ironically critics on the 'right' who have consistently sought increased strategic nuclear war-fighting policies have falsely portrayed the official policies in exactly the same way so as to press for changes. The following paper is designed to provide official information regarding US nuclear weapon targeting in the hope of redressing this pervasive misunderstanding. The paper can only deal with the nuclear targeting policy of the United States. The paper is intended to do no more than to provide this information, in the hope of setting the record straight. It demonstrates that at least since 1960, US nuclear weapon targeting has always been primarily counter-military — 'counterforce' — and not directed in the first instance against the cities of the USSR. These military targets have always and primarily been the nuclear weapon systems of the USSR, including hardened missile silos as these were developed by the USSR.
Foreign Exchange Costs of the Indian Military 1950 - 1972
Authors: Terhal Peter 
Published: March 2007

From the day of Independence onwards, India has tried to find shifting compromises between three (partially) conflicting policy goals: (1) reducing foreign political dependence through non-alignment; (2) building up a strong defense apparatus; (3) minimizing the defense claim upon foreign exchange earnings in order to further economic growth. This article analyses the degree of success with respect to the third goal for the period 1950 - 1972. It presents quantitative findings about the burden of defense on the Indian balance of payments for the period 1950 - 1972. This burden is expressed in the estimated value of foreign exchange (US dollars of 1972) used for military purposes. Three components are distringuished: direct military imports (ready made military hardware); imports for defense industries; imports for civil industries which provide goods and services to the military sector. For each component and each year, dollar estimates are provided, based on whatever evidence could be found in published sources. Main sources used are those of Stockholm Internatio nal Peace Research Institute, and US Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. As India during the second halve of the sixties imported much military hardware from Communist countries under favourable credit arrangements, a method had to be found for converting these credits into their dollar-equivalent. The two-fold strategy of India for reducing the foreign exchange burden of an increased defense effort - especially after the traumatic military experience of the war with China in 1962 - was (1) to build up domestic defense industries; (2) in spite of non-alignment to accept increasing amounts of military aid. The second policy did have temporary positive effects during the first half of the sixties, but it appears that both policies were structurally inadequate to offer permanent relief to the Indian balance of payments. In the late sixties, the military claim on foreign exchange was nearly half the value of Indian civil imports of machinery and equipment.
Disengagement Zones: A Step Towards Meaningful Defence?
Authors: Berg Per , Lodgaard Sverre 
Published: March 2007

To raise the nuclear threshold in Europe, several suggestions have been made to remove battlefield nuclear weapons a certain distance east and west of the dividing line in Central Europe. Concurrent conventional arrangements are envisaged: linking the withdrawal of nuclear weapons to an agreement on mutual (balanced) force reductions (M(B)FR); unilateral action to compensate for Western conventional inferiority, as is often argued in the West; or withdrawing major conventional weapons suited for offensive uses from the zone, as is argued in this paper. A combined nuclear and conventional disengagement may not only raise the nuclear threshold but also, at the same time, enhance the effectiveness of conventional defence. Possible restrictions are discussed in some detail, and related to new concepts of conventional defence which have attracted increasing attention and support in recent years: the concept of territorial defence, primarily developed in the Federal Republic and in Austria under the common designation of "Raumverteidigung", and the Airland concept, epitomi zed in a new Field Manual for the US Army.
Simulation Modeling as a Tool to Evaluate Alternative Configurations of Clinical Laboratories
Authors: Berchtold Günter , Blaschke Helga , Hanssmann Friedrich , Liebl Franz , Braun Siegmund Lorenz , Vogt Wolfgang , Eckert Martin , Hoffmann Georg , Klose Sigmar 
Published: March 2007

Due to manifold and complex interactions in a clinical laboratory, it is difficult to assess how organizational changes or new equipment may affect overall performance. We present a simulation system that is able to model arbitrary configurations of clinical laboratories. Drawing on the experience of a fixed configuration model we have developed a flexible simulation model. This model has been validated by several laboratories of different size and organizational structure. Using the model the laboratory management is able to judge whether the additional cost for new equipment may be justified by better performance or whether performance can be maintained when measures of cost-cutting are taken.
Output Analysis Capabilities of Simulation Software
Authors: Banks Jerry 
Published: March 2007

Although most simulation practitioners are aware that output analysis is of extreme importance in a discrete-event system simulation, many are not versed in the process for conducting that analysis. Hence, it is not unusual that a simulation practitioner will conduct just one replication of the simulation, and provide the resulting measure-of-performance as the estimated response. Point estimates like this can be very dangerous, since they represent but one of many possible values of an experiment when random variation is present. It is much more appropriate to provide a statistical confidence interval, as a minimal form of output analysis. This article uses an example that describes a context in which variation in output performance measures can occur. The actual output from a simulation of that example system is used to develop confidence intervals. The output features of simulation software are briefly described. This is followed by a listing of these same output features and their availability on five simulation software products. The intention of the article is to draw attention to simulation output analysis and to show that support for it is readily available in simulation software. It is not the intention of the article to compare the five products, or to indicate that other simulation software products do or do not have the same or similar features.
Simulation in the Service of Society
Authors: McLeod John , McLeod Suzette , Ford Andy 
Published: March 2007

This month, in line with our policy of sometimes publishing information on work planned, or in progress, rather than "carved in stone," we present the first part of QUEST, an article which we received from Dave Biggs of SDRI, University of British Columbia. Note that this project is one that is still in the development stage, and the authors invite suggestions and comments from readers. It is believed that such feedback can be more helpful now than later. The second half of the writeup is scheduled to appear in the August issue of this column.
Le rôle de Ia Conférence internationale de sociologie religieuse
Authors: Labbens Jean 
Published: March 2007

Just as christianity has used philosophy as a con ceptual framework for the elaboration of its theology, and as it uses historical science for the study of its own past, in the same way christians in our own day are applying themselves to the study of the sociology of religious phenomena. Some work in the purely scientific domain, others seek to apply the results of research in action. It is how ever very important to respect the rules of sociological science, and to avoid trying to arrive over-hastily at practical conclusions.
Merit An investigation of the motivational qualities of the Buddhist concept of merit in Thailand
Authors: Mulder J.A.N. 
Published: March 2007

La question centrale étudiée dans cet article est celle de savoir si la motivation religieuse peut être efficacement manipulée pour opérer un changement social et économique en Thaïlande. C'est dans ce but qu'on examine les conséquences sur le comportement du concept de mérite, principe opérationnel du Bouddhisme Thaï. Au point de vue religieux, le concept de mérite pourra le mieux être saisi dans le contexte de la loi Hindoue-Bouddhiste de 'cause et effet', en ce sens que tout acte est finalement récompensé ou puni, que ce soit dans cette vie ou dans la vie future. Tous les actes réalisés en accord avec l'enseignement bouddhiste, Dharma, sont source de mérite. Le mérite est donc une forme de comportement et un bien abstrait que l'on acquiert par une action adéquate et qui aboutit à un sentiment de bien-être cul turel et psychologique. Mais à côté de ce que pensent les moines, du mérite, il est également important de voir, comment ce mérite est compris par la société et par les individus. Au niveau national, le mérite et le comportement méritoire sont, de nos jours, souvent interprétés comme conduisant à la construction de la nation en même temps qu'au développement social et économique. Les différences d'opinion sur ce point sont cependant assez considéra bles parmi les leaders religieux et séculiers. C'est ainsi que la plupart des moines interviewés par l'auteur voient leurs rôles comme religieux. Au niveau du village, tout le mérite que l'on souhaite peut être acquis par les expressions religieuses traditionnelles, individuelles et collectives. Les leaders religieux peuvent contribuer à motiver les activités favorables au développement grâce à leur position de leadership, mais non par le fait qu'ils déclarent que de telles activités sont méritoires. En ce qui concerne l'économie d'acquisition du mérite, la richesse est un signe du mérite acquis, ainsi qu'une possibilité d'en acquérir davan tage. L'homme riche se trouve donc dans la meilleure position pour acquérir du mérite. Ses investissements le seront à la fois en mérite et en opportunité économique. La question cruciale qui se pose alors est de savoir si le riche ne va pas investir en opportunités qui accroissent la production per capita, ce qui serait peu en rapport avec le mérite. Finalement, l'économie d'acquisition du mérite peut fournir à la société Thai un modèle qui souligne l'utilité de l'épargne, de l'investissement et du succès, le mérite devenant une valeur qui potentiellement mène au développement économique.
Trois problèmes pour la sociologie du catholicisme
Authors: Poulat E. 
Published: March 2007

This article presents three fundamental problems which should be in cluded in an account of research in sociology of religion. The A. situates these problems within the framework of the French situation and seeks to present them 'not under a theoretical aspect, but from an organizational approach ... such as they arise from a structure'. The A. first analyses the lack of means by which sociological research is affected. University education allows little place for sociology of religion and even if the situation is better at the level of scientific research, the possibilities remain poor. Catholicism has given rise to many initiatives, but initiatives which provide 'on the whole a nucleus, some good ele ments, forming a dispersed and dissimilar whole'. The difficulty with re gard to formulating an objective of research in this field in operational terms, and the division between fundamental research and applied re search constitute other non negligible handicaps. The second problem raised by the A. is that of the backwardness of the theoretical approaches. Research in being chiefly orientated towards the systematic and scientific study of religious practice has met with another field of investigation: collective detachment with regard to a religion. The problem of 'dechristianisation' calls for other methods, another theoretical framework which at the moment comes up against a 'stone wall': how to link practice or the lack of practice to this faith of which it is an expression. To come across this wall would suppose, among other things, that we surmount the dichotomy artificially imposed between practice and faith. How explain that existing beliefs so long intact have ceased to constitute the basis of a political order, of a social consensus? Such a kind. of research must make use of instruments other than analysis of behaviour: 'it is indispensable to go as far as (the faithful's) thoughts, beliefs and prayers'; it must lead to the double problem of the 'reliability of the Church' and of the 'credibility of her teaching'. The third problem posed by the A. concerns the 'reduction' to which the sociology of Catholicism is often subjected in the mind of the clergy. The clergy has played a great part in the realization of sociographical studies, has liked sociology, but perhaps has retained only the technical aspects of it; it has reduced the image of sociology to a procedure of analysis of immediate practical problems. Hence the improvised, rudimentary and even a-scientific character of certain works. In the face of religious sociology the ecclesiastical authorities are unable to situate themselves and ignore what can be expected from it. This impoverished image has a tendency to develop in a 'pastoral sociology', apart from sociology it self, which utilizes its services but refuses its control. The A. warns against the scientific value of such a discipline. The future of religious sociology depends on a definite choice in this field.
Conflit symbolique et conflit social dans le champ religieux
Authors: Lienard Georges , Rousseau André 
Published: March 2007

In this article the authors' analyse — starting from an actual case — the repercussions of social conflict, in the religious sphere. The theoretical aspect of the work is aimed at showing how the sphere of religion both translates and transforms the political ideologies of conflicting groups. This leads on to an analysis of religious ideologies to indicate how groups use the sphere of religion according to their political interests. In the. course of the article the authors' demonstrate how the process of discussion is in fact an occasion of conflict, produced and used according to the positions occupied by the groups concerned both in the fields, of religion and politics. Understanding of these situations requires an analysis of symbolic. systems combined with a sociological theory of power.
Les théories sociologiques concernant la sécularisation - Typologie et critique
Authors: Lauwers Jan 
Published: March 2007

In addition to their manifest function of explaining the assumed or real deterioration of organized religion in our society, secularization theories have the latent function of tra cing new forms of religion. For sociologists of religion this seemed to be the way to overcome their identity crisis resulting from this assumed deterioration. Many sociologists of religion have made the secularization theories their new frame of refe rence. This has incited us to critically examine the validity of these theories. In the first part of this article, three types of secularization theories are discussed, viz. those emphazing pluralization (W. Herberg and M. Yinger), individualization (Th. Luckmann and P. Berger), and rationalization (M. Weber and B. Wil son). In the second part it is shown that all these theories-are based on two historically developed social theses. First, it is assumed that a distinction can be made between the« essence » of religion and its « accidental » historical form ; secondly, it is assumed that the religious can be separated from the non- religious. Both these assumptions have originated among cer tain positions in a certain historical context, and are still held and defended by certain positions. These secularization theories thus have an ideological basis. In the third part, the dialectical relationship between ideolo gy and social reality is discussed : secularization not only is an ideology without engagement, it is also a program of social action and as such may become social reality. This dialectic between ideology about. religion and reality of religion holds enough opportunities for research by sociologists of religion so that it is not necessary to promote these ideologies to frames of reference.
Secularization in Russian Sociology of Religion
Authors: De neve Andé 
Published: March 2007

Dans la sociologie récente de la religion en Russie, des auteurs s'occupent explicitement de la « sécularisation ». Aussi bien au niveau théorique que dans les recherches concrètes, ces études sur la sécularisation diffèrent très peu des publi cations antérieures des sociologues russes de la religion. Le matérialisme historique, qui fondait les études antérieures, peut certes aussi être considéré comme une théorie de la sé cularisation extrème. Là où les sociologues occidentaux ac ceptent que la religion se retire de certaines sphères de la vie sociale, les sociologues russes poussent cette affirmation à la limite : la religion disparaît ou disparaîtra de toutes les sphères de la vie publique et privée. Cette évolution est appelée aujourd'hui « sécularisation », mais les sociologues russes étudient ce phénomène de la même façon que leurs prédécesseurs étudiaient la « mort de la reli gion » dans le cadre du matérialisme historique. La théorie reste inchangée et il n'y a pas de nouveauté importante dans la recherche concrète en ce qui concerne les présupposés, le rassemblement des données et la portée des conclusions. Si nous considérons la sécularisation en Russie dans son contexte social, il est possible de parler alors de « participation socialiste ». On tend à la réalisation d'un modèle et d'un système social dans lequel la religion est un élément disfonc tionnel et par conséquent un indicateur de non participation. Dans cette perspective, la sécularisation n'est pas une plu ralisation (ou une individualisation) croissante, mais plutôt une uniformisation et une indistinction grandissantes.
Simplified Method for Evaluating the Dimensional Stability of Tubular Knit Fabrics
Authors: Weiner Louis I. 
Published: March 2007

This department in TEXTILE RESEARCH JOURNAL is a special section for notes on laboratory techniques peculiar to textile testing and research which would ordinarily not be of sufficient importance or length for publication as a formal JOURNAL paper. It is intended to encourage free exchange of helpful modifications of existing tests or ap paratus for special purposes and to bring to light newly developed methods and devices. The time spent in standardizing present tests and in developing new ones for the multitude of problems facing the textile technologist would be considerably reduced if information of this sort were made available. Therefore the JOURNAL invites contributions from its readers. In accordance with the established practice, all papers will be submitted to competent judges before being accepted for publication.