bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Planning Retirement Income in Australia: Routes through the Maze
Authors: Atkinson M. E. , Creedy John , Knox D. M. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractIndividual retirees face a daunting task when they consider how best to invest their accumulated superannuation account and non‐superannuation savings. This article highlights the fact that there is rarely an obvious decision in this choice and that the optimal decision depends on a number of factors. These factors include the valuation criterion adopted, the level of benefits, the individual's income level, the means‐tests, the tax rates on income and superannuation benefits and the person's life expectancy. The optimal behaviour at retirement is significantly affected by the individual characteristics of relative lifetime earnings and post‐retirement rates of mortality.
Should AFTA and CER Link?
Authors: Lloyd P. J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis article examines the logic of the link between the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and the Closer Economic Relations (CER) regional trading arrangements which was mooted by the Thai Prime Minister in 1993. AFTA and CER are the only two regional trading arrangements in the East Asia/West Pacific region and both are advancing to a high degree of regional integration. This article argues that there are undoubted gains to be had from an AFTA‐CER link by itself which includes reciprocal trade liberalisation as well as trade facilitation. Both groups of countries would benefit from freer trade between them and both have a lot to learn from the experiences of the other regional trading arrangement. However, this link will be redundant if the Bogor Declaration of the APEC is implemented after the Osaka meeting of APEC Leaders in November 1995. If, instead, multilateral trade liberalisation through the World Trade Organisation and APEC falters, an AFTA‐CER link becomes an important possibility.
Real Business Cycle Models: An Introduction
Authors: Crosby Mark , Otto Glenn 
Published: January 2008

AbstractIn this article we present a simple real business cycle (RBC) model, in order to show that these models capture many of the features of business cycles in the real economy. While these models are very abstract, we argue that they are a useful way of thinking about the macro‐economy. RBC models have also been influential in refocusing attention on supply issues in macroeconomics, after a long postwar focus on aggregate demand management in Australia and most other western economies. Policies such as structural reform and labour market reform are clearly aimed at influencing the supply side of the economy and productivity, and can be understood within the framework of RBC theory. RBC models have developed rapidly recently, yet there remains a good deal of misunderstanding about the methods and aims of these models. In this article we present a review of the literature and examine a simple model, using graphical techniques, to clarify some issues. We also argue that these models, while having limitations, have caused a fruitful re‐examination of supply issues in economics, after the almost exclusive focus on aggregate demand in macroeconomics until the late 1970s.
Private and Social Rates of Return to Secondary and Higher Education in New Zealand: Evidence from the 1991 Census
Authors: Maani Sholeh A. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract With significant increases in the demand for higher education in New Zealand since the 1980s, the question of the size of the returns to investments in education has been of significant interest. Despite this interest, studies have been few in number and based on aggregated measures from the 1960s to 1981. This study is the first to utilise micro‐level data from the 1991 New Zealand Census. The study employs and compares the conventional methods of regression earnings functions, and internal rate of return analyses of private and social rates of return. The results indicate that returns to education are economically significant, at rates that are higher for females, even when adjusting for hours of work and female labour force participation differences. The returns are subject to diminishing returns, and social rates of return are 1 per cent to 3 per cent lower than private returns—a result that is consistent with those of OECD countries, but among the smaller differences by international standards.
Forward Planning and Stability of the Australian Migration Program
Authors: Clarke Harry 
Published: January 2008

AbstractShould the Australian immigration intake be forward‐planned and, if so, should the resulting intake be numerically stable through time? There are sound reasons for anticipating the effects of current intakes on future intakes and for basing current intakes on Australia's long‐term national objectives. These policy requirements imply a case for forward planning but not the need for a stable intake. Appropriately designed numerically unstable intakes are preferable to stable intakes because instability, while introducing adjustment costs, avoids more significant losses due to reduced selectivity in the entry mix.
Of Grand Prix and Circuses
Authors: Gans Joshua S. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThe public competition between states for major events such as the Indy Car, Formula One and Motor Cycle Grand Prix is analysed from a simple game theoretic perspective. It is demonstrated that such competition is, in general, harmful to the states themselves. Competition leads to greater payments for events to promoters, distortions in the type of event eventually held and, sometimes, the wrong state holding the event. These considerations give a prima facie case for central coordination of event attraction to Australia.
A Cost Function Analysis of the Australian Transportation Equipment Industry
Authors: Truett Lila J. , Truett Dale B. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis article investigates the existence of economies of scale and input cross and direct price elasticities of demand in the Australian motor vehicle industry. Our estimated cost elasticities were less than one (consistent with economies of scale), but not significantly less than one at the 10 per cent level for two versions of the model. However, the estimated cost elasticity was significantly less than one at approximately the 2.5 per cent level for a third. Thus, these results give some credibility to the infant industry argument for continued assistance to the Australian transportation equipment industry. A four‐input model separating domestic and foreign intermediate goods inputs suggests that while restrictions on imported components may have given some short‐run relief to the domestic components industry and increased the demand for labour domestically, they decreased the demand for domestic capital. Although the infant industry argument could support short‐run protectionist policies for the industry, it appears that such policies regarding the Australian motor vehicle industry must be designed carefully with a specified phase‐out period if long‐term adverse results are to be avoided.
SUR L'HISTOPHYSIOLOGIE DES ANNEXES FŒTALES DES MAMMIFÈRES
Authors: GÉRARD Par POL 
Published: January 2008

Résumé.The histophysiology varies in the three different types of placenta, namely the epitheliochorial, the endotheliochorial, and the haemochorial.The histophysiology of epitheliochorial placentas is almost unknown. In the case of the other two types, researches have been made which, although fragmentary, allow of the following conclusions being deduced. In endotheliochorial placentas the hypertrophied uterine glands contribute considerably to the nutrition of the embryo. The remainder of the substances, at the expense of which embryonic development is carried out, come from the maternal blood and are absorbed in the region of the placenta by the trophoblastic ectoderm. This absorption is selective: when certain soluble substances are injected into the maternal circulation, some are seen to pass into the embryo, others are stopped by the trophoblast, in which they accumulate.In the case of haemochorial placentas the uterine glands supply little material for embryonic development. The embryotrophic substances are derived from two sources. One of these is the maternal cells, which become filled with reserve inclusions (decidual cells) and are absorbed by the trophoblast. A veritable maternal placenta is thus formed, which, in certain species, can change its situation in the course of gestation, being at first localised in the basilar deciduum, then rapidly absorbed, and finally reformed in the region of the mesometrium. The second source is the maternal blood which directly bathes the foetal trophoblast. The latter partially fixes colouring matters injected into the mother, while allowing a certain amount to diffuse into the embryonic mesenchymatous tissue of the placenta. Here the maternal blood, comes into contact with the embryonic vessels, the endothelium of which acts as an impassable barrier for the dyes, since these are not found in the embryo itself, although they pass into the external coelom. In rodents the umbilical vesicle, by means of its vitelline endoderm, acts as an energetic resorber and contributes to the nutrition of the embryo. In the rodents showing inversion of layers the endoderm of the umbilical vesicle is differentiated differently on the placental face and on the inner layer of the umbilical vesicle. Physiological differences correspond to these morphological differences.
CHEMICAL HETEROGONY AND THE GROUNDPLAN OF ANIMAL GROWTH1
Authors: NEEDHAM JOSEPH 
Published: January 2008

Summary1. In the preceding pages the application of the concept of heterogony to the chemical changes in growing Metazoa has been discussed.2. A number of concrete examples have been brought forward which seem to indicate a uniformity of chemical heterogony in widely different organisms.3. Hence it is suggested that there exists a fundamental chemical ground‐plan of animal growth, capable of very varying expression in space‐time.
THE HAEMOCYANINS
Authors: REDFIELD ALFRED C. 
Published: January 2008

As yet we know comparatively little about haemocyanin. especially with regard to its relation to oxygen. It is a matter which would well repay investigation to determine whether it has the remarkable properties which haemoglobin has in this respect. properties which are at present unique. (Bayliss, Principles of General Physiology, 1915.)Summary.The haemocyanins are proteins combined with a prosthetic group consisting of a complex copper salt of a sulphur compound and a polypeptide. The physical and chemical properties of haemocyanin are largely due to its protein nature, and the specific differences between the haemocyanins of different groups of animals result largely from the differences in the protein part of the molecule. The combination of haemocyanin with oxygen and the characteristic change in the absorption spectrum which results are, on the other hand, properties of the prosthetic group. The haemocyanin combines with oxygen in all cases in proportion to its copper content, one molecule of oxygen being combined by a quantity of haemocyanin containing two atoms of copper. There is some evidence that at least two modifications of the prosthetic group may occur characterising the Crustacea and cephalopods on the one hand, and the gastropods and Limulus on the other. The equilibrium with oxygen may be described by the mass law if it be assumed that under different conditions one, two, or four prosthetic groups must be oxygenated simultaneously in order to form a stable compound and that under certain conditions a mixture of such forms of the protein exist. In general the oxygenation phenomena displayed by haemocyanin differ from those of haemoglobin only in a quantitative sense.The copper of the prosthetic group is in the cuprous condition but may be oxidised, forming methaemocyanin, by strong agents. Methaemocyanin will combine reversibly with oxygen, forming oxymethaemocyanin. Haemocyanin also combines with carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and with cyanide, forming stable compounds.The physiological function of haemocyanin as a respiratory pigment is well established in the case of the cephalopods. Some correlation exists between the activity of various animals, the oxygen capacity of the blood, and the pressures of oxygen under which the haemocyanin becomes oxygenated.
CHEMICAL REGULATION AND THE HORMONE CONCEPT
Authors: HUXLEY JULIAN S. 
Published: January 2008

Summary.Summing up, our general conclusions are therefore as follows:1. The term hormone can only be defined biologically, as a chemical substance produced by one tissue with the primary function of exerting a specific effect of functional value on another tissue.2. This biological definition is justifiable, and likely to prove of permanent value.3. All gradations exist between hormones as above defined and substances which exert their specific effect on the same tissue by which they are produced. The term activator is proposed to cover these substances as well as hormones.4. All gradations exist between hormones and activators above defined, and substances produced as by‐products of metabolism (normal or pathological) which then exert effects (of specific functional or of accidental nature) on the other tissues (or on the same tissue). For these the term parahormone (Gley) or para‐activator will serve.5. Activators may be classified according to their means of transport: (a) Local activators, no transport, (b) Distance activators or hormones, with transport; (i) diffusion hormones, transport by diffusion, (ii) circulating hormones, transport by the blood stream or lymph.
GROWTH, TIME, AND FORM
Authors: GLASER OTTO 
Published: January 2008

Summary1. The equation, log w=k. log (2t+ 1) +C is a peculiar modification of the compound interest law. It is derived from growth in fresh weight of chick embryos, and applies to fresh weights of the domestic fowl and of the smaller as well as larger domestic mammals. For the dairy cow, weights are calculable from time, with an error of less than 1 per cent.2. The circumstances under which k can remain constant are analysed. A period of constancy is called a stanza of growth. Stanzas for the whole and the part or for different parts, may or may not be synchronized. The conditions under which a particular category terminates a stanza of growth can be foreseen from the circumstances that assure the constancy of k.3. In the category of fresh weight, water is the quantitatively dominant entity. The equation describes also other categories: (a) when dominated by specific entities; (b) when their quantitative organization is constant; (c) when applied to specific isolated chemical substances. This and the relatively independent behaviour of unit categories or entities makes it possible to calculate the amount of calcium moved from the shell by the developing embryo; and to account for the upward swing of dry substance after the ninth day of incubation. The only specific postnatal category dealt with, is “antlers” in deer. Such analysis is possible since, under certain conditions, the time “lost” in intermittent growth, becomes irrelevant.4. The effects of temporal errors introduced by faulty timing are discussed and illustrated. According to the equation, any finite value of k automatically provides for the termination of growth at infinity. Actual cessation is mathematically precocious, and implicates heterogony.5. By means of y=bxk, the functional relation between organic mass and time can be extended to include also form, since the heterogonic constant
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6. Heterogonous growth may be considered as imposed on a system in certain respects practically or actually isogonous at origin. Parallel rates whether limited to a single stanza or surviving several are designated according to the number of rates involved, as isogonic diads, triads, etc., and are responsible for the maintenance of the compatibilities during heterogonic growth.7. Among the heterogonic relationships is one that cannot at all times conform to y= bxk, since it involves the mixture “dry substance”. Excepting the frog tadpole prior to metamorphosis, the ratio of water to dry substance falls during growth and stabilizes at maturity. Where growth is indeterminate, stabilization occurs at a level higher than for determinate growth.8. Certain kinetic implications of the water to dry substance ratio suggest that growth, maintenance, and senility, are related to changes in the rates of the several metabolic transactions. This hypothesis is tested by an appeal to data on the frog, the white rat, man, and a variety of crop plants. In all the plants the onset of senility demonstrably associates with a fall of the water to dry substance ratio below the maintenance level of maturity.
ENZYME VARIATION IN MICRO‐ORGANISMS
Authors: YUDKIN JOHN 
Published: January 2008

SummaryThe increase in enzyme content in micro‐organisms may be classified according to the type of substance responsible for the increase. First, as has been suggested by Jacoby, the substance may be necessary to the cell as a “brick” for the building up of the enzyme molecule. Secondly, the substance may be the substrate of the enzyme or some closely related compound. A substance in this class may act either directly on the individual cell or as a selecting agent during growth of cells in which the enzyme has appeared as a mutation. Examples of direct chemical interaction between cell and substrate (adaptation) are the hydrogenlyase of Bact. coli and the galactozymase of yeast; examples of mutation and selection occur amongst organisms of the Bact. coli mutabile type.As would be expected, when organisms possessing a newly acquired enzyme are grown in the absence of the substrate, enzymes arising by adaptation are readily lost whilst enzymes arising by mutation and selection tend to be permanent.It would also be expected that the former type of enzyme production would occur in the absence of cell division; for natural selection to operate, however, cell division is essential. Many unsatisfactory attempts have been made to show the dependence or otherwise of certain examples of enzyme production on cell division, such as the study of enzyme production in the presence or absence of suitable growth substances or of poisons. By counting experiments, however, it has been clearly shown that, in the two examples of adaptation quoted, enzyme production occurs in the absence of cell division.Although enzyme production has been obtained in non‐dividing (but untreated) cells, it has not yet been found possible to obtain it in cells which have been rendered non‐viable, that is, incapable of dividing. It would be of interest if such poisoned cells would be found still able to produce the adaptive enzyme, but it is necessary to define carefully the meaning of living cell and growth in relation to micro‐organisms before deciding on the dependence of enzyme production on cell viability or cell growth.Apart from general statements of a teleological nature, the literature contains no general theory of adaptive enzyme production. The “mass‐action” theory of enzyme formation here developed explains the majority of the known facts, is in contradiction with none of them, and allows several deductions to be made which are capable of being tested experimentally.
THE CO‐ORDINATION OF VERTEBRATE MELANOPHORE RESPONSES
Authors: WARING H. 
Published: January 2008

Summary1. Two classes of melanophore responses to light can be distinguished: (a) A primary, direct or non‐visual response involving the expansion of the melanophores in light and their contraction in darkness. This non‐visual response may be a co‐ordinated response or the melanophore may be an independent effector. (b) A secondary or visual response when the melanophores contract if the visual field is coincident with a light‐scattering field, and expand if the animal is exposed to superior illumination in surroundings which do not reflect or scatter light coming from above.2. Co‐ordination of melanophore responses in elasmobranchs and Amphibia is by means of pituitary hormones circulating in the blood.3. A direct nervous control of melanophores has been superimposed on the more archaic humoral mechanism to a varying extent in different genera of teleosts. Sufficient is now known of this group to formulate tentatively a general scheme applicable to all forms, according to which the two components–humoral and nervous–are developed to a greater or less extent in various genera.4. Co‐ordination of melanophore responses in some reptiles is solely humoral. In others only nervous agencies have been discovered. Insufficient data are available to construct a scheme showing the phyletic relationship of the two systems between the members of the group.5. The kind of evidence that is acceptable for the existence of the various co‐ordinating systems is discussed.6. The merits of the bihumoral, double innervation and neuro‐humoral hypotheses are discussed.7. An evolutionary scheme is appended which may tentatively be taken to indicate that direct nervous control is phylogenetically a later development than humoral control.
BIOLOGICAL METHYLATION
Authors: BACH S. J. 
Published: January 2008

SummaryThe enzymatic methylation or demethylation of naturally occurring compounds represents significant metabolic processes which have gained additional interest since the discovery of a mechanism by means of which methyl groups can be transferred from one compound to another.The capacity to transfer methyl groups is confined to a fewN‐and S‐methylated compounds; methyl groups linked to C atoms, however, have not been found to be transferable but are known in some cases to be oxidized. OtherN‐methylated compounds, such as sarcosine, the methylated ammonium bases, the α‐ and γ‐betaines of amino‐acids other than glycine, are unable to take part in the methyl exchange in either direction, but are oxida‐tively demethylated by the organism or excreted unchanged. Choline, methionine, and to a lesser degree betaine, play a major part in transmethylation; these compounds are needed for the maintenance of growth and for the prevention of fatty infiltration of the liver, kidney haemorrhage, liver cirrhosis, or perosis. Since choline can methylate homocysteine to methionine in the organism and conversely methionine and betaine are able to supply methyl groups for the methylation of ethanol‐amine to choline, a system of continuous interchange of methyl groups is established and a ‘pool’ of labile methyl groups is formed. This ‘pool’ also acts as a source of methyl supply for other compounds such as creatine, methylnicotinamide, anserine and possibly others, but these latter compounds have not been shown to act as ‘methyl donors’. The role of glycine and of methylated purines as methylating agents is controversial.The liver is the main site of methylation, though kidney and muscle tissue were found to catalyse methylation in a few cases. The chemical mechanism of methylation and demethylation has not yet been clarified. Oxidation prior to demethylation is believed to take place in the case of methionine. A methyl synthesis from unmethylated sources is possible but not probable; as a consequence methylated compounds with labile methyl groups must be regarded as essential dietary factors.The physiological significance of the numerous naturally occurringN‐methylated compounds is further enhanced by their pharmacological effects and by their relationship to hormones. The latter manifests itself in the preponderant occurrence of many methylated compounds at the sites of hormonal activities connected with reproduction, and conversely by the alleged effect of some hormones on methylating activities. Thus it is not unreasonable to picture an influence of methylating reactions on the regulatory activities of hormones leading in pathological cases to a derangement of the hormonal balance and possibly to abnormal growth conditions such as malignancy.I wish to express my gratitude to Dr E. M. Crook, Kothamsted Experimental Station, for reading the manuscript and for valuable criticism.