bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Test for Measuring Transient Characteristics of Tires
Authors: Bandel P. , Di Bernardo C. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A new method is described for measuring tire cornering stiffness and relaxation length under transient conditions. The hub of the test tire, which is riding atop a rotating drum, is attached to a horizontal beam that is hinged at its other end to permit free lateral motion of the tire. When the tire is given a lateral pulse it oscillates at its natural frequency about the position of zero steer angle. Both cornering stiffness and relaxation length of the tire can be calculated from the frequency and logarithmic decay of the resulting oscillations. Results of this “pendulum” test are compared with those from steady-state tests and from the sinusoidal steer angle test, which has been the conventional one for measuring transient tire characteristics. Advantages of the pendulum test are pointed out.
Design and Analysis of a Composite Integral Wheel-Tire
Authors: Su J. H. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
An integrated design and analysis methodology for a Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Integral Wheel-Tire (IWT) was developed for applications in different automotive vehicles. The results are presented specifically for composite epoxy structures reinforced with long glass fibers and having a bonded rubber tread. This methodology includes automated design and analysis procedure and allows for closing the loop in the integration of materials, process, and design phases of a product. The results from this methodology were verified by testing real parts. The effect of a design change was predicted automatically in a short turn-around time. As an example, a study of footprint sensitivity to design parameters is discussed.
Mathematical Models of Stiffness Nonuniformity and Run-out Effects as Measured on a Low Speed Nonuniformity Machine
Authors: Allaei D. , Soedel W. , Yang T. Y. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Two types of tire nonuniformity seem to be mainly responsible for the radial force variation of a slowly rolling tire as measured on a nonuniformity machine: radial stiffness variation around the structure and roundness nonuniformity, also called run-out. The purpose of this paper is to present mathematical models representing either of these variations. The models assume that the natural frequencies and modes of the uniform tire are available, and expresses the effects of the nonuniformities in terms of these uniform modes. The method presented can be used to distinguish between stiffness and geometric nonuniformities.
Improvements of Wandering Performance by Investigation into Characteristics of Tires
Authors: Yamashita O. , Shiraishi T. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Wandering of buses and trucks on rutted roads has recently attracted attention in Japan. The phenomenon is associated with the balance of forces between tires and a canted road surface. A high camber stiffness of tires, leading to a high yaw rate, is shown to be desirable for minimizing wandering. A lesser but still important effect is associated with cornering power. Effects on other desirable tire properties, however, must be considered.
Determination of Stiffness Properties of Multi-Ply Cord-Rubber Composites
Authors: Parhizgar S. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The material properties of cord-rubber composites required for finite element analysis of tires are discussed. It is shown that the current experimental methods used in verification of the Laminated Plate Theory have not adequately included the coupling deformations existing in unsymmetrical laminated composites. The importance of these coupling deformations is demonstrated on a 0/90 laminated strip. A special grip system capable of decoupling loads and moments applied to a 0/90 laminated strip is introduced. A procedure for experimental determination of the stiffness constants of 0/90 laminate is given.
Finite Element Simulation of Tire-Rim Interface
Authors: Tseng N. T. , Pelle R. G. , Chang J. P. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A finite element model was developed to simulate the tire-rim interface. Elastomers were modeled by nonlinear incompressible elements, whereas plies were simulated by cord-rubber composite elements. Gap elements were used to simulate the opening between tire and rim at zero inflation pressure. This opening closed when the inflation pressure was increased gradually.
The predicted distribution of contact pressure at the tire-rim interface agreed very well with the available experimental measurements. Several variations of the tire-rim interference fit were analyzed.
Some Consequences of Coulomb Friction in Modeling Longitudinal Traction
Authors: Klingbeil W. W. , Witt H. W. H. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A three-component model for a belted radial tire, previously developed by the authors for free rolling without slip, is generalized to include longitudinal forces and deformations associated with driving and braking. Surface tractions at the tire-road interface are governed by a Coulomb friction law in which the coefficient of friction is assumed to be constant.
After a brief review of the model, the mechanism of interfacial shear force generation is delineated and explored under traction with perfect adhesion. Addition of the friction law then leads to the inception of slide zones, which propagate through the footprint with increasing severity of maneuvers. Different behavior patterns under driving and braking are emphasized, with comparisons being given of sliding displacements, sliding velocities, and frictional work at the tire-road interface.
As a further application of the model, the effect of friction coefficient and of test variables such as load, deflection, and inflation pressure on braking stiffness are computed and compared to analogous predictions on the braking spring rate.
Elastic-quasi-dynamic Solution of the Mallory Tube Test
Authors: Assaad M. C. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A novel numerical approach to model the bending of a straight Mallory tube into a desired configuration is described. The effect of the bimodular behavior of synthetic reinforcement cord on the bending process is reported. The reinforcement used encompasses the most widely used fibers such as polyester, nylon, and rayon. The principal strain magnitudes at the reinforcement layer are computed under pure bending. The internal inflation pressure and the angular velocity at which the tube is rotated do not have a noticeable effect on the strain magnitudes. However, the axial length of the tube, the location of the reinforcing layers inside the thickness of the tube, and the orientation of this layer have shown remarkable influence on the strain distribution. Finally, the strain magnitudes from the numerical solution are compared with the strain magnitude measured from actual photographs of the tube during testing. The calculated strain magnitudes and the measured ones were found to be in good agreement.
Two-Dimensional Contact Pressure Distribution of a Radial Tire
Authors: Akasaka T. , Katoh M. , Nihei S. , Hiraiwa M. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Two-dimensional contact pressure distribution of a radial tire, statically compressed to a flat roadway, is analyzed using a rectangular contact patch.
The tire structure is modeled by a spring-bedded ring belt comprised of a laminated-biased composite strip. The belt is supported by radial springs simulating the sidewall. The spring constant Kr was well defined previously by one of the authors.
Deformation of the rectangular flat belt is obtained theoretically. The belt is subjected to inflation pressure, reaction forces transmitted from the spring bed of the tread rubber, and shearing force and bending moment along the belt boundaries brought from side-wall springs and the detached part of the ring belt. In-plane membrane forces, which are not uniform in the contact area, due to the friction forces acting between the tread surface and the roadway are also applied.
The resulting contact pressure distributions in the circumferential direction are shown to be convex along the shoulder, but concave along the crown center line. This distribution agrees well with the experimental results.
A Study on the Contour of the Truck and Bus Radial Tire
Authors: Ogawa H. , Furuya S. , Koseki H. , Iida H. , Sato K. , Yamagishi K. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The Tension Control Optimization Theory, TCOT, allows for heavy duty truck and bus tires with greater bead and belt durability and increased fuel efficiency than conventionally shaped truck and bus tires, without sacrificing other important performance characteristics such as maneuverability, wear resistance, etc.
Before TCOT, conventional truck and bus tires used the theory of the natural equilibrium shape as a base. TCOT technology expands the Rolling Contour Optimization Theory, RCOT, and proposes the ultimate tire casing contour according to tire application.
TCOT optimizes the control of the tension in an inflated tire and the control of the change of the contour by inflation pressure, and regulates strains in the belts and plycord edges, limiting the occurrence and spread of minute but potentially damaging cracks in the vulnerable edges of a rolling tire.
Viscoelastic Properties of Aircraft Tire Materials
Authors: Tielking J. T. , Hanson R. R. , Giacomin A. J. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Specimens cut from a 40 × 14 nylon cord aircraft tire were subjected to cyclic strain tests to measure the viscoelastic behavior. Spectral analysis was used to quantify nonlinearity in the stress response. Preliminary studies were made to ascertain the effects of specimen length and width on the test results. A bolted end constraint was developed to uniformly distribute the imposed strain through the thickness of the multiply carcass specimens. Test results show the effects of temperature, frequency, and strain level on the viscoelastic properties. Results are generally in agreement with earlier findings made using tubular test specimens.
Development of A Three-Dimensional Membrane Element for the Finite Element Analysis of Tires
Authors: Ishihara K. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A three-dimensional membrane element was developed for the finite element analysis of tires. In general, the three-dimensional finite element analysis of tires uses a lot of computing time because of the complex nature of the problem. Major sources of complexity are, for example, nonlinearities in kinematics, material properties, boundary conditions, and the multilayer structure which is inherent to the tire. One of the ways to overcome this situation can be in the modeling strategy. This paper describes an approach where the cord-rubber composite components of the tire are modeled by membrane elements. The number of nodes required in the tire model using this strategy is considerably reduced, without any loss of accuracy, compared with models in which only ordinary solid elements are used. The nonlinear finite element formulation, numerical examples, and a comparison of the results with those obtained from models using solid elements and experimental values are given in the paper.
A New Tire Construction Which Reduces Ply Steer
Authors: Kabe K. , Morikawa T. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Currently, the main tire construction is the radial construction. The radial construction consists of a carcass layer with cords parallel to the tire cross section and a belt layer which surrounds the tire in the circumferential direction and stiffens the tread band. The radial construction has better performance characteristics than the bias construction. It has higher durability, better wear resistance of the tread, lower rolling resistance, and better performance at high speed because of the stable contact response developed by the belt ply. On the other hand, the belt construction of the radial tire causes ply steer. This ply steer is also a cause of steering pull and uneven tread wear.
This paper describes a new tire construction which enables the reduction of ply steer. The new construction features the carcass cord having some angle with respect to the tire cross section and also with respect to the cord of the adjacent belt ply. It is shown that the new tire construction can significantly reduce ply steer through variation of the carcass cord angle.
Elastic Properties and Mechanical Losses in Rubbers in Complex Stressed State
Authors: Priss L. S. , Shumskaya A. G. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
It is shown that in the strain range from 30% compression to 60% tension, the elastic potential of filled rubber compounds can be described with sufficient accuracy as a polynomial of the fourth degree with three independent constants. Methods to experimentally determine these constants are pointed out. A method for the calculation of mechanical losses in rubber compounds in a complex stressed state is suggested using the measurement data for simple modes of loading.
Uniformity of Tire-Wheel Assemblies
Authors: Schuring D. J. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Interactions between the tire and wheel of an assembly are adding extra nonuniformities to those of the tire and wheel themselves. The additional nonuniformities are not small. In one example their average effect on the radial force was 25 to 30 N for two commercial wheels, and 10 N for a precision-machined wheel.
Interaction forces are acting randomly and hence are seriously disturbing any tire-wheel matching effort. A simple statistical model is suggested, describing their distribution and allowing an estimation of their effects on tire-wheel matching.
At this time no leading cause for the existence of interaction forces is known; they seem to accrue from many different minor sources. It is to be hoped that the continuous refinements achieved in the tire and wheel manufacturing processes will eventually reduce all non-uniformities, including interaction forces, to levels that would render tire-wheel matching unnecessary.
A Quantitative Theory for the Computation of Tire Friction Under Severe Conditions of Sliding
Authors: Ettles C. M. Mc C. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
It is proposed that tire-pavement friction is controlled by thermal rather than by hysteresis and viscoelastic effects. A numerical model of heating effects in sliding is described in which the friction coefficient emerges as a dependent variable. The overall results of the model can be expressed in a closed form using Blok's flash temperature theory. This allows the factors controlling rubber friction to be recognized directly.
The model can be applied in quantitative form to metal-polymer-ice contacts. Several examples of correlation are given. The difficulties of characterizing the contact conditions in tire-pavement friction reduce the model to qualitative form. Each of the governing parameters is examined in detail. The attainment of higher friction by small, discrete particles of aluminum filler is discussed.
The Driving Severity Number (DSN) — A Step Toward Quantifying Treadwear Test Conditions
Authors: Veith A. G. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A system, called the “Driving Severity Monitor” (DSM), has been developed for characterizing tire force distribution as related to treadwear in either normal tire use or in tire fleet testing in a convoy. The system consists of an accelerometer for monitoring lateral accelerations, a wheel revolution counter, and a module for signal processing and read-out. The output of the DSM is reduced to a single index, the Driving Severity Number (DSN), which characterizes a vehicle journey. The DSN is equal to the sum of squares of lateral acceleration measured once per tire revolution during a trip, divided by the number of wheel revolutions. The DSN had a high degree of correlation (R ≧ 0.95) with treadwear in two wear programs when pavement abrasiveness was held constant. This supports the concept that the three basic treadwear components: tire force distribution, pavement abrasiveness, and ambient temperature, can be separated for better understanding of tire treadwear.
Numerical Results of Tire-Test Drum Interaction
Authors: Laging G. , Rothert H. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Inflated tires without grooves have been examined both numerically and experimentally for behavior under vertical and horizontal loads. Complete load-deformation analysis of the contact area was emphasized. Both two-dimensional and three-dimensional models were investigated.
The three-dimensional approach includes geometrical non-linearities, hyperelastic material properties, deformation-dependent load components, and a contact problem with friction. Any contact surface contour can be included in the computation by introducing local coordinates for each node in the footprint area. Test drum experiments can thus be used for comparison.
Extensive experimental and numerical studies were done on tires quasi-statically loaded against convex and concave drums. Results seem to confirm the need for plane-surface test devices. The main reason for this is the nonlinear relation of the size of the contact area to the stress distribution or to the maximum stress values.
Predictive Indoor Wheel Testing of Heavy Duty Truck Tires
Authors: Keefe R. L. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
An indoor wheel test for heavy duty truck tires has been developed to predict in-service failures of commercial and developmental tires. The test, run at slow speed and high load to emphasize stress and fatigue rather than heat, is based on the premise that repeated high stress is the principal cause of in-service tire failure. These stresses occur when dynamic or transient overloads are caused by road bumps, load transfer during braking and cornering, or dual tire configuration on non-uniform surfaces. Although these overloads may occur infrequently, they can become very significant in the long distances run by truck tires. Other current heavy duty truck tire tests are generally run at higher speeds, emphasizing heat resistance of rubber compounds, or else are low-speed, much-overloaded bead tests which are unrealistically severe. Since its development in 1974 the present test has been broadly predictive for many belt, carcass, or fatigue related in-service failures of both bias and radial commercial and developmental truck tires. The test is called “The DuPont High Load Wheel Test” to distinguish it from other low-speed-high-load tests.
Wear Measurements on Rubber Compounds
Authors: Bottasso F. , Giuliani G. P. , Nahmias M. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A test procedure is described which permits isolation of controllable variables such as the formula, the curing cycle, and the curing temperature on the intrinsic wear rate of tire tread compounds under low-severity conditions of use. The specimen, in the form of a rubber roller, rotates in contact with a solid wheel. Both a vertical load and a braking torque may be applied to obtain pressures and slippage in the contact area that are typical for pneumatic tires in service. The specimen has a central core, made of a suitable compound, and a thin outer layer made of the compound to be tested. This keeps the contact area and the specimen temperature constant so that they do not affect measurements of intrinsic wear rate of the compound. Some effects of temperature on intrinsic wear rate are discussed.
Fourier Transform Applications to Tire Life Testing
Authors: Potts G. R. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) has been used increasingly in such tire tests as uniformity, ride vibration analysis, acoustic intensity measurement, and modal analysis of tire and vehicle structures. A new application for the FFT is in monitoring tire endurance and high speed tests to identify significant changes in tire structural integrity and to provide advanced warning of impending tire failure so that the test may be terminated prior to ultimate failure of the tire. Greater information concerning the initiation of failure can then be obtained than is possible by trying to reconstruct the remains of a failed tire. Continuous display of FFT analysis of tire carriage vibrations reveals one to fifteen harmonics of tire rotation frequency on a new tire, with higher harmonics growing with test time. Just prior to failure, these higher harmonics grow in unison to very high levels with a “white-harmonic” spectrum appearing. Since the tire would then fail within 5 to 20 seconds, the test should be terminated. This paper details the techniques applied and the results obtained to date in creating a test monitoring program that will notify the test operator of significant test developments, and in automatic shutdown of tires nearing failure.
Steering Pull and Residual Aligning Torque
Authors: Matyja F. E. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A laboratory method is described for measuring residual aligning torque, which is presented as a predictor of tire contribution to steering pull. Results from a new steering pull test are compared with those for conicity levels on tire combinations having differing aligning torques. The individual contributions of conicity and plysteer to residual aligning torque are discussed, as are correlations between residual aligning torque values obtained in two laboratories. The effect of tire belt angle and tread design on residual aligning torque is shown in three experiments.
Rubber Fracture Characterization Using J-Integral
Authors: Chow C. L. , Wang J. , Tse P. N. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The use of the J-integral to investigate fracture characterization in a carbon black reinforced natural rubber is described. Three applications to crack initiation are included: two based on the use of a hypothetical zero specimen length and one on conventional testing procedures for metals. While the validity of the zero-length methods is questionable, the conventional method yielded a consistent Jc value of 1.01 N/mm for a typical tire compound. This value was obtained from 24 combinations of varying specimen geometries and pre-crack lengths. The J-integral is revealed as a valid fracture parameter that is applicable not only for material evaluation but also for designing tire structures to resist premature failure. These conclusions disagree with those from an earlier investigation, so the causes for the discrepancies are examined and discussed.
Determination of Stiffness Properties of Single-Ply Cord-Rubber Composites
Authors: Parhizgar S. , Weissman E. M. , Chen C. S. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Accurate determination of stiffness properties of cord-rubber composites is a key to successful finite element analysis of tires. The Halpin-Tsai and similar equations which are used to determine stiffness properties of cord-rubber single plies from the stiffness properties of cord and rubber do not provide adequate accuracy. Determination of these properties from strains directly measured by the Moire technique is more appropriate. In this paper the disadvantages of Halpin-Tsai and similar equations as well as the advantages of the Moire technique for cord-rubber composites are discussed. The stiffness properties obtained using the above different methods are compared. These stiffness properties are then used in the finite element analysis of a two-ply cord-rubber strip. The results of the finite element analyses are compared with experimental data.
Nonlinear Viscoelastic Finite Element Analysis of Adhesive Joints
Authors: Roy S. , Reddy J. N. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A good understanding of the process of adhesion from the mechanics viewpoint and the predictive capability for structural failures associated with adhesively bonded joints require a realistic modeling (both constitutive and kinematic) of the constituent materials. The present investigation deals with the development of an Updated Lagrangian formulation and the associated finite element analysis of adhesively bonded joints. The formulation accounts for the geometric nonlinearity of the adherends and the nonlinear viscoelastic behavior of the adhesive. Sample numerical problems are presented to show the stress and strain distributions in bonded joints.