bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy of Polymers—Theory and Application
Authors: Fanconi BM 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) technique is replacing conventional dispersive instruments in the acquisition of IR spectroscopic data. For standards organizations this implies that existing standard test methods involving IR spectral analysis need to be modified. In an FT-IR system all spectral information is contained in the interferogram produced by scanning the Michelson interferometer. The factors controlling spectral resolution and sensitivity are, therefore, different from those governing these properties of dispersive instruments. The FT-IR technique has the advantages of greater signal-to-noise ratio and digitized data that open up new areas of application as well as provide greater sensitivity in the more traditional uses of IR spectroscopy. A review of the field of vibrational spectroscopy of polymers identifies time-dependent phenomena and characterization of structural imperfections as two areas likely to see major advances as a result of FT-IR.
Examples of the use of FT-IR in polymer research are given to illustrate the potential of the technique. At the National Bureau of Standards FT-IR has been used to determine the role of chain scission in the mechanical degradation of polymers, to measure the extent of chemical reactions during processing polymer composites, and to characterize polymeric materials.
Advantages of Using Data from Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometers for Process Control
Authors: Pike L 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
Significant advantages in using data from Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometers instead of conventional prism and grating spectrophotometers for process control measurements have been observed in the research laboratories of the Cryovac Division of W. R. Grace & Co. The advantages center around the ability to quantitate accurately and precisely very low intensity absorbances with the expenditure of significantly less technician time than the older equipment requires. An example of the advantages is illustrated using the measurement of the transvinylene absorbance near 966 cm−1 or 10.35 μm of polyethylene. Use of FTIR spectrophotometers results in a four- to five-fold improvement in precision (reproducibility) and a decrease of 75% in the technician time required to make the measurements. This paper contains the details involved in using the two types of equipment for the above stated measurement and some factors contributing to the advantages obtained by using FTIR.
Current and Potential Uses for Mining and Mineral Processing Wastes in Canada: Standards
Authors: Collings RK 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
Mining and mineral processing operations in Canada produce about 650 × 106 metric tons of mineral waste annually. This waste is composed of broken rock from open pits and underground mines, coarse mill rejects from screening and heavy media separation processes, and fine mill tailings from screening, magnetic separation, and flotation processes. Most wastes have limited potential for reuse because of their high impurity content or remote location. However, some are favorably located and of interest because of contained metals and minerals or inherent physical and chemical characteristics. Waste utilization is an attractive alternative to disposal because disposal costs and potential pollution problems are reduced or even eliminated and resources are conserved. Waste rock could be used as landfill, in roadbed and dam construction, as railroad ballast, as aggregate in concrete and asphalt mixes, and, for the finer sizes of waste, as construction sand, as an additive to concrete and asphalt mixes, in brick and block manufacture, in the manufacture of thermal insulation, for the recovery of valuable metals or minerals, and as mineral fillers. Examples of the commercial utilization of a number of such wastes are noted.
An Analysis of Hot Mix Asphalt Mat Density Measurements
Authors: Parker F , Hossain MS 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
Hot mix asphalt mat density data collected during the 1990–1993 implementation of a quality control and quality assurance (QC/QA) program for pavement construction by the Alabama Highway Department (AHD) were analyzed. The influence of different measuring agencies (buyer and seller), mix type, application rate, and overlay interface conditions on the variability of nuclear gage and core density measurements was studied. The data were also used to study the influence of the several measurement variables on the ability to achieve target density. Variability and the ability to achieve target density improved as the QC/QA program was implemented, but there remained a consistent inability to achieve the target compaction level. Analysis of the significance of differences between AHD and contractor measurements was inconclusive, but AHD density measurements were consistently lower. Thicker binder mix layers had lower variability than thinner surface mix layers, but the level of compaction achieved was greater for surface mixes. Milling of the surfaces of old pavements significantly reduced the variability of density in overlay mats.
A Servo-Control System for the Universal Panel Tester
Authors: Hsu TTC , Zhang L-X , Gomez T 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
A servo-control system has been successfully installed on the universal panel tester to study the behavior of full-size reinforced concrete panel elements. In addition to the load-control procedure, this unique testing facility is now capable of testing panels using deformation-control procedure. This servo-control system controls up to ten different servo valves with independent programming capabilities and is thus suitable for many complex applications. By using this new servo control system we were able to determine, for the first time, some material properties of reinforced concrete, including Poisson ratios, the descending branch of compression stress-strain curves, as well as the characteristics of the compressive stress-strain curves of concrete in panels with 45° steel bars.
Specimen Size Effects on the Diametrical Mechanical Testing of Cylindrical Asphalt Mixes
Authors: Lim C-T , Tan S-A , Fwa T-F 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
Specimens, 4-in. (101.6 mm), 5-in. (127.0 mm), and 6-in. (152.4 mm) in diameter, of asphalt mixtures were prepared in the laboratory to test for the specimen size effect on the resilient modulus test, the indirect tension test, and the Marshall test. Four asphalt mixtures with different top stone sizes ranging from 15.8 to 31.5 mm were used. They are B1 mix (base course), Airport, W3, and W6 mixes (wearing course).
Specimens, 5-in. (127.0 mm) in size, were prepared using the same compaction equipment as 6-in. (152.4-mm) specimens, designed as by Kandhal, P. S. (“Large Stone Asphalt Mixes: Design and Construction,” Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 1990). The height of the 5-in. (127.0-mm) diameter specimen was calculated based on the diameter over the height ratios for the 4- and 6-in. (101.6- and 152.4-mm) specimens. The compaction level required was based on the energy per unit volume ratio of 4- and 6-in. (101.6- and 152.4 mm) diameter specimens. Similar measured densities of the 5-in. (127.0-mm) specimens compared with the densities of the 4- and 6-in. (101.6- and 152.4-mm) specimens indicate that the same level of compaction has been achieved.
The stability ratios (stability of 6-in./5-in. specimen, stability of 6-in./4-in. specimen and stability of 5-in./4-in.) were also analyzed. They were found to be close to the theoretical values reported by Kandhal, P. S. (“Large Stone Asphalt Mixes: Design and Construction,” Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 1990). Detailed comparison of flow values for the W3 and B1 mixes were made. The B1 mix gave an unacceptable flow/diameter ratio caused by the effect of large stones. The value was too low in the case of the 4-in. (101.6-mm) specimen for the B1 mix. However, acceptable values were found for all sizes tested using the W3 mix, which had a top stone size less than 1-in. Hence, large stones (stones with diameter greater than 1-in.) in 4-in. specimens tend to produce lower deformation under loading, which also accounts for the higher modulus measured in the resilient modulus test.
The influence of the ratios of the diameter of specimens to top stone size were determined for the resilient modulus and the indirect tension test. A general trend of reduction in resilient modulus and indirect tensile strength was observed. The trend suggested that 5- and 6-in. diameter specimens would give more realistic values of tensile strength and stiffness for mixes using large stones (larger than 1-in.). When larger diameter specimens are used, the results obtained from the resilient modulus and the indirect tension test are more representative of the behavior of the mixtures.
Measurement and Analysis of the Overnight Small Package Shipping Environment for Federal Express and United Parcel Service
Authors: Singh PS , Cheema A 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to measure and characterize the various impacts (free fall drops, lateral kicks, and tosses) received by packages in the overnight small parcel environments found at Federal Express and United Parcel Service. Packages instrumented with tri-axial shock data recorders were repeatedly sent through UPS “Next Day Air” and Federal Express “Priority Overnight” services and shipped from East Lansing, MI to five destinations: Monterey, CA; Atlanta, GA; Rochester, NY; Portland, OR; and Memphis, TN. A total of 100 trips were monitored and 2394 impact events recorded that measured over the trigger threshold level of 10 G. The data show that a package encounters an average of 24 shock events throughout a one-way trip consisting of 31% drops, 43.6% kicks, and 25.4% tosses. The highest free-fall drop height measured was 1.97 m (77.8 in.). The maximum kick level was 5.91 m/s (233 in./s), and the highest equivalent drop height in a toss was 0.79 m (31.4 in.).
The results indicate that 95% of all drops were from less than 0.40 m (16 in.), 95% of all kicks were from less than 3.42 m/sec (135 in./s), and 95% of all tosses were from less than 0.26 m (10.5 in.) equivalent drop height. The packages received 51.1% of total impacts on edges, 42% on corners, and only 6.9% on the six flat faces. Erratum to this paper appears in 24(6).
Creep Lifetime Under Constant Load and Constant Stress: Theory and Experiment
Authors: Aktaa J , Schinke B 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
Creep tests are usually performed under constant load. The remarkable reduction of time to rupture due to the increase of true stress with the elongation of the specimen and with necking is estimated on the basis of the theories by Hoff, Brooklyn, and Kachanov. The influence of necking in tests under constant load and constant stress is investigated using the finite element method (FEM) with specimens containing an initial geometric imperfection. Results of the two types of tests show specimens have different sensitivities to these imperfections.
To verify the theoretical statements, two types of creep tests under constant stress were performed in which the behavior of the AISI 316 L(N) austenitic steel at 700°C was investigated. In the first type, tests under constant homogenized stress, necking of the specimen was ignored. In the second type, tests under constant true stress, the mean axial stress in the minimal cross-section was held constant. To perform this type of test, an optical measuring technique was employed to determine the minimal diameter of the specimen during the test. The observed data, in particular the time to rupture, are compared with those from creep tests performed under constant load. Remarkable differences are observed.
Theory and experiments confirm that problems arise if creep tests under constant load on ductile materials yielding too conservative data are interpreted with lifetime rules or continuum damage models.
Initial Deformation During Small Punch Testing
Authors: Cheon JS , Kim IS 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
Initial deformation behavior during small punch (SP) testing was investigated in order to estimate yield stress using two sizes of SP specimens, 10 by 10 by 0.5 mm3 and 10 by 10 by 0.25 mm3 by finite element (FE) analysis and by experiments with heattreated SA508 and 12Cr steels. The increase of thickness resulted in a deviation from the initial linearity of the load-displacement curve at higher loads. The deviation was attributed to different causes, namely loss of the constraint by the surrounding material and radial propagation of plastic bending deformation for 0.5 and 0.25-mm specimens, respectively. The causes for the transition of deformation mode were identical irrespective of material strength and work-hardening rate in the range of yield stress about 400 to 900 MPa. Based on the invariance of the deformation mode, a distinct linear relationship between the load at the breakaway from initial linearity and the yield stress was predicted by the FE analysis and compared with the experimental results.
Fatigue Under Stress Cycling With Nonzero Means
Authors: Gong Y , Norton MP 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
Several models are available for mean stress correction on fatigue life when nonzero means are applied. Mean value adjustment may be necessary in some cases when maximum/minimum stress causes plastic deformation. Strain-cycled fatigue tests conducted for a mild steel suggest that there may be some strain ranges where the effect of mean strain/stress is contrary to the prediction of existing models. In this study, mild steel specimens have been stress-cycled under various combinations of stress amplitudes and nonzero mean stresses. The stress amplitudes are chosen to be equivalent to the ones applied in the strain-cycled tests in a sense that the strain response is in the elastic range during the first portion of life and subsequently develops into the plastic range. Experimental results confirm observations in the study where strain cycles were applied. The cyclic softening and cycle-dependent creep process have also been studied. Possible modifications to the existing models have been suggested for the stress ranges investigated.
High-Resolution Force Plate Analysis of Utilized Slip Resistance in Human Walking
Authors: Buczek FL , Banks SA 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
Little controversy exists regarding the costs to society, both financial and in terms of human pain and suffering, associated with slip and fall injuries. Yet, for all the very valuable research published to date in the United States and abroad, controversy still exists regarding the biomechanics of initial foot-to-ground contact (that is, footstrike). Studies of foot kinetics have been limited by the use of force plate sensitivities chosen to capture the entire stance phase, rather than footstrike alone, necessitating the use of calculation thresholds. The present study of young adults (2 male, 2 female; 8 foot contacts each) was conducted to address these limitations. Two strain gage force plates, with sensitivities set to optimize amplitude resolution at footstrike (+100 ms), were sampled at 1000 Hz. A net shear force Fs was calculated as the vector sum of medio-lateral Fy and anteroposterior Fx shear forces. Since Fx predominantly affected the direction of impending slip, a novel shear force Fs′ was given the amplitude of Fs and the sign of Fx. In this way, impending slips could be identified as predominantly forward or backward. Utilized slip resistance μsr was calculated for each sampled instant as the ratio of Fs′ to the normal force Fz. For comparison purposes, a geometric approximation of μsr was calculated using leg length and half step length (from force plate center-of-pressure data) to derive the tangent of an “apex angle.” Results showed two distinct patterns for μsr over the first 100 ms of foot contact. Pattern 1 began with an initial backward slip tendency, with peak μsr values near −0.4 occurring at approximately 10 ms. This was followed by a forward slip tendency peaking between 0.2 and 0.3, at approximately 45 ms. Pattern 1 did not seem to put the subjects at risk for slipping. Pattern 2 began with a profound forward slip tendency, with μsr values above 1.0 occurring during the first 20 ms. This was followed by a brief period of backward slip tendency (|μsr| &lt; 0.3), and a second forward slip tendency (0.2 &lt; μsr &lt; 0.3) for the remainder of the 100 ms sampling interval. Pattern 2 did seem to put the subjects at risk for an initial forward slip, though none were reported. The geometric approximations for μsr, typically had magnitudes near 0.4 and always predicted forward slips. We concluded that variations can be expected in foot contact patterns among normal adults. Although Patterns 1 and 2 were divided according to sex here, this may have been a coincidental finding confounded by small sample sizes, more related to shoe construction or preferred gait kinematics than to sex. Finally, geometric approximations for μsr grossly oversimplified initial foot contact, and should be discontinued in favor of more accurate methodology.
Slip Resistance Characteristics of Footwear Solings Assessed Using the SATRA Friction Tester
Authors: Wilson M 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
The development of the SATRA Friction Tester was described in ASTM STP 1103-1990. Since then the tester has been used in regular service and research work, testing and evaluating a wide range of footwear types and soling materials. This paper reviews some of the experience gained and presents data on the ranges of friction values associated with different types of commercially used soling materials. The data presented correlate well with industry experience, validating the test method. The findings of some additional complementary research is also reported including results of studies on the relationship between soling material hardness and measured friction. For example, on a dry surface, smooth PVC soling friction decreases with increasing hardness and wet friction increases up to a certain hardness level. A tread pattern, however, reverses the hardness effect on the wet surface, giving results comparable with smooth PVC in the dry. Other results show the significant effects of abrasion of solings and floor surfaces on slip resistance and the key contribution of surface roughness to wet friction. Finally, some of the problems surrounding standards development and the setting of pass levels are discussed. A number of areas for future research are identified and it is suggested that future studies look at the shoe, floor, and surface contamination as interactive components of a single system in which solings and floorings need to have complementary properties to optimize slip resistance.
A New Approach to Measuring Transverse Properties of Structural Tubing by a Ring Test
Authors: Arsene S , Bai J 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
A new approach to the ring test is presented in this paper. Three-dimensional elastoplastic finite element modeling with contact has been performed to analyze the stress and strain distribution in the ring, to optimize the ring testing system, and to investigate the effect of friction between the ring specimen and the fixture. Based on the numerical results, a new design of a holding device that creates a uniaxially stressed zone is proposed in order to determine transverse behavior of tubular products, such as the modulus and the stress-strain curve. A case study is presented on nuclear cladding tubes in Zircaloy. The approach shows promise for testing various kinds of materials in structural tubing, including ductile or brittle materials, metals, composites, or polymers.
Low-Temperature Aging Kinetics in Cast Duplex Stainless Steels: Experimental Characterization
Authors: González JJ , Gutiérrez-Solana F , Sánchez L , Setién J 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
Low-temperature aging (280 to 300°C) of duplex (austenite-ferrite) stainless steels and their resulting long-term loss of toughness is a well-known problem in the energy-producing as well as in other industrial sectors. In order to analyze the problem, the phenomenon was assumed to be thermally activated, accelerated aging at higher temperatures (350 to 400°C) was planned, and the activation energy was estimated. Assuming that the cause of brittleness is the ferrite's spinodal decomposition into the α and α' phases, the present work analyzes the aging kinetics at three temperatures (280, 350, and 400°C) by means of microhardness measurements of the ferritic phase taken in three different duplex stainless steels named after their ferrite content, 12F, 18F and 22F. In view of the microhardness results, an exponential law is proposed to represent the temporal evolution for each of the steels, with three parameters, of which one varies with aging temperature. It should be noted that there is no unique value for the activation energy in all the 280 to 400°C range. This should be divided into smaller subranges for more precision, and here it is shown that in all cases the extrapolation to the service temperature (280°C) of the results obtained in the 350 to 400°C range produces non-conservative results. These results are discussed considering the effect of the G-phase precipitation on the spinodal decomposition kinetics. For assessment applications a mathematical law is proposed that represents the aging kinetics of these steels and that provides reliable results for their service temperature (280°C).
Evaluation of Overhead and In-Ground Vehicle Detector Technologies for Traffic Flow Measurement
Authors: Klein LA , Kelley MR , Mills MK 
Published: February 2009

Abstract
As part of the U.S. FHWA-sponsored Detection Technology for IVHS program, ultrasonic, microwave radar, infrared laser radar, nonimaging passive infrared, video image processing with visible and infrared spectrum imagery, acoustic array, high sampling rate inductive loop, conventional inductive loop, microloop, and magnetometer detector technologies were evaluated at freeway and surface street arterial sites in Minnesota, Florida, and Arizona. These states were chosen because they exhibited a wide range of climatic conditions. The criteria for selecting the detector evaluation sites included searching for roadways with high traffic density and suitable structures for mounting the overhead detectors. Approximately 5.9 Gbytes of digital and analog vehicle detection and signature data and more than 300 video tapes of the corresponding traffic flow were recorded.
The detector outputs were time tagged and recorded on 88 Mbyte magnetic cartridges by using a data logger specifically designed and built for this project. Detectors with serial RS-232 outputs required interface software to be written for each unique data structure. Data analysis software was also written to convert the raw data into an easily accessible Paradox database format compatible with a Windows personal computer operating system. Traffic volume ground truth data, obtained by counting vehicles from the recorded video imagery, were compared with the counts from the detector outputs. Speed ground truth data, obtained by driving probe vehicles through the field of view of the detectors and noting their speed as measured by the vehicle's speedometer, were compared with the speed measurement from the detectors. Several types of detectors were found to satisfy current traffic management requirements. However, improved accuracies and new types of information, such as queue length and vehicle turning or erratic movements, may be required from detectors for future traffic management applications.