bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Galileo Engineer: Art and Modern Science
Authors: Lefèvre Wolfgang 
Published: September 2008

The ArgumentIn spite of Koyré's conclusions, there are sufficient reasons to claim that Galileo, and with him the beginnings of classical mechanics in early modern times, was closely related to practical mechanics. It is, however, not completely clear how, and to what extent, practitioners and engineers could have had a part in shaping the modern sciences. By comparing the beginnings of modern dynamics with the beginnings of statics in Antiquity, and in particular with Archimedes — whose rediscovery in the sixteenth century was of great consequence — I will focus on the question of which devices played a comparable role in dynamics to that of the lever and balance in statics. I will also examine where these devices came from. In this way, I will show that the entire world of mechanics of that time — “high” and “low,” practical and theoretical — was of significance for shaping classical mechanics and that a specific relationship between art and science was and is constitutive for modern sciences.
Hunting the White Elephant: When and How did Galileo Discover the Law of Fall?
Authors: Renn Jürgen , Damerow Peter , Rieger Simone , Giulini Domenico 
Published: September 2008

The ArgumentWe present a number of findings concerning Galileo's major discoveries which question both the methods and the results of dating his achievements by common historiographic criteria. The dating of Galileo's discoveries is, however, not our primary concern. This paper is intended to contribute to a critical reexamination of the notion of discovery from the point of view of historical epistemology. We claim that the puzzling course of Galileo's discoveries is not an exceptional comedy of errors but rather illustrates the normal way in which scientific progress is achieved. We argue that scientific knowledge generally develops not as a sequence of independent discoveries accumulating to a new body of knowledge but rather as a network of interdependent activities which only as a whole makes the individual steps understandable as meaningful “discoveries.”
Gazing Hands and Blind Spots: Galileo as Draftsman
Authors: Bredekamp Horst 
Published: September 2008

The ArgumentThe article deals with the interrelation between Galileo and the visual arts. It presents a couple of drawings from the hand of Galileo and confronts them with Viviani's report that Galileo had not only wanted to become an artist in his youth but stayed close to the field of visual arts throughout his lifetime. In the ambiance of these drawings the famous moon watercolors are not in the dark. They represent a very acute and reasonable tool to convince the people who trusted images more than words. The article ends with Panofsky's argument that it was Galileo's anti-Mannerist notion of art that evoked a repulsion of Kepler's ellipses. It tries to show that it was again an aesthetical prejudice that hindered Einstein from accepting Panofsky's theory.
Recent Narratives on Galileo and the Church: or The Three Dogmas of the Counter-Reformation
Authors: Feldhay Rivka 
Published: September 2008

The ArgumentThis article confronts an old-new orientation in the historiographical literature on the “Galileo affair.” It argues that a varied group of historians moved by different cultural forces in the last decade of the twentieth century tends to crystallize a consensus about the inevitability of the conflict between Galileo and the Church and its outcome in the trial of 1633. The “neo-conflictualists” — as I call them — have built their case by adhering to and developing the “three dogmas of the Counter-Reformation”: Church authoritarianism is portrayed by them as verging towards “totalitarianism.” A preference for a literal reading of the Scriptures is understood as a mode of “fundamentalism.” And mild skeptical positions in astronomy are read as expressions of “instrumentalism,” or “fictionalism.” The main thrust of the article lies in an attempt to historicize these three aspects of the Catholic reform movement. Finally, the lacunae in insufficiently explored historiographical landscape are delineated in order to tame the temptation to embrace the three dogmas, and to modify the radical conflictualist version of the story of Galileo and the Church.
Performing without competence
Authors: Clark Ruth 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTSpeech in children should be viewed as a developing skill. During acquisition the child becomes increasingly capable of organizing linguistic structure at a number of different levels concurrently. One boy seemed to have strategies for simplifying the tasks of speech reception and production. He would incorporate the immediately prior utterance, or some portion of it, intact into his utterance as if to avoid structuring his entire utterance from scratch. Another strategy was to extend his repertoire of structures to express more complex ideas simply by combining two existing structures without reordering any of the elements to match adult syntax. If such strategies are widespread they may account for the recorded facts about the development of children's question forms. Psychological variables, commonly called performance factors, should not be regarded merely as putting restrictions on the extent to which a child's linguistic knowledge can be expressed. Rather, they affect the manner in which syntactic structures develop. Just as the acquisition of linguistic structure is affected by psychological processes, so is the efficiency of these processes affected in its turn by the child's growing linguistic knowledge.
Phonological rules in young children
Authors: Ingram David 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTThere are very general phonological processes which appear to operate in one form or another when any child learns a first language. This study attempts to outline and exemplify the most general of these, e.g. the reduction of consonant clusters, the deletion of unstressed syllables. In addition, the study criticizes the point of view that phonological development consists primarily of the child substituting one sound for another. Rather, phonological development reflects very general processes that affect entire classes of sounds. Lastly, the study suggests that identifying general rules can ultimately lead to more insightful information concerning separate strategies that individual children follow.
Research on child language in East European countries
Authors: Průcha Jan 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTA survey is made of recent studies of child language acquisition (mainly between 1968 and mid-1973) performed in the Soviet Union and several other East European countries. Part 1 is a general evaluation of the present state of research on child language in this area; part II includes a survey of the following subfields of developmental research: (1) integrated description of early language; (2) phonology; (3) intonation; (4) grammar; (5) lexis; (6) characteristics of child speech communication.
The infant's role in mother–infant communications
Authors: Murray Lynne , Trevarthen Colwyn 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTMothers talked to their infants via a video system designed so that each partner saw a full-face, life-size image of the other on a screen before them, perfect eye-to-eye contact being possible. They were presented either with live, real-time video sequences of their infants, where communication was therefore potentially mutually responsive, or else with the same sequence replayed some minutes later. The mother's babytalk differed consistently between live and replay sequences. Since the infants' acts were identical in form in the two conditions, the only difference being the infant's potential responsiveness to the mother, these results are evidence for the infant's active role in contributing to the nature of interactions with adults.
Acquisition and generalization of novel object concepts by young language learners
Authors: Ross Gail , Nelson Katherine , Wetstone Harriet , Tanouye Ellen 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTTwenty-month-old children learned to recognize nonsense labels for five novel object concepts and were tested on generalization to variants of these concepts. Children were presented with either one or three examples of each object type during learning sessions. Results showed that receptive learning of names for object concepts was significantly related to a number of possible manipulations specific to each object type and to labelling by children. Children's generalization choices were consistent with adults' ranking of similarity of variants to concept prototypes. Children who learned less well were more likely to generalize to new instances of an object concept and to a greater number of variants if they had been exposed to three rather than one example during training sessions. Results also support the hypothesis that differentiation of objects in interaction is important to the formation of an object concept at this age.
The use of the definite and indefinite articles by Italian preschool children
Authors: Power R. J. D. , Dal Martello M. F. 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTIn deciding whether to use a definite or indefinite referring expression a speaker must apply a pragmatic rule: the definite article is usually appropriate if the listener is already familiar with the referent, and the indefinite article if not. Several studies have investigated at what age this rule is mastered by children. The most satisfactory procedure so far adopted is a task in which the subject must narrate a pictorially-presented story to another child who cannot see the pictures. It has been found that 5-year-old children already follow the correct rule quite well, except that they make ‘egocentric errors’ (i.e. using the definite article when first mentioning a referent) in around 15–35% of instances. Experiment 1 here confirms that this pattern of results is also obtained using Italian children. A problem with this experimental design is then raised: it does not exclude the possibility that subjects might produce the correct response distribution by following a rule based on the SPEAKER'S familiarity with the referent, not the listener's. To check this possibility, a modified design was used (Experiment 2) in which the subject had to narrate the story to two listeners, one after the other. Significantly more egocentric errors were made on the second narration of the story than on the first narration.
The development of conversation between mothers and babies
Authors: Snow Catherine E. 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTThe speech of two mothers to their infants at several points between three and eighteen months of age was analysed. Simplicity of the speech, as measured by MLU, was about the same at all ages, and none of the other features of the mothers' speech style showed any abrupt change at the time the children started to talk. The changes that did occur started much earlier, at about seven months. These findings are incompatible with the explanation that mothers speak simply and redundantly in response to cues of attention and comprehension from the child listener. It is suggested that the mothers interacted with their infants using a conversational model, and that the changes in the mothers' speech reflect their children's growing ability to function as conversational partners.
Prosodic, paralinguistic, and interactional features in parent-child speech: English and Spanish
Authors: Blount Ben G. , Padgug Elise J. 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTParents employ a special register when speaking to young children, containing features that mark it as appropriate for children who are beginning to acquire their language. Parental speech in English to 5 children (ages 0; 9–1; 6) and in Spanish to 4 children (ages 0; 8–1; 1 and 1; 6–1; 10) was analysed for the presence and distribution of these features. Thirty-four paralinguistic, prosodic, and interactional features were identified, and rate measures and proportions indicated developmental patterns and differences across languages. Younger children received a higher rate of features that marked affect; older children were addressed with more features that marked semantically meaningful speech. English-speaking parents relied comparatively more on paralinguistic and affective features, whereas Spanish-speaking parents used comparatively more interactional features. Despite these differences, there was a high degree of similarity across parents and languages for the most frequently occurring features.
A voice onset time analysis of apical stop production in 3-year-olds
Authors: Gilbert John H. V. 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTKewley-Port & Preston (1974) reported that when words beginning with /d/ and /t/ were first observed (about 2; 0 for their subject E4), the characteristics of their voice onset time (VOT) distributions remained constant until at least 4; 6. The present investigation reports data for VOT for /d/ and /t/, from six children at average age 3; 0. Values for /d/ clearly achieve the short voicing lag category of adults, reported by Lisker & Abramson (1964, 1970, 1971). Values for /t/, however, are much more widely dispersed than adult values for /t/, although falling within the category long voicing lag.
Some clues to the nature of semantic development
Authors: Donaldson Margaret , McGarrigle James 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTStudies of comprehension of the quantifiers all and more are reported. The subjects were children between the ages of three and five. There were two main conditions. In one of these the objects to which the quantifiers related were enclosed in containers which either were or were not filled by the objects. In the other no containers were present. These conditions yielded substantially different response patterns. The relation of the findings to those typically obtained from Piagetian conservation tasks is discussed; and the implications for theories of semantic development are considered.
Learning to code experience through language
Authors: Wells Gordon 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTAn attempt is made to explain how the child comes to relate his acquisition of the form of language with the categories that he is establishing in the organization of his non-linguistic experience, by hypothesizing a basis for language in pre-linguistic cognitive development. The child's task is seen as being to match the organization of language with the cognitive organization that he has already imposed upon his experience. This is made possible, it is argued, because the organization of meaning within the language system is closely related to the universal categories of early experience. Evidence from recordings of a small sample of children in the early stages of language acquisition is advanced in support of this hypothesis, and the results of the linguistic analysis are discussed in the light of findings from the Genevan school of developmental psychology.
Cups and glasses: learning that boundaries are vague
Authors: Andersen Elaine S. 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTThe boundaries of many categories, and hence the boundaries between their names, are often vague (Lehrer 1970, Labov 1973). At the same time, the child who is just learning the denotation of a word often makes ‘mistakes’ and may over-extend words to include objects that do not belong to the adult category (e.g. Clark 1973). The present study is concerned with when children learn that boundaries are vague. It was hypothesized that children would first over-extend the use of terms such as cup and define the domain of denotation discretely on the basis of one or two perceptual factors, and only later would they learn that category boundaries are often vague because of the interdependence of physical and functional (i.e. cultural) properties. Children aged 3, 6, 9 and 12 years were asked to name and to sort twenty-five different drinking vessels; then they were asked for definitions of cup and glass and were also asked to choose the best exemplar present of each category. The results showed that children go through three stages. First, they over-extend the term cup. Next, they focus only on certain perceptual properties. Finally, they show growing awareness of functional properties and hence of the vagueness of the boundary between cups and glasses.
The use of adult cues to test the language competence of young children
Authors: Hart Betty 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTIt was hypothesized that if young children could be taught the verbal cues used to elicit syntactic constructions from adults, children could respond just as adults do in terms of language performance. A series of stories was used to teach six 4- to 5-year-old children to identify objects as ‘nouns’, attributes of objects as ‘adjectives’, and actions as ‘verbs’. These form-class labels were then used as cues to request production of ANV (adjective-noun-verb) and ANVAN (adjective-noun-verb-adjective-noun) sentences. Though no child had produced this descriptive form during the pre-test, all children used such sentences in describing five post-test stories; responses in a control group showed that ANVAN sentences would not have been produced by prompting more elaborate description of the stories. All six children appeared to have well-formed semantic fields for nouns, adjectives and verbs.
Children's metaphoric productions and preferences
Authors: Gardner Howard , Kircher Mary , Winner Ellen , Perkins David 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTThe capacity to perceive similarity between apparently dissimilar domains is widely regarded as crucial to creative thought; yet little is known about the development of this ‘metaphoric’ skill. To assess children's capacities to effect appropriate ‘metaphoric links’, and to discriminate among metaphors of varying appropriateness, a task probing verbal metaphoric skill was designed. Subjects ranging in age from 4 to 19 years were required to complete a simile and then to choose from a set of four similes the one most appropriate for a given literary context. The study documented a tendency, increasing with age, towards preference for an appropriate metaphor. Whereas primary school children preferred non-metaphoric endings and preadolescents favoured conventional metaphors, high school and college students showed significant appreciation of appropriate metaphors. In contrast, conventional metaphors predominated in the subjects' productions and appropriate metaphors were rarely produced by subjects of any age group. Unexpectedly, the highest percentages of appropriate metaphors were produced by the youngest subjects and the oldest subjects. Where these two groups differed was in the proclivity of young subjects to produce metaphors which were highly original but inappropriate or nonsensical. The various strategies used by subjects of different ages are described and the relations between metaphoric productions and preferences are considered.
The transformation of sensorimotor morphemes into words: a case study of the development of ‘more’ and ‘mine’
Authors: Carter Anne L. 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTThis paper describes, through discussion and illustrative events, an evolving segment of communication during the course of transition of one child's total communication system from the sensorimotor or gestural level at 12 months into the level of use of the adult words more and mine, and their associated multi-morphemic utterances, at 24 months. The descriptive analysis is based on detailed narrative records of the child's vocal and gestural communication, abstracted from videotape recordings of his behaviour in 10 playsessions conducted at regular intervals and under similar conditions, and which included the presence of the mother, peers, other adults, and play materials. The results as presented provide a case study of the evolutionary processes leading up to the acquisition of words and eventually sentences, illustrating as precisely as possible the texture of one of the earliest developmental sequences.
Infant babbling and speech
Authors: Oller D. Kimbrough , Wieman Leslie A. , Doyle William J. , Ross Carol 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTPrevious scholars have claimed that the child's babbling (meaningless speech-like vocalizations) includes a random assortment of the speech sounds found in the languages of the world. Babbled sounds have been claimed to bear no relationship to the sounds of the child's later meaningful speech. The present research disputes the traditional position on babbling by showing that the phonetic content of babbled utterances exhibits many of the same preferences for certain kinds of phonetic elements and sequences that have been found in the production of meaningful speech by children in later stages of language development.
Transitional phenomena in early language acquisition
Authors: Dore John , Franklin Margery B. , Miller Robert T. , Ramer Andrya L. H. 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTTwo transitional phases in the child's early language development are described; the first occurs between prelinguistic vocalization and one-word speech and the second between one-word and patterned speech. Cognitive, linguistic and affective inputs to the acquisition of reference and syntax are discussed in the light of the transitional phenomena that were found. We claim that each major linguistic stage is preceded by a transitional phase which serves as a bridging device for the next major acquisition; that sound and meaning develop partly independently in language development; and that the child's earliest patterned speech is not organized in terms of knowledge of grammatical categories, but in terms of more fundamental coordinations of conceptual meanings with phonetic outputs. A theoretical framework is proposed which provides a more systematic treatment of transitional phenomena than has previously been provided. The framework allows for interpretations of transitional phenomena and of their relations to the milestone periods of early language development.
Kids and kin: children's understanding of American kin terms
Authors: Chambers James C. , Tavuchis Nicholas 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTThis study seeks to explore the defining characteristics of first and third grade children (mean ages 7;0 and 9;1 respectively) in conceptualizing seventeen American kin terms. The data indicate that even when children were able to identify a relationship, they did not all base their identification on the same attributes. Familiarity and experience affected the identification of some terms but did not appear to influence the ability to handle relational aspects. Among Grade 1 children, girls were more proficient than boys. This difference disappeared by Grade 3 where both boys and girls were equally competent and significantly more proficient than the younger children. Finally, in both grades, nuclear family terms were more familiar than extended family terms.
Young children's use of age-appropriate speech styles in social interaction and role-playing
Authors: Sachs Jacqueline , Devin Judith 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTFour children (aged 3;9 to 5;5) were recorded talking to different listeners (adult, peer, baby, and baby doll) and role-playing a ‘baby just learning how to talk’. As a measure of the children's responsiveness to situational cues, each sample was analysed for formal and functional characteristics. The children's speech was different on many of the measures when talking to a baby or doll as compared with the speech to a peer or adult. Speech to a baby doll was similar to that addressed to a real baby, indicating that feedback is not necessary for speech modifications to occur. In the role-playing situation, children changed and simplified their speech when talking as a baby.