bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Aquifer Exemptions: Wise Use of Environmental Protection Resources
Authors: Freeman Bill , Arthur J. Daniel , Mullican Jerry , Roberts Paul , Warner Don , Litzen Lori 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The competition between ever-expanding environmental regulations and the ongoing decrease in environmental protection resources has prompted both regulatory agencies and industry to more closely examine the use of these limited resources. In the underground injection control (UIC) program, technical and managerial professionals from industry and government must at times evaluate whether or not certain ground water aquifers should be protected. If an aquifer exemption is clearly justified, the operator should not have to protect it, hence conserving valuable environmental protection resources. However, some state and federal agencies would prefer never to approve an aquifer exemption even though some are justified. This is apparent as the variations regarding how aquifer exemptions are processed by agencies seems largely to be resulting from the lack of clear guidance on aquifer exemptions and the lack of understanding for the term "reasonably expected" as intended by EPA and Congress. Because of the lack of positive instruction from state and federal agencies and a general lack of awareness on industry's part, the aquifer exemption process continues to be somewhat esoteric and often times misunderstood.
The purpose of the UIC Program as mandated by Congress is to protect underground sources of drinking water (USDW) being used in public water systems, as well as to protect potential USDWs where there is a reasonable likelihood that these sources will be needed in the future. However, Congress did not intend for EPA to protect all potential USDWs. If it was reasonably expected that a potential USDW could not be used in the future as a public water system, protection of that aquifer would not be required. In fact, EPA affirmed that it would be a misallocation of resources to seek to protect as drinking water sources aquifers which in fact would not be used by public water systems. To ensure that such aquifers would not be protected, EPA developed an aquifer exemption process under 40 CFR 144.7 and 146.4 by which aquifers could be evaluated for their potential use as future public water systems. Government and Industry should utilize the aquifer exemption process as much as possible to ensure that the wise use of limited environmental protection resources is accomplished. The Clinton Administration appears to also endorse this position. In an April 1994 Letter to Congressman Earnest J. Istook on the domestic oil and gas industry, President Clinton stated: "we intend to help on the cost side… by reducing unnecessary and inefficient costs and regulations. I have challenged federal agencies to eliminate regulatory overkill and to attack regulatory barriers and subsidies here and abroad".
Brine Handling and Disposal by Reinjection
Authors: Knowles D. W. , Boytim R. G. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Opportunities to reduce the cost of brine handling and disposal by reinjection in the gas and oil producing industry have been identified in an ongoing study sponsored by the Gas Research Institute and managed by ENSR Consulting and Engineering. Gas and oil fields operated by many production operating companies across Texas and Louisiana have been studied. To date, the East Texas portion of the study has been completed and includes seven companies, nine producing fields and 30 brine disposal stations. The study has focused on operating cost variations, state of the art technology in practice, and the most effective operating practices. Results from the East Texas study area are presented and include the following topics:
Surface Equipment Water Treatment Disposal Wells and Reservoirs System Monitoring and Control Environmental Compliance Operating Costs Improvement Opportunities
Preparation of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) for Hydraulic Fracturing Disposal: A Case Study
Authors: Fletcher P. A. , Cornette C. A. , Sustala D. R. , Dolence T. W. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
This paper presents a case history of ARCO Oil and Gas Company's (AOGC1) Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) injection project that was conducted offshore in the Gulf of Mexico. The unique aspect of this project is that it was performed entirely offshore, using drill cuttings injection equipment. This project involved grinding and injecting approximately 1300 bbls of various NORM. Discussed in the paper is the historical regulatory considerations, reservoir selection and permitting process, pre-frac design process, the washing, grinding and injection process, and on-site data frac analysis and fracture post-mortem.
Optimising Water Injection Performance
Authors: Paige R W , Murray L R , Martins J P , Marsha S M 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
In recent years, major advances have been made in understanding injection well performance. In particular, the impact of fracturing, thermal stress effects and water quality are far better understood, as a result of both improved theoretical understanding and from detailed analyses of field data.
This paper reviews our current understanding of the processes which control the performance of injection wells, including the effects of produced water quality, taking examples mainly from the Prudhoe Bay and Forties oil fields. Techniques for predicting and optimising injector performance under a variety of circumstances are discussed, together with the implications for waterflood management.
An Innovative Secondary Recovery Approach for a Marginal Reservoir
Authors: Clark T. J. , Hanafy H. H. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
The Younis Lower Rudeis reservoir is operated by the Gulf of Suez Petroleum Company (GUPCO) in a remote area of the Gulf of Suez, Egypt. Younis has repeatedly been considered a waterflood candidate due to a decrease in reservoir pressure from the initial 1932 psi to the current estimate of 492 psi in 1993. But based on decline curve analysis and structural mapping, primary recovery was expected to reach nearly 50 percent of the 44.6 MMBO original oil-in-place (OOIP). Under the assumption that Younis produces with an efficient gravity drainage depletion mechanism, waterflooding potential was considered low. Furthermore, Younis is nearly 16 Km from the nearest waterflood facility, and pipeline costs were considered prohibitive based on both low incremental reserve potential and depressed oil prices.
Before concluding that Younis had no future potential, GUPCO commissioned a reservoir/facility engineering team to study the reservoir development potential. First, reservoir simulation would be used to improve the understanding of the depletion mechanism and the original oil in place. Second, simulation would be used to determine the potential for waterflooding. Third, if waterflooding potential exists, the team must find a way to economically develop the incremental reserves.
The reservoir simulation work clarified the depletion mechanism in Younis, and indicated a significant potential for waterflooding exists. History matching of the historical reservoir performance discovered that a much larger reservoir volume is actually present than mapped, and that ultimate recovery will actually reach only 22 percent of the OOIP. Furthermore, while gravity segregation of gas is occurring, significant unrecovered oil reserves will remain downdip of the current producers. Waterflooding could aid recovery of this downdip oil.
With expected reserves from the waterflood project to total 5.3 MMBO, the facility engineers were challenged with providing up to 6000 BPD of water to the platform. An innovative technique was ultimately designed to install all needed equipment on the Younis unmanned platform for a remote waterflood. Since surface injection is expected to occur under a vacuum due to the low reservoir pressure, inexpensive equipment would be used to withdraw water from the Gulf, treat and filter, and deliver to the injection well at the required rate.
Alliances and Partnering: A New Relationship Between Oil/Gas Producing Companies and Service Companies
Authors: Gazi Naz H. , Hottman W. E. , Logan Jerry L. , Verrett R. C. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
The current state of the energy industry finds both operating and service companies squeezed by lower prices and higher costs. Investment in exploration, equipment, and technology has been severely restricted. many operators are responding to these harsh market conditions by re-engineering their work processes and focusing on core business activities.
Re-engineered work processes encourage operators and service companies to work closely together. This motivates both to eliminate duplication, simplify processes, increase efficiency and capitalize on combined expertise to enhance production and optimize total system cost.
Alliances and partnering are based on mutual trust and the commitment to add value to both organizations. Aligning interests is fundamental in establishing a lasting and mutually beneficial relationship.
This paper presents an overview of these new relationships. The benefits and concerns of changing from traditional bidding agreements to new business arrangements between producing companies and service companies is discussed.
Evaluation criteria for potential candidates, how to structure an alliance or partnering agreement, and a discussion of the key issues in the application of incentive contracts is presented.
Oily Drilled Cuttings - A Pro-Active Approach to Protecting the Environment
Authors: Holt Charles A. , Prewett Harry , Mansour Sayed 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Oil base drilling fluids are imperative to the success of GUPCO’s Gulf of Suez drilling operations. Protecting the environment while utilizing these environmentally unfriendly drilling fluids has proven to be a challenge. This paper describes how GUPCO championed this challenge.
Early attempts to drill the reactive shale and low pressured-high permeability sands exposed in the lower Tertiary with water base drilling fluids resulted in wellbore instability, differential sticking, and loss of hole. These drilling problems were all but eliminated with Oil Base drilling fluids (OBM). Furthermore, OBM provides the lubricity that is essential to the success of high angle, horizontal, three-dimensional, and long reach wellbores, which are becoming the norm rather than the exception at GUPCO.
GUPCO drilling has pursued several means to satisfy drilling needs and environmental concerns; 1) slurrification and downhole injection of OBM cuttings, 2) hauling OBM cuttings to shore for disposal, 3) utilization of OBM alternatives.
Slurrified cuttings have been injected below surface casing via the annulus between surface and intermediate casing strings, or in the case of the SIDKI re-development project, an injection well was drilled. Injection guidelines, procedures, and injection results are presented in the paper.
Oily cuttings have been collected in containers on the rigs and hauled onshore for disposal. Drilling rigs in the GUPCO fleet have been modified to handle the OBM and properly collect the oily cuttings. The paper describes the rig modifications for zero discharge of oily cuttings, including the oily cuttings collection process.
Due to the environmental concerns associated with OBM, water based inhibitive mud systems have been attempted in the GOS. Cationic Brine Fluid (CBF) and Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide polymer (PHPA) drilling fluids have been utilized as OBM alternatives. The results and conclusions are included in the paper.
Three Dimensional Geologic Modelling of a Fractured Reservoir, Saudi Arabia
Authors: Luthy S. T. , Grover G. A. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
A geological assessment of a large carbonate reservoir in Saudi Arabia shows that it is a Type 2 fractured reservoir in which fractures provide the essential permeability. Intercrystalline microporosity, found within the basinally deposited mudstones and wackestones, is the dominant porosity type. Near-vertical, east-west-oriented extension fractures are preferentially localized in low-to-moderate porosities associated with stylolites. Porosity/fracture density relationships, combined with the results of structural curvature mapping, yielded a 3-dimensional model of fracture density. Fracture permeability and fracture porosity distributions were generated by integrating fracture density modelling results with average fracture aperture information derived from well test data. Dramatic differences exist between matrix- and fracture-related porosity, permeability models that help explain observed production behavior within the field. These models are being used by reservoir and simulation engineers for daily reservoir management, history matching, and long-term development drilling planning.
Middle East Reservoir Characterization Improved by Data from Horizontal Wells
Authors: Nurmi Roy , Wiltse Elliott , Sapru Ajay 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Middle East reservoir development using horizontal wells is no longer restricted to problematic reservoirs. Although the basic geometry of most major fields is generally well known, the detailed variations of individual reservoir zones often are not sufficiently well defined to predict what will be encountered by a horizontal well. Structural variations often result in long intervals of the horizontal wells not being within target reservoir zones. However, geosteering techniques and a closer integration of all data gathered during drilling provide more optimum placement of horizontal and extended reach wells.
Undiscovered compartments with original pressures and oil saturations are being revealed in and around major reservoirs, thus, adding new reserves or better developing an existing reservoir. The permeability barriers and reservoir compartments are being defined by horizontal well testing. However, it is also important in some cases to avoid high-permeability thief zones and/or open faults to decrease water and/or gas production which has often been misinterpreted as coning. Data from horizontal wells allow better definition of the attitudes of fractures and faults and their hydraulic character. In most cases horizontal wells are drilled so as to intersect more fractures however in a few cases the wells are drilled to avoid open fractures and/or faults.
3-D seismic surveys are revealing more complexities within the average reservoir. Horizontal wells are showing that there are complexities invisible even to 3-D seismic. Quality seismic is still invaluable for planning horizontal wells, however, good geologic analyses, measurements while drilling and intermediate logging are often necessary to make adjustments to the well trajectory during drilling. The strengths and limitations of standard well logs, production tools, and testing equipment made for vertical wells need to be understood when used in the horizontal section so as not to misinterpret the potential of a reservoir zone. Even how geoscientists think about the reservoir is changing because of the "lateral thinking" being experienced during studies of standard horizontal well applications. Thus, new applications continue to increase for this relatively new petroleum industry technique.
Slim-Hole Drilling and Innovation Enable the Development of the October Nezzazat, a Marginal Field in Egypt
Authors: Hassan I. , Mansy A. , Cook B. S. , Leggett R. B. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The Gulf of Suez Petroleum Company(GUPCO) has recently used "slim-hole" drilling technology to enhance the economics of developing a marginal field by significantly reducing drilling and development costs. Drilling costs have been reduced by approximately 20%. Risks have also increased with slim-hole technology, but are within manageable levels. In order to ensure a deep point of injection is maintained, small but difficult-to-fish gas-lift equipment has been installed inside of a 5-inch production liner. To date, no corrosion has been observed in the October field which would weaken the slim-hole bottomhole assembly and prevent future recovery of the packer and tubing. Sidetrack flexibility has also been reduced with the smaller tubulars.
The October Nezzazat field is located offshore in the Gulf of Suez and is penetrated by wells which were drilled to the prolific Nubia formation. Independent development of the Nezzazat field using conventional drilling and completion technology has not been possible due to less favorable economics. Historically, the Nezzazat has been developed by recompleting watered-out downstructure Nubia wells. Nezzazat development timing has therefore been subject to Nubia depletion. Wellbore placement in the Nezzazat has in the past been wholly a function of Nubia development requirements.
The recent application of creative and innovative ideas have helped accelerate the development of the October Nezzazat field. Since most of the October platforms have been fully-drilled and since setting a platform to develop the marginal Nezzazat field was economically prohibitive, additional slots were added to platforms which could support the additional loads in order to drill the marginal Nezzazat wells. Further, since gas-lift compression is limited at the October production complex, any additional drilling would have resulted in a re-allocation of available gas-lift gas. This would take lift-gas from existing wells and defer the full production impact of the new wells. As an alternative, less-expensive shoreline compression was installed and gas-lift gas was delivered offshore by injecting through an existing, under-utilized pipeline. Finally, with less-expensive slim-hole completions, the October Nezzazat field may now be developed independently of the Nubia formation resulting in greater production and reserves from the Nezzazat.
The Planning of The Drilling and The Rig Upgrading for The HPHT Pre Khuff Well
Authors: Rose Richard 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
In 1992 ADMA OPCO (Abu Dhabi Marine Operating Company) started the detailed planning of a deep HPHT vertical exploration well that was to be drilled offshore Abu Dhabi on behalf of ADNOC (Abu Dhabi National Oil Company). Relevant offset data was not available. The nature of the well dictated that an optimised casing design would be required, and that significant rig modifications would be needed to satisfy the requirements of the well. This paper outlines how those challenges were achieved.
Wire Line Formation Pressure Testing and Sampling: Field Applications In Saudi Arabia
Authors: Douglas Adrian A. , Al-Daalouj Abdulla I. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Recent developments in the technology of wire line formation testers has lead to new applications which would not have been possible with the previous generation of tools.
This paper describes the field applications of the Modular Dynamics Tester (MDT*) in Saudi Arabia. These applications include obtaining pure formation water samples in areas of unknown water resistivity in order to aid electric log interpretation, and performing vertical permeability tests using a multiple probe configuration of the tool.
The analysis of vertical permeability tests has shown that a new analytical modeling technique, known as pressure-pressure formulation, brings significant improvements to the interpretation of transient pressure data because it eliminates the need for any direct measurement of flow rate.
Integrated Interpretation of Galvanic and Induction Measurements by Inversion Methods
Authors: Mezzatesta A. G. , Eckard M. H. , Payton C. C. , Strack K. -M. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Accurate estimation of residual and movable hydrocarbon requires precise estimation of the formation resistivities in the flushed and uncontaminated zones. The estimation of formation resistivities is commonly done by interpreting the data provided by galvanic (mainly laterolog) and induction devices. Different physical principles govern these devices. In galvanic tools, the voltages being measured are related to the surface charge densities at the interfaces between adjacent media of different resistivities, whereas in induction tools, the voltage induced in a measuring coil results from the magnetic fields due to alternating currents flowing in the surrounding formation.
Conventional interpretation methods of electromagnetic measurements use approximate and independent techniques for galvanic and induction logging measurements. These techniques provide some means to correct the resistivity measurements for borehole, shoulder, and invasion effects. Since the charts are typically designed for the interpretation of the measurements that correspond to a single suite of logs, individual results may differ when different sets of measurements available in a particular borehole are used in the interpretation. The interpretation, i.e., finding an earth model consistent with all measurements, is then left to the skill of the log analyst.
A simultaneous inversion of galvanic and induction data considers a single earth model, consisting of a distribution of resistivities, that is consistent with the two types of measurements. The inversion process also provides statistical results that help the log analyst assess the quality of the interpretation results. Combining measurements based on different physical principles also improves the resolution of the estimated formation parameters, such as resistivities and invasion depths.
This work demonstrates how the interpretation is improved by using an algorithm that simultaneously considers all available resistivity measurements. The work also shows the importance of the inversion process in extracting the information content from the data in cases that would not be possible by using conventional interpretation methods, as well as the use of statistical results to assess the quality of the interpretation. Several field cases are presented that show the importance of unified interpretations in improving the accuracy of the formation resistivity estimation, and the enhancement of radially and vertically layered earth models that result.
Computer Assisted Operations In Petroleum Development Oman (Pdo)
Authors: Al-Hinai S. H. , Mutimer K. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) currently produces some 750,000 bopd and 900,000 bwpd from some 74 fields in a large geographical area and diverse operating conditions. A key corporate objective is to reduce operating costs by exploiting productivity gains from proven technology.
Automation is seen as a means of managing the rapid growth of well population and production facilities. The overall objective is to improve field management through continuous monitoring of wells and facilities and dissemination of data throughout the whole organization. A major upgrade of PDO’s field Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system is complete providing a platform to exploit new initiatives particularly for production optimisation of artificial lift systems and automatic well testing using multi selector valves, coriolis flow meter measurements and multi component (oil, gas, water) flowmeter. The paper describes PDO’s experience including benefits and challenges which have to be managed when developing Computer Assisted Operations (CAO).
Facilities Engineering for a Full Scale Gas Injection Project
Authors: Saadawi Hisham 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Bu Hasa field is the largest onshore oil field in the United Arab Emirates. In order to enhance oil recovery, a full scale pattern gas injection project is currently under construction. The project aims at injecting 150 MMscf/D (4.2 × 106 std m3/d) in 14 injection wells. The wellhead injection pressure is 5400 psig (372 bars).
This paper describes the surface facilities of the gas injection project and addresses the basic design concepts. The paper also outlines project implementation aspects.