SOARING BEHAVIOUR AND PERFORMANCE OF SOME EAST AFRICAN BIRDS, OBSERVED FROM A MOTOR‐GLIDER
Authors: Pennycuick C. J. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryVarious species of soaring birds were studied by following them in a motor‐glider, mainly over the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. The characteristics of thermal convection in the study area are described in general terms.The two vulture species of the genus Gyps live by scavenging among the herds of migratory ungulates, especially Wildebeest. They are not territorial, and gather in large numbers on kills. When raising young they may be obliged by game movements to forage at long distances from their nests. Their cross‐country performance is adequate for a foraging radius of over 100 km in dry‐season conditions. Their ability to compete with Spotted Hyaenas is thought to depend partly on this factor and partly on an advantage in arriving early at kills. These two species appear to find food more by watching other vultures than by searching for it directly.The Lappet‐faced and White‐headed Vultures are thought to be sedentary, and to depend on thorough searching of a fixed foraging territory, rather than on following migratory game. They have lower wing loadings than the Gyps vultures, and were not seen cross‐country flying. They never gather in large numbers. The Hooded Vulture is a solitary nester, but it does fly across country, and does gather at kills. Vultures soar individually, and seem to be good at exploiting such phenomena as thermal streets. They do not travel in flocks.Tawny and Martial Eagles react positively to the glider, and are suspected of regarding it as potential prey.White Storks migrate between Europe and Africa, and also travel about within East Africa, by thermal soaring. They soar in flocks, and unlike vultures rely on co‐ordinated social behaviour to locate thermals. In choosing their route, they often fail to react to obvious weather signs. They enter cumulus clouds from the bottom when thermalling, but probably do not climb far above cloudbase.Marabou Storks soar individually, but also sometimes travel in flocks. When doing so, they show less lateral spreading than White Storks, which reduces the effectiveness of the flock as a thermal‐finding unit; on the other hand, they do seem to react to visible weather signs, like vultures or glider pilots.White Pelicans, which travel by thermal soaring between different lakes in the Rift Valley, show the most highly co‐ordinated social soaring behaviour. Unlike White Storks, they fly in formation even when circling.Storks and pelicans showed more signs of alarm when approached by the glider than did the vultures or birds of prey. This could be due to their being preyed upon in flight, for instance by Martial Eagles.The basis of conventional thermal cross‐country flying is outlined, and it is explained why the high wing loadings of the Gyps vultures are appropriate to their peripatetic habits. A method of thermal soaring without circling is discussed, and shown to be more readily feasible for small than for large birds. Some differences in soaring techniques between birds and glider pilots are interpreted in the light of this calculation. A case in which Black Kites apparently used this technique to soar in random turbulence is described.The cross‐country speed attainable by thermal soaring should be similar to the cruising speed under power in both large and small birds. Rough calculations of the energy costs suggest that a large bird (White Stork) should reduce its fuel consumption by a factor of 23 by soaring rather than flying under power, whereas this factor would be only 2–4 for a small bird (Bonelli's Warbler). Other reasons why thermal soaring is an advantageous means of travel for large but not for small birds are also indicated.