bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The effects of four outcome schedules on persistence, liking for the task, and attributions of causality1
Authors: Chaikin Alan L. 
Published: April 2006

SummarySubjects were randomly assigned to one of four schedules of outcomes on a problem solving task ascending, descending, constant success, and constant failure As predicted by White's theory of competence motivation, constant success subjects showed a sharp drop in desire to persist over time, interpreted as satiation of competence motivation Ascending subjects showed significantly more persistence than constant success subjects, with descending and constant failure subjects falling between these two conditions No differences on the final measure were found among conditions for liking for the task and attributions of causality, although significant differences between ascending and descending subjects were obtained on the difference scores, with ascending subjects showing more positive change than descending m liking and internal causality, from the first to the second measure
Locus of control of reinforcement and responsiveness to social influence1
Authors: Doctor Ronald M. 
Published: April 2006

SummaryIn this study, the “control of reinforcement” dimension was used to generate differential predictions about subject responsiveness to subtle social influence and experimenter effectiveness in producing change in verbal behavior As predicted, “external” control subjects, selectively reinforced in a sentence construction task, evidenced significantly greater performance gains than “internal” subjects When reports of awareness were used to further subdivide subjects, it was found that aware externals accounted for the conditioning effect whereas aware internals, unaware subjects, and controls were comparable and showed essentially no change in performance These differences were interpreted as being due to the internal's resistiveness to subtle forms of influence. The anticipated experimenter effect was nonsignificant Consideration of the control of reinforcement dimension as an important determinant of responsiveness to social influence in certain situations was emphasized
Naive psychology and the attributional model of achievement
Authors: Falbo Toni , Beck Robert C. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractOpen‐ended explanations for the success and failure outcomes of others were obtained from (N= 226) undergraduates. Only 23% of the 2,495 explanations generated by these naive psychologists could be readily categorized as one of the four causal elements of the Weiner model of achievement attributions. An individual difference model of multidimensional scaling of the explanations for success and failure was performed separately. Because the explanations for success and failure were generally asymmetrical, the three dimensions of success explanations had little resemblance to the three dimensions of failure explanations. The success dimensions were labelled Achievement Orientation, Vitality, and Mastery. The failure dimensions were labelled Insufficient Energy, Poor Work Attitude, und Lack Ability.
Helping is not enough: Recipient's reactions to aid as a function of positive and negative information about the self
Authors: Nadler Arie , Altman Avram , Fisher Jeffrey D. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe present research investigated the effects of experimentally induced positive and negative feedback about the self on the recipient's subsequent reactions to aid. In line with a consistency prediction, subjects given positive feedback who later received aid had lower mood ratings and less favorable self‐evaluations than those who were given positive feedback but no subsequent help. Conversely, subjects given negative feedback who later received aid had higher mood ratings and more positive self‐evaluations than those who were given negative feedback but no subsequent help. Subjects' evaluations of another individual were characterized by aid main effects, which indicate that an other who helped was evaluated more favorably than an other who did not help. The conceptual and applied implications of these results are discussed.
The effect of debriefing on laboratory induced helplessness: An attributional analysis1
Authors: Tennen Howard , Gillen Robert 
Published: April 2006

AbstractDebriefing was assessed as means of reversing helplessness deficits through reattribution. Fifty‐five subjects listened to escapable or inescapable tones. One inescapable group, prior to anagrams, was debriefed regarding noise uncontrollability. A second inescapable group was administered anagrams by a different experimenter. While exposure to inescapable noise led to performance deficits, switching experimenters obviated these deficits. Debriefing actually facilitated anagram performance. All inescapable subjects—debriefed or not—attributed their lack of control on the noise task to experimenter interference, casting some doubt on reattribution as an explanation of debriefing's effects. Results were discussed in terms of the reformulated learned helplessness model and the ethical implications of debriefing in learned helplessness research.
Inferential rules in the learning and recall of patterns of sentiments1
Authors: Crockett Walter H. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractSubjects learned one of four patterns of like‐dislike relations between members of four‐person structures. They then recalled the learned structure after an interval of fifteen minutes, one week, or four weeks. One pattern of relations was balanced, one could be balanced by changing only one pair of relations, and the other two were totally unbalanced. There was clear evidence that the balance assumptions were employed in learning; for unbalanced structures, there was some evidence of the use of positivity and of source/target generalization. Subjects recalled the balanced structure more accurately than the unbalanced ones, especially over the longest time interval. However, unbalanced structures were not converted in memory to balanced ones.
Death anxiety, dissent, and competence
Authors: Alexander Irving E. , Costanzo Philip R. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractA total of 64 male undergraduates were administered a multistage interview which was structured to assess (a) their level of overtly expressed death anxiety, (b) covert (GSR) arousal to death stimuli, (c) self‐perceived competence, and (d) agreement with or dissent from life threatening national policies. The analyses that followed were concerned with examining the relationships among these variables. In previous studies of this kind it had been typically found that (1) self‐perceived competence and magnitude of expressed death concern are inversely related and (2) overt expressions of death concern and covert physiological arousal to death cues are inversely related. Psychodynamic formulations centering on the ego‐defensive nature of inhibited expressions of death anxiety have been cited to explain these past data. The current investigation proposed that the magnitude of expressed death concern would bear an inverse relationship to both felt competence and covert death arousal only when the level of overt concern was not contingent upon the individual's attitudes concerning the imminence of real life threatening circumstances in the environment. The rationale behind these predictions inheres in the notion that the neurotic components of strongly expressed death anxiety derive from its lack of anchoring in “real” external threats. Conversely, the expression of low death fear can only be regarded as “defensive” when real threats are perceived and acknowledged. The obtained results strongly support this rationale and the discussion centers on the impact of social conditions on psychodynamic processes.
Ingratiation tactics channeled by target values and threat capability1
Authors: Michener H. Andrew , Plazewski Joseph G. , Vaske Jerry J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractSeveral hypotheses concerning the use of ingratiation tactics were tested in a paradigm where subjects believed that monetary rewards were contingent on a favorable evaluation from a supervisor. Manipulated variables in the 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design were (a) the nature of the supervisor's values (i.e., efficiency vs. sociability), (b) the level of threats issued by the supervisor (no threat vs. high threat), and (c) the extent to which the subjects were dependent on the supervisor's evaluation (low dependency vs. high dependency). The dependent variables were the extent to which the subjects used the ingratiation tactics of other‐enhancement (flattery) and selective self‐presentation. Findings indicate that the manipulation of the supervisor's values affected the form of other‐enhancement used by subjects; more flattery in terms of efficiency occurred in the efficiency values condition, while more flattery in terms of sociability occurred in the sociability values condition. The supervisor's values also affected self‐presentation; subjects claimed to hold efficiency ideals when the supervisor held efficiency values, but (in line with earlier findings) they did not claim to hold sociability ideals when the supervisor held sociability values. The manipulation of threats issued by the supervisor had a significant effect on the subjects' use of other‐enhancement with respect to the target's sociability, but it had no effect on other ingratiation measures. Finally, the manipulation of dependency had no effect on other‐enhancement, but it did produce a surprising “modesty effect” on self‐presentation. Subjects presented themselves as both less efficient and less sociable under high dependency than under low. These findings are discussed in the light of previous research on ingratiation tactics.
Coping behavior and locus of control in children1
Authors: Rothbaum Fred , Wolfer John , Visintainer Madelon 
Published: April 2006

AbstractSeveral investigators report a distinction between inward (withdrawn, somaticizing, fearful) behavior and outward (antisocial, hostile, aggressive) behavior. The present study was designed to clarify the relationship between type of coping behavior and locus of control (i.e., the attribution of causality to internal vs. external factors) for children aged 4 to 12 years. Two locus of control (LOC) instruments were administered—the Nowicki‐Strickland and a new measure which distinguished between LOC for desirable and undesirable events. Measures of coping behavior were completed by parents. Results indicated that the new LOC scale related to type of coping behavior: external LOC children tended to have a greater proportion of inward behavior. Furthermore, desirable‐event items were better able to distinguish between inward and outward behavior than were undesirable‐event items. The Nowicki‐Strickland scale was significantly correlated with the new scale, but not with coping behavior. Replication of the findings was obtained in a subsequent study. Discussion centered on the relationship between generalized perceptions of control and situationally manipulated perceptions of control, and differences between perceptions of control involved in inward and outward behavior.
Person concepts: The effect of target familiarity and descriptive purpose on the process of describing others1
Authors: Fiske Susan T. , Cox Martha G. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe relationship between object and person perception is explored in free‐response person descriptions. A taxonomy which applies to both person and object descriptions, that is, a theoretically extensible taxonomy, potentially provides theoretical continuities across areas of perception. Evidence for the taxonomy's validity, or psychological meaningfulness, comes from differential usage of its components in (1) describing familiar and stranger target persons, (2) for physical versus indepth descriptive purposes, and (3) over the stages of the descriptive output. Descriptions of friends focus relatively more on personality traits and personal origins, while descriptions of strangers focus on context. Physical descriptions not surprisingly emphasize appearance, while indepth descriptions include mostly personality traits, as well as observable behaviors, appearance terms, and relationship descriptors. Differential usage of the components over stages of the description reveals that descriptions usually begin with appearance and later include typical behaviors and personality terms. Relationship labels, when used, occur at the beginning. Parallels with object description are discussed, and structural implications for concept storage are explored.
Generalized and specific expectancies: Sequential mediators of interpersonal behavior1
Authors: Russell J. Curtis , Gowaty Frank H. , Harland David A. , Martin Robin P. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractTwo experiments confirmed sequential mediation of social interaction by investigating the effects of generalized expectancies on specific expectancies and the effects of specific expectancies on performance. Both experiments used a simulated tutoring task in which the subject took the role of tutor while a confederate took the role of student. In Experiment 1 subjects combined generalized expectancies about the effectiveness of certain tutoring responses with specific situational information to produce specific expectancies about the results of the tutoring responses under the experimental circumstances. Experiment 2 replicated this finding and showed that specific expectancies of the relative effectiveness of different responses influenced which response was performed more. Results were discussed in terms of cognitive motivation theory and social learning theory.
Effects of degree of interpersonal similarity on physical distance and self‐reported attraction: A comparison of uniqueness and reinforcement theory predictions
Authors: Snyder C. R. , Endelman Janet R. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe apparently divergent similarity‐attraction findings of the reinforcement theory and uniqueness theory researchers were investigated by exposing male (N = 45) and female (N = 45) subjects to conditions of slight, moderate, or high similarity relative to one comparison other. Similarity was manipulated by means of a bogus personality and attitude inventory. For the self‐report measures, results consistent with reinforcement theory were obtained in that greater self‐reported attraction to the partner was linearly related to increased similarity. Additionally, interpersonal distance was curvilinearly related to similarity. This distancing pattern reflected the fact that moderate similarity subjects positioned themselves relatively closer to the other person's chair than the slight or high similarity subjects. The physical distance results support the uniqueness theory notion that high similarity may have some aversive properties. The discrepancy between the physical distance and self‐report results is discussed in terms of an implicit causal theory that subjects may have about interpersonal similarity (i.e., greater similarity is good).
Sex differences in instructions to “be creative” on divergent and nondivergent test scores
Authors: Katz Albert N. , Poag John R. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractHarrington (1975) found that both the magnitude and meaning of male subject scores on the Alternate Uses Test were altered by explicit instructions to “be creative,” and argued for the necessity of such instructions, plus qualitative scoring criteria, in the employment of tests of creativity. The present study elaborated upon this study by including female subjects, more than one test of divergent thinking and a test of nondivergent thinking. Instructions to be creative increased the proportion of creative responses output for both males and females, and sharpened correlations with Adjective Check List personality scales. Instructions did not alter performance on the nondivergent test. These results were interpreted to mean the instructions elicited strategies particularly relevant to divergent thinking and ruled out nonspecific effects such as those due to motivation. A reliable sex‐difference in ideational fluency was also observed: instructions to be creative facilitated the total number of responses output for the male subjects. This supports a hypothesis that the instructions disambiguate I he test situation differently for men and women, suggesting the need to isolate individual conceptions of creativity in order to maximize test performance.
Facial attractiveness and vocal likeability as determinants of nonverbal sending skills1
Authors: Larrance Deborah T. , Zuckerman Miron 
Published: April 2006

AbstractRecent studies have examined the self‐fulfilling effects of the physical attractiveness stereotype on a person's development of social skills. The potential of vocal qualities to have similar effects has not been investigated. The present study examined the relation of attractiveness (as judged from the face) and likeability of the person (as judged from the voice) to a specific social skill—the ability to send nonverbal cues of emotion. It was found that facial attractiveness and vocal likeability increased sending accuracy of facial and vocal cues respectively, particularly for pleasant affects. The greater accuracy of facially attractive senders tended to be especially emphasized for posed (as compared to spontaneous) expressions, indicating that their superiority reflected a controllable skill. The need for further research in the tradition of “what is (vocally) likeable is good” was noted.
Impressions of high and low Machiavellian men1
Authors: Cherulnik Paul D. , Way James H. , Ames Susan , Hutto Doris B. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractNaive judges viewed brief, silent videotape excerpts or photographs of 18 men who had been classified as high or low in Machiavellianism. They were asked either to identify each stimulus person as high or low, or to choose from a list of trait adjectives those which best described each. Stimulus persons were identified accurately. The traits which were chosen to describe them were consistent with the characterizations of high and low Machiavellians in the research literature. Neither judgment appears to have been based on a single, observable aspect of the stimulus persons' appearance or behavior. It is concluded that practitioners of interpersonal strategies like Machiavellianism can communicate elaborate, self‐serving impressions to others.
Promoting leadership behaviors in low performance‐self‐esteem women in task‐oriented mixed‐sex dyads1
Authors: Stake Jayne E. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractMethods for promoting leadership behaviors in low performance‐self‐esteem women were explored in two studies. Female undergraduates were paired with male peers who had either very similar or much higher scores on the Performance‐Self‐Esteem Scale. The mixed‐sex dyads in Study 1 were given either no leader, chance‐based leader, or ability‐based leader instructions. Study 2 included only the latter two conditions and allowed subjects preparation time between leader appointment and the dyadic interaction. All leader appointments were given to the female dyad member. Members' influence was measured by verbal interaction counts, decision outcome scores, and members' ratings. Both leader conditions were successful in promoting female leadership behavior in Study 2, as measured by verbal interactions, but neither was successful in Study 1. Results indicated that Study 2 females exercised a helpful leadership style and that Study 2 males were satisfied with their partners' role in the interaction.
The relationship between cooperative, competitive, and individualistic attitudes and differentiated aspects of self‐esteem1
Authors: Norem‐Hebeisen Ardyth A. , Johnson David W. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractFour studies to clarify the relationship between attitudes toward styles of social interdependence and ways of deriving self‐esteem were conducted among 821 white, middle‐class, secondary school students in a midwest suburban community. Correlations between attitudes toward three styles of interdependence and four ways of deriving self‐esteem indicate distinctive and theoretically predictable patterns of relationship. Students who indicate a cathexis for cooperative relationships report patterns of higher self‐esteem related to freedom of personal expressiveness and feelings of personal well‐being; students indicating a cathexis for competitive or individualized patterns of interdependence report greater vulnerability on dimensions of self‐esteem reflecting sensitivity to experiences of success, approval, and support of others. The magnitudes of correlations between a global measure of personal worth and attitudes toward the three types of interdependence reflect the extent to which positive social reinforcement is available in these settings. Specific correlations that reflect these findings are significant, p < .01.
Nonverbal concomitants of enacted emotional intensity and positivity: Visual and vocal behavior1
Authors: Kimble Charles E. , Forte Robert A. , Yoshikawa Joyce C. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis study focused on how emotional expressions are implied through visual and vocal behaviors. The roles of proportion gaze, glance duration, and vocal loudness in expressing emotional positivity and intensity were examined. Emotional positivity, emotional intensity, and target of the communication were manipulated in a mixed design. Forty‐eight female subjects performed a liking or an anger message to a man and to a camera with strong and weak intensity. Videotaped responses were analyzed. Strong emotional intensity conditions evoked more direct gaze regardless of the message positivity or the target of the emotional expression. Longer glances and louder speech were associated with only intense negative emotional expression regardless of the target of the expression. The proportion gaze data support the view that eye contact serves as an intensifier of affective expression. Methodological considerations and questions about generalizability are discussed.
Reports of the sources of self‐knowledge1
Authors: Schoeneman Thomas J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractCollege students reported about the sources of their self‐knowledge in questionnaire (N=118) and interview N= 42) sessions by generating self‐descriptive adjectives, specifying ad libitum how they knew they fit the chosen descriptors (reports the investigator later rated as mentioning self‐observation, social feedback, and social comparison processes), and formally ranking the importance of the three sources of self‐knowledge. Self‐observation appeared in subjects' reports more frequently than feedback from others or social comparison by a proportion of about 7:2:1; average rankings of importance followed the same order. Results were quite similar for both sets of subjects. Two mechanisms that could account for the observed results receive consideration: motivational bias involving self‐presentation, and information‐processing errors due to focus of attention and the underuse of consensus information.
Presidential greatness and performance: Can we predict leadership in the White House?1
Authors: Simonton Dean Keith 
Published: April 2006

AbstractTwo related questions regarding presidential leadership are addressed. First, what are the principal determinants of the rated greatness of American presidents? Second, can presidential performance be predicted using preelection biographical variables? Reliable measures of greatness and performance were operationalized for the 38 presidents of the United States, along with numerous potential predictors suggested by past literature on leadership, achieved eminence, and presidential popularity and greatness. About 75% of the variance in presidential greatness can be predicted using administration duration, number of war years, unsuccessful assassination attempts, scandals, and prepresidential publication record. Family background, personal characteristics, education, occupation, and political experiences provided few if any viable predictors of presidential performance, although succession to office through the vice‐presidency exerted a rather general negative impact.