bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
NORM In Produced Water Discharges in the Coastal Waters of Texas
Authors: Taylor Windle 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
The Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality has reported elevated levels of naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) in some discharges of waters produced in association with oil and gas production in Louisiana.1 Also, a NORM survey conducted by the American Petroleum Institute (API) found elevated NORM levels in production equipment in certain geographical areas of Texas.2 The Railroad Commission of Texas (RRC) became concerned about the possibility of elevated levels of NORM in produced waters being discharged to surface waters in Texas. However, the Railroad Commission realized it did not have the staff resources to undertake a massive NORM study. Therefore, RRC staff sought a means to utilize existing data to predict NORM levels in produced waters discharged in Texas. Barium is required to be reported as part of the RRC's discharge permit application. Barium is chemically very similar to radium. Therefore, RRC staff felt there might be a relationship between barium and radium levels in produced waters.
A NORM survey was conducted on produced waters being discharged along the coast of Texas. Thirty-five discharges were selected for this survey based on their geographical location and varying concentrations of barium in their produced water discharges. The operators responsible for these discharges were asked to sample and test the discharges for certain chemical parameters, and to determine radioactive exposure levels in these discharges. In addition, the responsible operators were asked to submit geographical and geological information relevant to their discharges.
The information supplied by operators was studied to determine whether correlations existed between radium 226 and other chemical constituents of produced waters. Geological information was also studied to try to determine if geologically "hot" formations could be identified. The studies showed that the Frio formation produces water with higher NORM levels than the Miocene formation. No direct relationship between barium and radium 226 could be found, but test analyses did show that a relationship exists between total dissolved solids and radium 226. This relationship was used to project levels of radium 226 in other active produced water discharges along the Texas coast.
Continuous Flow Measurement of Glycol Reboiler Still Column Vents
Authors: Parker K. E. , Brennan T. M. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Emissions from the still columns on glycol reboilers are comprised of water vapor and various sulfur and hydrocarbon compounds. These compounds include substances such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene isomers, formaldehyde and hydrogen sulfide that are subject to state and federal toxic air emissions regulations.
Under the implementation of California's Air Toxics "Hot Spots" Information and Assessment Act of 1987, the local air district required quantification of glycol reboiler still column emissions based on in situ vent testing. Glycol reboilers are particularly difficult to source test due to velocity fluctuations, temperature cycles and low flow, which are inherent in the glycol dehydration process. Reboilers cycle between high and low fire in order to maintain the temperature of the glycol within a specified range. The alternating firing cycle results in variable exhaust temperatures and volumetric flow rates.
Pollutant mass emissions are calculated as a product of the gas concentation and the volumetric flow rate. The variable temperatures and volumetric flow rates common to the reboiler process may adversely affect volumetric flow measurements and, consequently, the resultant emission measurements.
Volumetric flow rates obtained with various instruments were compared to determine the most suitable measurement technique for low-flow reboilers. These instruments included a hot wire anemometer, a vane anemometer, a pitot tube and an orifice meter. The use of a continuously-monitored orifice flowmeter yielded accurate, integratable volumetric flow data and defined a repeatable and quantifiable temperature and flow profile. This procedure also enabled the stack tester to obtain a representative, integrated sample over one or more complete cycles and established a maximum sampling rate.
Air Emissions Trading
Authors: Frederick J. D. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
With the enactment of the New Clean Air Amendments, the regulations being promulgated nationwide on both state and local levels for inclusion in state implementation plans are relying to a large extent on the use of air emissions trade programs similar to those developed in the state of California. Exploration and production companies will have to operate and develop enhanced recovery techniques and maintain competitiveness in the world market while complying with the emissions trading regulations. In addition, production companies represent a substantial offset pool which will project them into the broad-based business development cycle.
The emissions trading or offset programs being proposed are taking various forms; some are informal, some are contract-based, and some are certificate-based. Each of these trading program methodologies or philosophies are examined. The broad experience in the state of California is utilized to identify beneficial aspects of the programs.
The emerging offsets trading regulations are analyzed. The optimum logic analysis results in a call for a standardized offsets trading scenario which will allow for maximum progress towards attainment of the Clean Air Standards within a functional business environment.
Pilot-Unit Testing of the R-BTEX Process
Authors: Gamez J. , Rueter C. , Thompson P. , Lowell P. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
As a result of increasing regulatory pressure, emissions of benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and the xylene isomers (BTEX) and other volatile organic compounds (VOC) from the regenerator still vent of glycol dehydration units have become a major concern of the natural gas industry. The Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990 have provided an impetus for air toxics regulations, and several states are regulating or considering regulating these units. To address this issue, the Gas Research Institute (GRI) and Radian Corporation have initiated research in three areas related to these emissions: the development of sampling and analytical methods, emissions modeling, and emissions control.
This paper contains background information on glycol dehydration units, their emissions, and legislation pertinent to these emissions. It also discusses the R-BTEX process for controlling emissions and the results of initial field experiments.
Initiating an Audit Program: A Case History
Authors: Guckian W. M. , Hurst K. G. , Kerns B. K. , Moore D. W. , Siblo J. T. , Thompson R. D. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
In the early spring of 1990, the management of Atlantic Richfield Company (ARCO) issued a directive to the six operating units of the corporation to begin a program of audits to assure compliance with all applicable environmental, health, and safety (EH&S) regulatory requirements. The time frame given to complete the first cycle of compliance audits was three years.
ARCO Oil and Gas Company (AOGC), the domestic exploration and production (E&P) unit of ARCO, responded to the management directive by assembling an EH&S audit staff, developing audit procedures, and creating a database of about 3000 audit protocols. More than two-thirds of the required audits were completed at the time this paper was published, including audits of gas plants, oil and gas production operations, drilling operations, high rise office buildings, offshore platforms, and warehouses. Selective use of contract employees allowed the program to stay on a tight schedule.
The purpose of this paper is to describe the steps taken by AOGC in developing its audit program, outline the obstacles overcome in implementing the process, and review costs and other important aspects of the program.
Specific areas of the audit program addressed in the paper include: pre-audit planning, statistical sampling guidelines, on-site activities, written reports, follow-up requirements, and database management.
Guidelines for Designing Safe, Environmentally Acceptable Downhole Injection Operations
Authors: Andersen E. E. , Louviere R. J. , Witt D. E. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Downhole cuttings injection technology is used by many operators to dispose of drilled cuttings generated when using oil base mud (OBM). These operators have worked with service companies to develop systems designed to slurry drilled cuttings and to inject the prepared slurry down a wellbore and into the formation.
Developing sound slurrification methods has played an important role in expanding the utility of cuttings injection. However, a clear understanding of what happens downhole during cuttings injection operations is critical to successfully implementing this technology. A set of guidelines are presented to assist operators and regulators when evaluating the merits of potential downhole cuttings injection applications. The guidelines are useful not only from an engineering perspective, but also from a regulatory viewpoint since the guidelines address the majority of regulatory concerns.
Analysis of the Rate of and Reasons for Injection Well Mechanical Integrity Test Failure
Authors: Browning L. A. , Smith J. D. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
An operator of a Class II injection well (i.e., used in conjunction with oil and gas production) is required to perform a mechanical integrity test (MIT) at least once every five years. We studied the rates of and reasons for failure of over 10,000 scheduled MITs, for a variety of completion types, in the States of Louisiana, Michigan, Nebraska, and Pennsylvania, over two 5-year MIT cycles. The failure rate for State/cycle combinations ranged from 3 percent to about 12 percent for scheduled MITs. However, we found that the actual rate of well failure was at least 50 percent greater, considering the rate of reported well failures in service and evidence of operators pretesting and repairing wells prior to the scheduled MIT. We found that the primary reason for MIT failure was casing failure (45 percent to 85 percent of State failures), compared to tubing, packer, or wellhead failures. Over 26 percent of wells with casing failures were plugged within 60 days of the test, which suggests problems of a more serious nature. For about 22 percent of the wells with casing failures, the failure involved the only layer of protection, and it allowed waste to be injected outside the wellbore.
Making the Most of Endangered Species Compliance: Development of the Coles Levee Ecosystem Preserve
Authors: Wolfe M. H. , Gelbs T. R. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Endangered species compliance has become increasingly difficult in Southern California, particularly in the Southern San Joaquin Valley which supports more rare species than any other area in the lower 48 states. As development has proceeded for many years without establishment of significant habitat preserves, increasing numbers of species are being proposed and listed as endangered. Development of the Coles Levee Ecosystem Preserve (Preserve) by ARCO Oil & Gas Company (ARCO) benefits endangered species, habitat conservation, and industry.
The Preserve was established with a conservation easement over approximately 6,059 acres. The easement was deeded to the California Department of Fish and Game. ARCO will continue its oil and gas activities on the Preserve and will manage the surface for the benefit of the rare and endangered plant and animal species that inhabit the property. Upon abandonment of the oil and gas operations, the developed areas will be reclaimed for wildlife habitat.
The Preserve provides specific economic benefits to the company and benefits habitat, conservation, and the environment in general. These benefits to the landowner include assurance of the ability to conduct exploration and development activities due to a streamlined permitting process, a fifty percent cost savings in providing endangered species compensation acreage, certainty that compensation acreage will be available, and sales of excess endangered species compensation to third parties.
Management of the Preserve by the private landowner is an unprecedented occurrence in California Department of Fish and Game policy. Private/public partnerships of this type will be the key to solving future environmental issues. The development of the Preserve is a win-win situation for industry and conservation.
Reclamation Procedures for Produced Water Spills from Coalbed Methane Wells, San Juan Basin, Colorado and New Mexico
Authors: Kaszuba J. P. , Buys M. W. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Most natural gas wells completed in the Fruitland Formation in the San Juan Basin produce large volumes of water that contain elevated levels of total dissolved solids (TDS), sodium, and chloride. The chloride and sodium content of this water can elevate soluble salt and exchangeable sodium levels in soil. Soil most severely impacted by discharge of this produced water is saline-sodic. It will not sustain plant life until action is taken to reduce the levels of soluble salt and exchangeable sodium in the soil.
Reclamation of impacted soil should take place promptly and consist of applying gypsum amendments and native grass mulch or aged manure followed immediately by leaching. The leach water should be impounded on the spill site if the topography is suitable. In New Mexico, seeding of salt-tolerant grasses and shrubs should take place between July 1 and September 15. Revegetation strategies for Colorado are more complex because topography and rainfall range dramatically.
Reclamation will proceed slowly and beneficial results will not be observed for at least 6 months to 1 year. Complete soil reclamation and restoration of vegetation may not be accomplished for 3 to 5 years after initial application of amendments.
Shelter in Place: The Technical Basis for Its Use in Emergency Planning
Authors: South B. C. , Herries P. E. , Byrd W. R. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
This paper describes the technical basis for the Shelter In Place concept and its applicability to emergency planning in a populated sour gas production area, including:
A general description of the operating area and emergency planning considerations, including road maps overlain with adjacent population and field' facility information; Worst case scenario selection, including gas release rates, exit gas velocity and wind velocity; Gas dispersion modeling, including transient and steady-state results and timing; Air infiltration testing of buildings, including a description of the ASTM test method utilized and test results of local businesses and residences. Resulting safe time calculations, including internal H2S concentration versus time plots.
The paper also presents some case studies where shelter in place was effective in saving lives and other examples where lives were lost from failure to shelter in place.
Mercury Contamination at Gas Industry Sites
Authors: Charlton D. S. , Beaver F. W. , Butler R. D. , Harju J. A. , Hassett D. J. , Henke K. R. , Monson L. L. , Kuhnel Vit , Schmit C. R. , Stepan D. J. , Evans J. M. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
The past and present use of mercury-filled flowmeters (manometers) at gas industry metering stations has resulted in contamination of soils with elemental mercury. These manometers are used throughout the gas industry at production wells, along pipelines, at gas processing plants, at underground storage facilities, and within gas distribution systems.
Soils contaminated with mercury at metering sites may be subject to Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulations if a sample of the excavated soil exceeds 0.2 mg/L of mercury by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) analysis. Under the Land Disposal Restrictions (Land Ban), mercury-contaminated soils that are determined to be hazardous by TCLP analysis (D009) cannot be landfilled without meeting certain treatment standards. For high-mercury soils (greater than 260 mg/kg total mercury), the Best Demonstrated Available Technology (BDAT) is specified as roasting or retorting.
The mercury research program at the Energy and Environmental Research Center (EERC) is part of a broader, multidisciplinary effort to investigate potential contamination of soil and groundwater at gas industry sites. The primary tasks of this mercury research program include 1) the conduct of a mercury workshop for the gas industry; 2) a literature review and development of a bibliographic database; 3) an assessment of computer models applicable to mercury migration; 4) the development of a risk assessment model for mercury-contaminated sites; 5) the evaluation of sampling, preservation, and analytical protocols for mercury; 6) the characterization and monitoring of field sites; 7) the conduct of laboratory experiments evaluating leaching techniques; and 8) an evaluation of the application of existing or developing remediation technologies with mercury-contaminated soils.
Several of these tasks have been completed, resulting in the distribution of proceedings of the mercury workshop and the bibliographic database. Four field sites have been characterized, and monitoring wells are continuing to be sampled. A mobile prototype of a remediation technology based on physical separation has been tested. Three additional technologies (thermal, chemical, and physicai/chemical) will be tested at the bench scale or as prototype units in early 1993. Most other tasks have resulted in reports that are currently in draft form and will be published in 1993.
Interpreting Soil and Groundwater Data with Respect to the Natural Distribution of Contaminants: A Case Study
Authors: Baker T. P. , Moore T. J. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Identifying the sources of contamination at a site often requires interpreting significant quantities and types of environmental data. When groundwater studies are performed near secondary recovery operations, and it is determined that the groundwater has elevated chlorides, our investigations may hastily evolve from the preconceived assumption that chlorides from the injection of produced water caused the elevated groundwater chlorides.
This paper uses a case study to illustrate how "multiple working hypotheses" were used at the Northeast (N.E.) Fitts, Oklahoma, waterflood operation to avoid a narrowly focused groundwater investigation. The study demonstrates that interpretation of data with respect to the natural distribution of potential contaminants can result in more accurate identification of contaminant sources in groundwater.
Using the multiple working hypothesis approach, data which previously suggested oilfield contamination now clearly illustrate that groundwater chlorides were naturally occurring. Supporting evidence included increasing salts with depth, differences in salt composition, and the observation that time dependency of groundwater salt concentrations resulted from monitor well construction and development.
Even if You're on the Right Track, You'll Get Run Over if You Just Sit There: Source Reduction and Recycling in the Oil Field
Authors: Savage L. L. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
In the oil field of the past, companies generally concentrated the bulk of their environmental resources on efforts to dispose of wastes after they were generated. Managing the large quantities of produced waters, drilling fluids, and other wastes associated with oil and gas exploration and production activities was perceived as an unavoidable problem. However, regulations regarding oil and gas waste management are becoming increasingly stringent. Costs for disposal of these wastes are also increasing, not only in terms of disposal fees, but also in terms of potential liability. And concern over the public health and the environment is increasing. Today, in order to economically comply with regulations, protect the environment, and limit potential future liability, companies must shift the focus of their waste management programs. These companies must begin to focus on the numerous source reduction and recycling opportunities that exist for all types of oil and gas operations. This paper explores several source reduction and recycling options for oil and gas operators, many of which are relatively simple and inexpensive.
Waste Minimization Program at Sour Gas Facilities
Authors: Benoit J. R. , Schuh M. G. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Although the Oil and Gas industry in North America has enjoyed various exemptions from hazardous waste regulations over the years, these regulations are changing and more emphasis will have to be placed on minimizing wastes from the production of oil and gas. As a result a Waste Minimization Program has been developed for application at Mobil's sour gas plants in Western Canada. The Program consists of a multi-phased approach where the primary focus is on the Waste Audit which is the first step in reducing waste.
The paper will provide an overview of the various phases of the program including the development of the waste flow diagram and the material balance study. Procedures for identifying waste reduction alternatives and ranking criteria will also be discussed as well as suggestions for a cost/benefit analysis and implementation plan. Emphasis on the approach, audit team selection and expectancies from the program will be reviewed.
To date the program has been implemented at five(5) sour gas plants in Western Canada. The paper will present some of the results from the program and outline minimization options that have been implemented with success. The program has already yielded a 30% reduction in solid and liquid wastes at many of these facilities.
Microbiologically Influenced Souring in Gas Industry Facilities
Authors: Pope D. H. , Dziewulski D. M. , Morris E. A. , Paakkonen S. T. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Microbiologically influenced souring (MIS) has been defined as the presence of sulfide in produced gas or fluids due to current microbiological activities. Several important problems related to souring include the removal of H2S before transport or end-use, H2S corrosion, safety, environmental concerns, and the costs associated with these problems. Over the past several years, the Gas Research Institute (GRI) has sponsored research on souring in production and storage facilities. Research at storage facilities has led to the development of initial profiles, detection kits (MISKITS), and field guides, as well as chemical and microbiological databases. Souring investigations at production facilities have addressed the extent of souring in the United States and potential cost savings. Also, localized souring in the Antrim formation in the Michigan basin has been investigated, the results of which suggest souring due to current MIS.