bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Holland's Rulers: The Urban Oligarchies
Authors: Tracy James D. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
In Flanders and Brabant, guilds had a share in urban government. Holland's cities were ruled by self‐perpetuating town councils. Whether brought to power by Orange, or merely adapting to new conditions, these magistrates secured their authority against challenges arising from the unsettled circumstances. The clergy of the Dutch Reformed Church, granted a monopoly on the public exercise of religion, had to accept supervision by the magistrates. Villages, no matter how large, could not claim the privileges of towns. Civic militia companies, though vital to the initial success of the Revolt, would not have a voice in civic affairs. The prince of Orange must be obeyed as commander in chief, but his writ did not run to matters of finance. Even the authority of the Lords States was limited: if a new tax was proposed, no town could be made to pay against its will.
The Securing of Holland's Forward Frontier, 1583–1588
Authors: Tracy James D. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
As towns and provinces fell away, the Council of State recruited troops from France, from Germany, and from England, where Elizabeth I named the earl of Leicester as governor in the Low Countries, in keeping with the Treaty of Nonsuch (August 1585). Some contingents never came; those that did could not blunt Parma's advance. Meanwhile, the Lords States of Holland husbanded their resources for needs of the Union of Utrecht: garrisons at the “gateways” to Holland were paid regularly, those in Brussels were not. When Nijmegen went over to Spain, breaching the line of the Waal, funds were found to hold the line of the Rhine. This strategy did not counter Parma's, but it worked as well; at key points in Gelderland and Overijssel, the forward frontier was secured. As a protected island of peace in a sea of war, Holland would prosper as never before.
Epilogue: The Dutch Republic in Europe's Republican Tradition, c.1590–1650
Authors: Tracy James D. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Historians of republicanism have focussed on states where princely rule was overthrown (15th‐century Florence, 17th‐century England). Yet even in princely realms town magistrates claimed to be part of a underline respublica mixta, a state combining the principles of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Dutch writers understood the United Provinces as a underline respublica mixta—that is, a stable, balanced constitution. Some embraced the democratic principle, invoking the memory of ancient Athens. Others (partisans of the House of Orange) bemoaned the weakness of the monarchical principle. Still others, like Holland's Hugo Grotius, saw the town oligarchies as forming a proper, aristocratic republic, like Sparta or Venice. Thus understood, the new polity was hardly democratic; but in a Europe dominated by strong monarchies, it was a beacon of republican liberty.
DETECTORS FOR SYNCHROTRON TOMOGRAPHY
Authors: Graafsma Heinz , Martin Thierry 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Efforts are underway to optimize two-dimensional X-ray detectors, which have become a standard at synchrotron sources for practically all applications including tomography. Area detectors can be divided into two main classes: in direct detection the X-ray photons are directly converted to an electrical signal via electron-hole pair creation, either in a semiconductor or in a gas; in indirect detection the X-ray photons are first converted into visible light that is subsequently converted to an electronic signal in the semiconductor. So far, the most effective, low-cost and low-risk solution for tomography has been indirect detection, where a scintillator converter screen is optically coupled to an integrating detector, either a commercial CCD camera, or a specially developed amorphous photodiode array. This chapter explains this technology and discusses the various components. It begins with a survey of the various existing types of X-ray conversion screens. This is followed by a discussion of the optical relays and the light sensors required to convert the light into a digital image.
5 A Tale of Three Villages: Practised Forestry in India
Authors: Ghate Rucha 
Published: May 2008

AbstractForest management in India has become accommodative since the forest policy of 1988. Presently, three types of ‘collective action’ based institutions can be found: self-initiated, NGO-promoted, and government-sponsored Joint Forest Management (JFM). Despite their common goals of strengthening ecological security and meeting the subsistence biomass needs of the local people, they differ in their strengths and weaknesses. The basic argument is that rather than oscillating between a simplistic either/or model of ‘state’ or ‘village community’, there is a need to conceive of more complex arrangements in which forest areas are protected for multiple objectives, under the joint management of multiple institutions.
4 Joseph Priestley, Political Philosopher
Authors: Fitzpatrick Martin 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines Priestley's political ideas and radical reputation. It argues that the most important dimensions of Priestley's political philosophy are his delineation of a specific sphere for civil liberty, his arguments for freedom of inquiry, and his belief that political activity should aim at creating the optimal conditions for preserving civil liberty and for a free and open society in which truth would progress. Both in his insistent arguments for liberty of thought and in his radicalization of Locke on sovereignty and toleration, he conformed and contributed to major trends within the Enlightenment.
7 Joseph Priestley in America
Authors: Graham Jenny 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses Priestley's life in America. Priestley, who was implicated in more than one way in the activities of the English radicals, departed for America in April 1794. Priestley received an enthusiastic welcome upon arriving in New York in June 1794 because he was a long-standing friend of the Americans and their experiment in republican government, and he received much sympathy for his persecution in England as a result of his outspoken support for France. Priestley's early years in Pennsylvania, his identification with the social and political trials facing America, and his final years under Jefferson are discussed.
The Electronic Structure of Atoms
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter starts off with an in-depth discussion on the angular and radial functions of the hydrogenic orbitals. Then the ground 1s 2 and the excited 1s 12s 1 configurations of the helium atom are employed to illustrate the determinantal wavefunction and the Pauli Exclusion Principle. Some simple trial wavefunctions for helium are introduced, with emphasis on the physical meaning of the adjustable parameters. For the many-electron atoms, the L-S and j-j coupling schemes are used to derive the spectroscopic terms arising from a given atomic configuration. Examples are then given to illustrate the correlation between the terms derived by these two schemes. The chapter concludes with a section on atomic properties, including ionization energy and electron affinity, electronegativity, relativistic effect on the properties of elements.
Structural Chemistry of Hydrogen
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Even though hydrogen is the ‘simplest’ atom in the Periodic Table, it has a very rich structural chemistry with eight bonding types. This chapter discusses the nature of the hydrogen bond, non-conventional hydrogen bonds (X-H···π, X-H···M, X-H···H-E, etc.), hydride complexes, molecular hydrogen coordination compounds, and σ-bond complexes.
Structural Chemistry of Group 17 and Group 18 Elements
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter covers the elements of Groups 17 (halogens) and 18 (noble gases) in the Periodic Table. For the elemental halogens, discussion includes their crystal structures and homopolyatomic anions and cations. The subsequent sections are on the interhalogen compounds and ions, charge-transfer complexes of halogens, the oxides and oxo compounds of halogens, etc. The final section devoted to noble-gas compounds with a comprehensive coverage on the structural chemistry of xenon.
5 The Antiquarian Ass: Apuleius and the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (1499)
Authors: Carver Robert H. F. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
The Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (‘The Strife of Love in a Dream of Poliphilo’) — first published in Venice in December 1499 — has long been regarded (particularly by art critics and bibliophiles) as one of the great glories (and curiosities) of Western civilization. This chapter argues that the Hypnerotomachia is probably the most remarkable piece of prose fiction to emerge in the 15th century and deserves an honoured place in the Western Canon between the Decameron and Gargantua and Pantagruel. It is also the work of Renaissance literature that displays most exuberantly its debts to Apuleius.
`Ethos' and the Oxford Movement
Authors: Pereiro James 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This book is a study of a fundamental and neglected aspect of the Oxford Movement. The term ethos appears often in the writings of the Oxford men, especially in their correspondence, and the concept makes its presence felt in every aspect of the Tractarians' intellectual life and religious or social activity. The present study fills a gap in the research about the Oxford Movement and it revises commonly held assumptions about it; the scholarly overlook of the topic has prevented a proper understanding of significant aspects of the intellectual and social history of the Movement. Ethos, for the Oxford men, was more than just a general ‘tone of peculiar gentleness and grace’. It represented a complex theory of religious knowledge which deeply influenced the genesis and development of the Movement. The Tractarians were conscious from the first of how far their ethos distinguished them from the High Church party, with whom they shared much common doctrinal ground. Recent historiography's overstressing of the High Church dimension of the Oxford Movement has tended to obscure Tractarian intellectual originality and the motivation behind many of their actions. The Oxford men were radical religious reformers inspired by an uncompromising principle which urged them forward towards the full restoration of early Christian doctrinal orthodoxy and the recovery of the Catholic ethos. They considered that this Catholic ethos, long lost in the Church of England, was the only ground where a real revival could take root and grow up. The book studies the pre-Tractarian formation of the concept of ethos, and its later development; it explores the intellectual and practical consequences of the notion for the religious and social revival the Oxford Movement tried to promote; it also offers a study of the formation of Newman's theory of doctrinal development and of the defining and definitive role ethos played in its conception.
3 The Ethos of the Oxford Movement
Authors: Pereiro James 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines the Movement's theory of knowledge: the origin of the concept of ethos in Keble's interpretation of Joseph Butler's Analogy, and its subsequent development by Froude Newman and Williams. The Tractarians never described clearly and systematically what they understood for ethos in any of their published works. The chapter tries to map the contributions of different authors to the common theory (or at least to its written expression) in a broadly chronological sequence; two elements central to the concept (‘reserve’ and ‘realizing’) are dealt with in separate sections. The chapter also explores the ‘iconic’ nature that Froude's incarnation of the Catholic ethos had for Newman and the other Tractarians.
Introduction to the Broadly Classical Options
Authors: Field Hartry 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter is a short introduction to the ways of dealing with the Liar paradox within classical logic. It distinguishes classical gap theories, classical glut theories, and weakly classical theories (a heading that includes both supervaluation theories and revision theories, in their ‘internal’ versions). It introduces some natural ‘Incoherence Principles’, jointly unsatisfiable in classical logic. The gap, glut, and weakly classical theories can be understood as different choices as to which incoherence principle to reject.
Introduction to Supervaluational Approaches to Paradox
Authors: Field Hartry 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter examines the simplest supervaluationist fixed points, and the ‘internal’ fixed-point theories based on them. These are not gap theories; they are ‘weakly classical’ theories in that they preserve the implications of classical logic but not certain meta-rules. Most dramatically, they do not allow for reasoning by cases. Two notions of validity are distinguished (strong and weak), and the framework of deMorgan semantics and Boolean semantics is introduced and discussed.
What Is To Be Done?
Authors: Field Hartry 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter sets the goal: a theory without excluded middle with ‘naïve truth and satisfaction’, that is, satisfying the full Tarski schemas and Intersubstitutivity Principle. A semantic framework is sketched, involving a deMorgan valued semantics with an additional operator for the conditional. There are different ways to fill out the framework — Lukasiewicz semantics is one of them — and the trick will be to find one in which the goal of naïve truth and satisfaction can be achieved. In all ways to fill out the framework, we can define a determinateness operator, and iterate it through the transfinite. But to achieve ‘naïvety’, this hierarchy can never collapse. This is also required if the theory is to be useful for vagueness.
Hyper‐Determinacy and Revenge
Authors: Field Hartry 
Published: May 2008

AbstractDo dialetheic theories do better as regard revenge problems than theories that restrict excluded middle? This chapter argues that they do not, and shows in particular that each of the revenge problems that Priest has raised against theories without excluded middle arise against dialetheic theories as well. The charge that dialetheic theories can't express the property of being solely true is investigated. It is found that a full defense against the charge requires a transfinite sequence of weaker and weaker negation-like operators, reminiscent of the sequence of iterations of the determinacy operator in theories that restrict excluded middle.
Unions, Working Hours, and Absence: Sweden
Authors: Kramarz Francis , Cahuc Pierre , Crépon Bruno , Skans Oskar Nordstörm , Schank Thorsten , Lomwel Gijsbert van , Zylberberg André 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines the impact of unions and working-time reductions in Sweden. It is shown that strong unions do not necessarily mean short weekly working hours and, specifically, strong unions do not always demand working-time reductions in order to preserve employment. Explicit working-time reductions are not the only policies that reduce actual hours worked. Policies that promote absence or career interruptions have the same motivations as working-time reductions and induce substantial reductions in actual hours worked in these countries. Recent policy experiments using career interruptions as work-sharing policies had negative effects on participants' subsequent wages and are not likely to have contributed to the employability of the long-term unemployed, in contrast to the initial intention.
Introduction
Authors: Bispham Edward 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the situation in Rome after the Social War. The situation in which Rome found herself after the Social War was utterly different from that which she was in during the 4th and 3rd centuries, as was the scale of the enfranchisements. Moreover, the simple grant of citizenship could not mask wide differences in the cultural and political experiences of the peoples incorporated. The management of this new huge diversity of culture, language, tradition, outlook, and aspiration is examined. The problem of origins, municipalization, and studies on Italy are discussed.
‘Quattuoruiri Quinquennales’, and Other Variations
Authors: Bispham Edward 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter begins by analyzing epigraphic evidence on the magistracy, and then proceeds to more general conclusions. Although the origins of the magistracy remain uncertain, an ‘Italic’ as opposed to a Roman origin can be excluded: it is at all times clearly a Roman collegiate magistracy, like the duovirate, and its wide distribution must speak against any theory of an origin in a particular part of Italy. One essential feature of the quattuorvirate is the blandness of the name, which by simply specifying the number of magistrates in the senior college could not be tied to the pre-enfranchisement political history or administrative structures of any particular community or group of communities. Some insights have been gained on the structure of the magistracy as it developed over time, and in its earliest form, the quattuorvirate was a college of four magistrates who possessed equal powers and responsibilities.
Between Idyll and Abyss: The Greek Land, as seen from the Ionian Islands
Authors: Güthenke Constanze 
Published: May 2008

AbstractHere I turn to the vantage point of two writers of the Ionian Islands (until the 1860s outside the territorial confines of the new Greek state). Although both are considered ‘national’ poets in the canon of Greek literary history, they are in this study given a new reading that highlights their conceptual distance from any ‘homeland’. Andreas Kalvos's Odes, rich in allusions to European neoclassicism, were written, much as they should be read, with an eye to European philhellenic discourse. Dionysios Solomos, while silent on classical antiquity, ostensibly treats of specific Greek localities in his highly fragmentary, hybrid poetry (such as the ‘Hymn to Freedom’, or ‘The Free Besieged’); but he does so by relying on a practice of the symbol that renders the representation of the Greek land fractured to the point of absence.
1 Introduction
Authors: Guha‐Khasnobis Basudeb , Acharya Shabd S. , Davis Benjamin 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Despite the scale of human suffering inflicted by malnutrition, hunger receives less attention than poverty by donors, lending agencies, and the research community. In this work, world hunger is addressed from a variety of perspectives that are new and relatively under-researched, including attempts to improve measurement tools, the applications of existing tools for empirical analysis using household data, and the impact of trade openness on national food security in developing countries. The book addresses hunger and food security at three distinct levels — national, household, and individual — and presents several technical, regional, and country case studies that facilitate comparisons.
10 Agricultural Support Measures of Developed Countries and Food Insecurity in Developing Countries
Authors: Hermann Michael 
Published: May 2008

AbstractMany developing nations, especially the least developed countries, are subjected to recurrent spells of food insecurity. In order to understand food insecurity in these countries it is necessary to consider not only immediate or trigger-causes of food crises, but also its underlying or systemic causes. This chapter argues that the agricultural support measures of advanced countries may act as a systemic cause for food insecurity in developing countries. While the import of subsidized foods by developing countries and/or the provision of food aid by developed countries are frequently necessary options to address food crises in the short run, they can adversely affect economic development in the long run. Access to cheap foods can undermine agricultural production and contribute to the recurrence of food shortages. This chapter examines these developments and makes proposals to address them.
14 Food Retailing, Supermarkets, and Food Security: Highlights from Latin America
Authors: Arda Mehmet 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
The importance of supermarkets in the world food economy has increased radically since the early 1990s. They are now major sellers and buyers of food items not only in developed but also in developing countries. Urbanization and the liberalization of the services sector have been important facilitators of this process. This chapter examines the emerging importance of supermarkets in Latin America, and their impact on both producers and consumers.
Ghost Resurrected: Bulgar–Yugoslav Negotiations for Federation, and the British Response, 1944–1945
Authors: Livanios Dimitris 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the turbulent Bulgar-Yugoslav relations in the second half of 1944 and Tito's attempt to construct a Balkan federation, with Macedonia as a federal unit. Given that the protection of Greece was the only major British strategic interest in the area, these developments alarmed Britain profoundly. It was feared that a South-Slav federation under Russia's tutelage would threaten the territorial integrity of the country by absorbing Greek Macedonia too, thus placing her into Russian orbit. The chapter analyses the Bulgar-Yugoslav negotiations for federation, highlights their major differences concerning its shape and the position of Macedonia in it, and details the British diplomatic intervention, which succeeded in preventing it from materializing.
Implicit Conceptions
Authors: Peacocke Christopher 
Published: May 2008

AbstractAn implicit conception is a state of tacit knowledge required for possession of a given concept. This chapter elaborates the notion of an implicit conception, argues for the existence of implicit conceptions, and presents a case for their significance in psychological and philosophical explanations involving the nature of concepts. It examines further the subclass of cases in which an implicit conception underlying a concept has a certain character: that in which its content specifies, or contributes to the specification of, the reference of the concept in question.
‘Another I’: Representing Perception and Action
Authors: Peacocke Christopher 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThe question of what it is to possess the concept of perception is also of interest to the philosophy of mind more generally. A perceiving thinker who has the capacity to appreciate that others also perceive is on the way to thinking of others as subjects like himself — to thinking of another person as ‘another I’, in Zeno's phrase. The chapter begins by considering the first-person case, that in which a thinker judges that he himself sees. After proposing a treatment of the first-person case, and some of its epistemic and metaphysical ramifications, it goes on to compare it with Evans's account. It discusses the relation between first-person and third-person ascription, and explains some developmental phenomena. Finally, the extension of the model presented to the self-ascription and other-ascription of action and intentionality is discussed.