bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Environment and Community Relations: The Shell Petroleum Development Co. of Nigeria Experience
Authors: Odogwu E. C. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Even though the petroleum industry in Nigeria has become the back bone of the Nigerian economy the relationship with the communities in the oil producing area is not all what it should be. There has been a significant shift in emphasis from the earlier peaceful and cordial relationship to the present more vocal sometimes violent relationship from a few communities who would like to see the operator held responsible for all environmental lapses of the past 50 years of oil operations in Nigeria. As the leading and most visible oil producer, we experience our share of strained relations in proportion to the size and extent of Shell's operations.
Social unrest in the oil producing areas can be attributed to the frequent complaint by the communities of gross neglect by the oil producing companies and the Federal Government of Nigeria in the development of their areas. The community's feeling is that the level of compensation from environmental pollution is not sufficient to compensate the damage caused and this affects good community relations. Also, some communities feel that despite the taxes and royalties paid by multinational companies that, most of the petroleum profit from their God-given wealth is being taken away by such multinationals for development elsewhere. This feeling stems from the perceived glaring disparity between developments in the urban and rural areas where oil operations are carried out.
Oil contributes 13% of Gross National Product (GNP) and 90% of the earned foreignexchange revenue in Nigeria. As the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited (SPDC) produces about 50% of the oil in Nigeria, it is appropriate to share our experience in community relations arising from environmental pollution from oil operations.
The global concern for the protection and preservation of the environment especially by the major countries like the US, Canada and some in Europe has further strengthened the resolve of pressure groups especially in developing countries like Nigeria to exert influence on Governments and industry to improve environmental control.
Environmental quality considerations will have to be accepted as essential in any policy formulation for petroleum development and to this end the Nigerian Government is committed to seeing that the oil industry is properly managed to ensure that the maximum benefit is derivable from oil revenue. It recognises that this can only be achieved with due regard to the protection and conservation of the environment, thus ensuring peaceful interaction between the oil operators and the communities among whom they operate.
This paper is an attempt to examine the social problems associated with oil exploration and production and the related environmental pollution therefrom and proffer suggestions on how such problems can be solved for good community relations.
Implications of The Netherlands' Environmental Policy for Offshore Mining
Authors: Meijer K. , Krijt K. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The environmental policy in the Netherlands, as outlined in the National Environmental Policy Plan, aims for a sustainable development. In principle a two track approach is adhered to: source oriented as well as effects oriented.
Effects oriented policy includes the setting of environmental quality objectives and is used to establish the final goals for the source-oriented measures. The policy aims at integrated life-cycle management; in the final target situation all waste is used again as raw material and remaining emissions to the environment should comply with the environmental objectives.
In this paper the implications of this policy for the offshore mining industry are elaborated, both for drilling operations and for the production of oil, gas and condensate.
The results of the recently concluded Environmental Impact Assessment for the offshore mining industry as a whole are also elaborated.
The Dutch Model for Environmental Care
Authors: van't Zet H. , van der Ham P. J. M. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Over the last 5 years a rapid evolution has taken place in the Dutch Environmental climate.
There are a number of factors contributing to these developments. Political pressure originating from Global, European and National sources. As a consequence, both the authorities and the industry have stepped up their activities.
The Offshore industry will soon come under the influence of the EEC North Sea Ministers conferences and discussions in the Paris Commission. On a national scale the authorities are driven by the implementation of targets derived from the Brundtland report, which resulted in the Dutch National Environmental Policy Plan (NMF, 1988). Targets for individual sections of industry (Target Groups) constitutes the so-called Target Group discussion. Nogepa takes part in the process as representative of the Dutch ESP industry. [Nogepa = the Netherlands Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Association]. This has already resulted in a complete new structure for cooperation between authorities and industry. Meanwhile Nogepa has introduced the principle of "Environmental Care" to its members. This concept presupposes that industry takes full responsibility for control of all environmental aspects of its activities. Environmental Care is the result of a growing awareness, Aleading to an involvement of the whole organization. Environmental Care is an efficient management tool for maintaining standards and achieving agreed reductions in environmental impact.
Changing attitudes will undoubtedly result in a more efficient cooperation between authorities and industry.
An Environmental Performance Program
Authors: Al-Shahri A. R. M. , Cuddeback J. E. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Concern about environmental protection has triggered national and international actions dealing with issues such as global warming, ozone layer depletion, transboundary movement of hazardous materials, air and water pollution, marine pollution, etc. The formation of the Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (MEPA), the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD) in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the Regional Organization for the Protection of Marine Environment (ROPME) and the Gulf Cooperation Council’s Environmental Affairs Directorate has enhanced the environmental regulations.
As a result, the petroleum industry, in particular, has become more conscious of the evolution and the importance of its rule in the protection and improvement of the environment. Major oil companies worldwide have established their environmental compliance programs as a mechanism through which they can assess their environmental performance and take appropriate mitigative measures.
In late 1986 Saudi Aramco conducted an overall review of Corporate environmental activities. The purpose of that review was to ensure that these activities met the objectives of applicable environmental regulations. The review included communication with the concerned managements, reviewing previous and existing environmental activities and reviewing applicable Government and industry environmental regulations. It also included reviewing other oil companies environmental compliance programs and interviews with many environmental experts. The review indicated that an Environmental Performance Assessment program should be established to conduct periodic facility inspections, in order to determine their compliance with the objectives of the Company's environmental policies.
Short- and Long-Term Effects of Discharged OBM Cuttings, With and Without Previous Washing, Tested in Field and Laboratory Studies on the Dutch Continental Shelf, 1985-1990
Authors: De Jong S. A. , Zevenboom W. , Van Het Groenewoud H. , Daan R. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
A Dutch programme was carried out to study the distribution of discharged washed and unwashed oil-containing cuttings in the sediment and waterphase and their effects on selected test species in the Dutch part of the North Sea.
The distribution of OBM cuttings in sediment around drilling locatons was related to the total amount of oil discharged in the watercolumn. Increased oil contents were found over a range of 1000 to 5000 m in residual current direction. Total oil contents remained high at locations where unwashed OBM cuttings were discharged. At one location oil was found in high concnetrations upto 6 years after discharge of OBM cuttings, especially due to the persistence of the oil fractions "Other peaks" and "UCM". Washing of OBM cuttings resulted in lower amounts of oil discharged, lower concentrations in the sediment in the vicinity of the platform (upto 100 m), equal concentrations at 250 m but higher concentrations upto at more than 500 m off the platform when compared with unwashed cuttings and the respective amount of oil discharged. However, within one year, degradation of oil seems to have taken place at one of the washed sites at 5000 m.
During discharge in the watercolumn, oil was taken up by Mytilus edulis from washed cuttings as well as from unwashed cuttings. Leaching of oil from the sediment into the waterphase was measurable in the field for only a limited period of time, less than a year after discharge.
Several sediment-inhabiting species were tested on their response to oil contamination. Four species tested in experimental boxcosm set-ups, Fchinncardium cordatum, Amohiura filiformis,Laois koreni and Nucula turgida responded to elevated contaminaton levels by increased mortality. Boxcosm experiments supported the conclusion derived from the results of field studies on the macrofauna distribution around drilling sites, i.e. the NOEC-value should be estimated in the order of 1-10 mg oil kg-1 dry sediment [12]. For boxcosms taken at unwashed and washed sites one year after discharge this was confirmed. Preliminary results of a boxcosm experiment with sediment where discharge of unwashed OBM cuttings had taken place 6 years before, the NOEC-value seemed to have increased. Experimental boxcosms enable assessment of possible adverse effects of experimentally treated drilled cuttings or other toxic substances on the (macro)benthic infauna. Adverse effects were also seen at one of the washed sites using a short-term bioassay test with the sediment-inhabiting amphipod Bathyporeia sarsi.
Preliminary Results on Dose-Effect Relationships of Thermally Treated, Oil-Containing Drilled Cuttings in Boxcosms
Authors: De Jong S. A. , Marquenie J. M. , van't Zet J. , Zevenboom W. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Plans to reduce emission of oil prescribe the development of testing techniques to judge effects on the marine environment. In the Netherlands, a technique with the potential to be applied in offshore operations, is based on thermal treatment and grinding of the cutting in order to recover the base oil. The resulting cuttings form a very fine hydrophobic powder with an oil content of ca. 7.5 g kg-1 dry weight. In order to assess the dose-effect relationships and no-effect concentration of these cuttings at the ecological community level, boxcosm experiments were set-up. This study is a joint effort of the Dutch Government and the Dutch E&P Industry (NOGEPA).
Clean marine sediments were inoculated in duplo with 5 concentrations of pretreated cuttings with a 3.2 factor stepwise dilution of concentration. The results were compared with two blancs: one without addition of cuttings and one with addition of cuttings which had been made oil-free by heating at 500 °C. The incubation period was 3 months. The minimal dose of the cuttings was calculated to amount to ca. 1.2 mg oil kg-1 dry weight, the maximal dose to ca. 120 mg oil kg-1 dry sediment in the top 10 cm sedimentlayer. The results, however, showed that the initial background concentration of oil was at least 10 times as high as expected from previous measurements with a mean calculated value of 110 ± 59 mg oil kg-1 dry sediment (n = 10).
A parameter indicative for impact on biological activity in the sediment is the depth of the oxygen present in the sediment and the overlying water. Oxygen concentrations at the sediment/water interface were always near saturation, but the thickness of the aerobic layer differed markedly. In the high-dose boxes the aerobic layer was significantly thinner, problably due to the increased load of organic matter and oil originating from the SCS- cuttings. Furthermore, the oxygen gradient, indicative for respiratory activity, was upto 2.9 times higher compared to the blancs without any SCS-cuttings added. Since oxygen depletion did not occur no harmful effects on the benthic community were to be expected. Besides examining the effects on the natural infauna, the test species Echinocardium cordatum. an oil-sensitive species, was added. The results show that mortality of E. cordatum hardly exceeded naturally induced mortality with increasing dose of the cuttings. At the highest dose added all animals survived. Preliminary results on natural infaunal mortality indicate the same. The impact of oil-containing particles on bottom structure, such as smothering, may have been much less in case of the SCS-cuttings which were rather homogeneously reworked through the sediment toplayer.
Microbiological Decontamination of Oil-Based Mud-Contaminated Drilled Cuttings
Authors: Minton R. C. , Hubbard G. J. S. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Oil contaminated cuttings brought ashore for disposal need to be processed. A range of processes is being evaluated and this paper reviews some early work on Microbiological decontamination in respect of the removal of mineral oil based drilling fluid from this material. The process has been demonstrated to be feasible with over 70% of the oil removed within a 24 hour incubation period. Further studies continue to optimise the process.
From Oil-Based Mud to Water-Based Mud
Authors: Christiansen C. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Maersk Olie og Gas AS has used low toxic oil-based muds extensively since 1982 for drilling development wells and later in the development of horizontal well drilling techniques.
However, in view of the strong drive towards a reduction in the amount of oil discharged to the North Sea from the oil industry, Maersk Olie og Gas AS initiated trials with new or improved types of water-based mud, first in deviated wells (1989) and then in hori-zontal wells (1990).
The paper reviews Maersk Olie og Gas AS' experience with oil-based mud since the drilling of the first horizontal well in 1987, specifi-cally with respect to cuttings washing equipment, oil retention on cuttings, and the procedure for monitoring of this parameter. It describes the circumstances leading to the decision to revert to water-based mud systems.
Finally, it reviews the experience gained sofar with the new improved types of water-based mud systems, mainly glycol and KCl/polymer mud systems. Comparison of operational data, such as rate of penetration, torque and drag, etc., is made between wells drilled with oil- based mud and water-based mud.
The trials with the new improved types of water-based mud systems have been positive, i.e. horizontal wells can be drilled successfully with water-based mud. As a result, Maersk Olie og and Gas AS has decided to discontinue the use of low toxic oil-based muds in the Danish sector of the North Sea.
Zero Discharge Design Considerations for Jackup Drilling Rigs
Authors: Alford J. T. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
This paper describes a zero discharge design intended to make jack-up drilling rigs as environmentally clean as possible. Waste streams of conventional rigs were listed and traditional methods of collection and treatment were identified. Next, certifying authority rules and regulatory requirements were reviewed and finally a study of various types of treatment equipment was conducted. Information from the foregoing research was used to develop a design for use in upgrading existing rigs and to also provide a system to be incorporated in new building programs. This effort has lead to increased catchment of effluent streams, selection of latest technology treatment equipment and increased use of monitors. The project has resulted in the design of systems that will make both new and existing rigs more environmentally acceptable.
Guidelines for the Application of Geophysics to Onshore E&P Environmental Studies
Authors: Young G. N. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
This paper gives guidelines for geophysically detecting the two most common materials of interest in E&P environmental studies, produced water and crude oil. Techniques for locating buried metal objects such as buried casing heads and pipelines are also discussed. Produced water can easily be detected with several electrical techniques. The choice of technique generally depends on the depth of investigation. Crude oil can sometimes be detected remotely with ground-penetrating radar but there is no technique that can be used routinely. Magnetic or conductivity measurements usually are the most effective for locating buried metal.
Control of Chemical Usage in Drilling Fluid Formulations to Minimize Discharge to the Environment
Authors: Geehan T. , Forbes D. M. , Moore D. J. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
A reduction in the environmental footprint from drilling operations can best be addressed by minimizing the sources of that footprint. One of the principal sources of possible environmental damage is drilling fluid and drill solid discharge. The toxicity as measured by acute and/ or sub-chronic testing regimes depends on the composition of the drilling fluid/ drill solids slurry. The trend within the drilling fluids industry has been to direct its attention to finding drilling fluid products which alone and in combination are considered to be non-toxic as determined by required testing procedures. This paper goes on to describe a parallel approach in which the total volume of chemicals discharged (whether considered toxic or benign) is reduced. Both approaches can be considered complimentary. The reduction in volume/ mass of discharge is achieved by increased monitoring of both drilling fluid properties, composition and solids control operational efficiency, (Ref 1). Additionally the increased monitoring allows less complicated formulations to be used to produce the desired drilling fluid properties; as specified by the mud programme. The need for more complete rigsite monitoring packages, see (Ref 2), will become more important as oilbased muds are replaced by waterbased mud for difficult drilling situations with stricter environmental regulations on discharge of drilling waste. The paper also outlines how the optimization of the drilling fluid operation was linked to a reduction in drilling fluid costs at the sametime maintaining drilling efficiency.
Laboratory Waste-Management Programs for Research and Field-Support Operations in the Oilfield Servicing Industry
Authors: Manning L. , Grannan S. E. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Key components of a waste-management program for R&E and field-support laboratories within the oilfield service industry are discussed. Guidelines presented encourage efficient waste management via waste minimization, providing economical benefits and environmentally sound disposal of waste.
Generic criteria, based on physical and chemical properties of the waste, are established for hazard characterization, classification, and segregation purposes. Several waste disposal options for the identified waste streams are reviewed. Specific case situations and the resulting cost benefits are described using the guidelines presented.
Cleanup of Contaminated Soil and Groundwater: A "Location Specific" Cleanup Operation at the Sappemeer Gas Production Site
Authors: Veltkamp A. G. , Mathijssen J. J. M. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Soil and groundwater have been contaminated with volatile aromatic hydrocarbons and mineral oil at the Sappe- meer gas-production site. The extent and degree of contamination were determined in an extensive site investigation.
The clean-up operation has been designed so that normal plant operation can continue during the clean-up period. A combination of three techniques has therefore been selected: excavation of heavily polluted soil; vacuumex- traction of the heavily polluted unsaturated zone; and groundwater abstraction in the shallow and deep aquifer at a rate of 500,000 m3/year.
The design for the clean-up operation was finalized on the basis of test results from two pilot projects: a pumping test for groundwater abstraction and a vacuum test for vacuum extraction.
The initial results of the operation, which started in October 1990, are very satisfactory. Removal of 1 kg of contaminants costs USS 300. Clearly prevention and active monitoring of soil contamination will always be cheaper than an "end of pipe solution", such as a soil clean-up operation.
Evaluation and Comparison of Closed-Loop Wash-Water Systems
Authors: Whitney P. M. , Greer C. R. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Effluent from vehicle and equipment cleaning is known to contain a variety of potential pollutants, the most common being hydrocarbons and suspended solids. Proper treatment and discharge of this effluent is a growing concern as environmental awareness increases. In the United States, discharge of this effluent to municipal sewage treatment systems requires a permit from local authorities, discharge to surface waters requires a federal permit and, in most cases, discharge to the ground is prohibited. Furthermore, discharge to ground and surface waters can cause soil or groundwater contamination resulting in property devaluation, adverse impact on human health, fines from regulatory agencies, expensive cleanup and negative publicity.
Effluent from vehicle washing typically does not meet the minimum pollutant levels allowed by regulatory agencies for discharge to surface waters or sewage treatment plants. Because of the liability associated with discharge to ground and surface waters and the difficulty in meeting municipal sewer discharge permit requirements, closed-loop wastewater treatment is an attractive alternative to discharge. Closed-loop systems, which recycle wash water, eliminate the need for discharge permits and significantly reduce environmental exposure and risk. A Schlumberger field test was conducted to determine feasibility of this concept and to evaluate and compare several closed-loop systems. As part of the field test, 13 closed-loop treatment systems and 2 pretreatment systems were installed in field shops over a 2-year period. The systems are divided into three different treatment categories based on the primary treatment technology employed (mechanical, chemical and biological).
Evaluation and comparison of systems from each category constitute the basis of this paper. Factors involved in selecting a system and available water-treatment technologies are discussed. The conclusion summarizes the results of the system comparison and makes recommendations for selecting and installing closed-loop water treatment systems for vehicle and equipment cleaning.