bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Nonparametric Statistics
Authors: Brazauskas Vytaras 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe intent of this article is to give a brief overview of nonparametric statistical methods. We first describe the most commonly used nonparametric procedures in standard statistical settings involving one, two, or more samples. Then we turn to more specialized topics, such asempirical estimation,resampling methods, andsmoothing techniques, which find frequent application in actuarial research and practice. In each case, the emphasis is on the description of the problem and a particular standard approach to its solution, rather than attempting to review all existing procedures that are available for the problem. Also, for each topic, a list of references that treat applications of these methods to actuarial problems is provided.
Nonproportional Reinsurance
Authors: Splitt Andrea 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Whereas in proportional reinsurance the claims and the premium are divided between the primary insurer and the reinsurer in the ratio of their shares in the coverage granted for the individual risks, nonproportional reinsurance focuses on claims. The reinsurer pays a claim if the loss incurred by the primary insurer exceeds a certain agreed amount or level, known as the deductible. The cover granted for a portfolio may be broken into several segments known as layers. The various types of nonproportional treaties differ according to whether the cover applies to individual or to aggregate claims and, in the latter case, depending on the rules used to arrive at the aggregate: excess‐of‐loss cover, aggregate excess‐of‐loss cover, and largest‐claims cover. The premium for a nonproportional treaty is calculated on the basis of risk theory.
Nonproportional reinsurance is an effective way of improving the ratio between the primary insurer's loss burden and premium income, as it passes specifically the peak losses on to the reinsurer.
Parameter and Model Uncertainty
Authors: Cairns Andrew J.G. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Almost every actuarial problem involves one or more sources of risk. The task of an actuary is to assess the following risks:

To derive a distribution for the outcome at some fixed future time or at a series of future dates.

To make decisions or observations based on this risk assessment (e.g. to provide a risk measure, to set a premium rate, to calculate the reserve, to decide on an investment strategy).
Pooling in Insurance
Authors: Aase Knut K. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Risk sharing resulting in pooling of risk is considered. We take the perspective of Pareto optimal risk sharing, originating from a model introduced by Karl Borch in the late 1950s, and discuss when pooling may result, and also what is needed for pooling not to be optimal. Finally, we illustrate by some examples, including mutual insurance schemes, and also a limited liability partnership.
Ratemaking
Authors: McClenahan Charles L. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The goal of the ratemaking process is the establishment of actuarially sound rates for property and casualty insurance, or other risk transfer mechanisms. Because ratemaking generally requires that rates be established prior to the inception of the insurance, a rate is ‘an estimate of the expected value of future costs’. Such rates are actuarially sound if they provide for all of the expected costs of the risk transfer and appropriately reflect identified individual risk characteristics.
Many state rating laws in the United States require that insurance rates be ‘not inadequate, excessive or unfairly discriminatory’. If a rate is actuarially sound, it is deemed to meet these regulatory requirements without regard to the extent to which the actuarial expectations are consistent with the actual developed experience.
This article will introduce and discuss the basic elements of property and casualty actuarial ratemaking. The examples and illustrations have been substantially simplified, and it should be noted that the methods presented herein are but a few of the methods available and may not be appropriate for specific actuarial applications.
Reinsurance This is based in part on an article written by the same author and published in
Foundations of Casualty Actuarial Science, Fourth Edition
by the Casualty Actuarial Society (2001).
Authors: Patrik Gary 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Reinsurance is a form of insurance. A reinsurance contract is legally an insurance contract; the reinsurer agrees to indemnify the ceding insurance company for a specified share of specified types of insurance claims paid by the ceding company for a single insurance policy or for a specified set of policies. The nature and purpose of reinsurance is to reduce the variability of the financial costs to insurance companies arising from the occurrence of specified insurance claims. It thus enhances innovation, competition, and efficiency in the insurance marketplace. This article briefly discusses the types of reinsurance companies, and the functions, forms, and costs of reinsurance. It also outlines a ‘typical’ reinsurance program for a medium‐sized insurance company. All these topics are more fully covered in other referenced articles and books.
Reinsurance Pricing
Authors: Schmitter Hans 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The technical premium is the sum of the risk premium, the fluctuation loading, and the loading for management expenses. In practice, excess‐loss risk premiums are estimated using experience‐rating or exposure rating. Stop‐loss risk premiums are usually estimated by means of rather simple mathematical models. More accurate methods for stop‐loss calculations are applied for determining sliding‐scale premium rates.
Reliability Analysis
Authors: Natvig Bent 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIn reliability analysis, one is interested in studying the reliability of a technological system being small or large. As examples of small systems, we have washing machines and cars, whereas tankers, oil rigs, and nuclear power plants are examples of large systems. By the reliability of a system, we will mean the probability that it functions as intended. It might be tacitly assumed that we consider the system only for a specified period of time (for instance, one year) and under specified conditions (for instance, disregarding war actions and sabotage). Furthermore, one has to make clear what is meant by functioning. For oil rigs and nuclear power plants, it might be to avoid serious accidents such as a blowout or a core‐melt.Reliability analysis is a very helpful tool in risk assessment when determining the insurance premiums for risks, especially of rare events, associated with large systems consisting of both technological and human components. Furthermore, reliability analysis is relevant in risk management of any technological system, the aim now being to say something helpful on how to avoid accidents. This is an area of growing importance representing an enormous challenge for an insurance company.
Risk Classification, Practical Aspects This is based in part on an article written by the same author and published in
Foundations of Casualty Actuarial Science, Fourth Edition
by the Casualty Actuarial Society (2001).
Authors: Finger Robert J. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Risk classification involves the formulation of different premiums for the same coverage based on group characteristics. That is, the task is to price an individual insured, but the available claim data for that individual is insufficient for the purpose. The recourse is to measure group costs and assume that the individual belongs to a certain group. The grouping process may proceed in several dimensions (e.g. class, territory, use).
Premiums should vary because underlying costs vary. Costs may vary because of different claim frequency or average claim size, different administrative expense requirements, different investment income potential, or differing assessments of risk. Risk classification proceeds by identifying variables that distinguish these costs among different insureds. In addition to classification variables, premiums can also vary because of the choice of different exposure bases, individual risk rating methods, and marketing or underwriting strategies.
Various criteria, actuarial, operational, social, and legal, have been suggested for formulating classification variables. Actuarial criteria attempt most accurately to group individual insureds into groups that (1) are relatively homogeneous, (2) are sufficiently large to estimate relative cost differences (credibility), and (3) maintain stable mean costs over time (reliability).
Operational criteria include objective definitions, reasonable administrative expense, and verifiability. Social criteria include privacy, causality, controllability, and affordability.
Risk Minimization
Authors: Møller Thomas 
Published: September 2006

AbstractRisk minimizationis a theory from mathematical finance that can be used for determining trading strategies. The theory of risk minimization was instituted by Föllmer and Sondermann who essentially suggested the determination of trading strategies for a given liability by minimizing the variance of future costs defined as the difference between the liability (or claim) and gains made from trading on the financial market.
Stochastic Optimization
Authors: Glynn Peter W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Uncertainty is present in virtually all decision‐making environments. In some applications settings, one may safely choose to ignore the presence of uncertainty because its influence on the optimal decision is likely to be small. In other settings, one would ideally like to explicitly incorporate the presence of uncertainty into a mathematical formulation of the problem, because it is a priori clear that an optimal solution will be significantly influenced by the presence of uncertainty. Loosely speaking, stochastic optimization is the set of mathematical and computational tools that have been developed in order to characterize or compute optimal solutions to mathematical models involving such stochastic elements.
From a mathematical viewpoint, stochastic optimization has two main subdisciplines. The first is that of stochastic control. Stochastic control is concerned with optimization problems in which the optimizing solution is ‘infinite dimensional’ (or of very high dimensionality) in character. The second subdiscipline involves finite‐dimensional stochastic optimization. Much of the corresponding literature focuses on intelligent ‘search’ methods for numerically computing the optimal setting of a (finite‐dimensional) vector of decision variables.
Vibrational Optical Activity of Pharmaceuticals and Biomolecules
Authors: Dukor Rina K. , Nafie Laurence A. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

This article describes recent progress in the field of vibrational optical activity (VOA) as a probe of the structural properties of pharmaceutical and biological molecules. A strong emphasis is placed on vibrational circular dichroism (VCD) owing to its more advanced state of development. Raman optical activity (ROA) is included in the first two sections for completeness; other reviews give additional information about ROA.
1–3,8
The article focuses on the practical aspects of VCD spectral measurement and interpretation. This is supplemented by examples that serve to illustrate the principal areas of VOA application. VCD is defined as the difference in the absorbance of the left circularly polarized (LCP) versus right circularly polarized (RCP) infrared (IR) radiation for a chiral molecule undergoing a vibrational transition. A pair of enantiomers will produce VCD spectra that are equal and opposite in sign and a racemic mixture will have a null VCD signal. VCD can be measured for all kinds of chiral molecules, irrespective of their size. In practice, measurements are often carried out in solution but, with the new advances in instrumentation, it is now possible to measure spectra of solids and mulls. Compared to other optical techniques such as electronic circular dichroism (CD) and IR absorption, VCD is unique because it combines the optical activity property of CD with the rich structural fingerprint region of IR. The discovery and first measurements of VCD occurred in the early 1970s. Although over a dozen practitioners have published close to a 1000 papers since then, it is only recently that VCD instrumentation has become available commercially for nonspecialists. Applications span a variety of fields from chemical and pharmaceutical to biological. The VCD technique can be used for the determination of absolute configuration of small chiral molecules or larger natural products. It can also be used to follow a chiral synthesis both for stereochemistry and for optical purity, and to study the secondary structure of large proteins and small peptides, and the conformation of nucleic acids and sugars. Some recent reports have also shown the unique sensitivity of ROA in the study of viruses and in protein‐folding experiments. VOA is now fulfilling its promise of becoming a technique that is broadly used for stereochemical and conformational studies of all varieties of chiral molecules, both natural and synthetic.
Glycoprotein Analysis: Using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Authors: Leeflang Bas R. , Vliegenthart J.F.G. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe majority of proteins are decorated with one or more covalently linked carbohydrate chains, and are thus glycoproteins. These carbohydrate chains may consist of mono‐, oligo‐ or polysaccharides, which can affect the physiological behavior and biological functioning of the glycoprotein. Insight into the structural aspects and characteristics of glycoprotein glycosylation is an important step in unraveling the function of carbohydrate chains in a glycoprotein. In most cases the glycan and protein moieties are cleaved and analyzed separately. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a powerful tool in this respect. A plethora of NMR techniques are available to obtain NMR parameters such as chemical shift, scalar coupling constants and relaxation and cross‐relaxation properties. From these, both primary structural, three‐dimensional structural and dynamical features can be determined for these molecules. In this article, several aspects of glycoprotein structural studies will be discussed, and a selection of NMR experiments, including experimental conditions, will be presented.
Sample Preparation for Analysis of Chemicals Related to the Chemical Weapons Convention
Authors: Kuitunen Marja‐Leena 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This article discusses the preparation of environmental samples to be analyzed for chemicals related to the chemical weapons convention (CWC), where analysis takes place on‐site or off‐site by gas chromatography (GC) or liquid chromatography (LC) as an introduction technique to spectrometers or by capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE). The specific sample preparation methods required for analysis by spectroscopic techniques such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy are dealt with in separate articles. Preparations of analytical samples from air, aqueous liquid (water), soil, active charcoal, wipe, concrete, paint, rubber, and other polymeric samples for off‐site analysis are presented in section 2, and preparations of analytical samples from aqueous liquid (water), soil, and wipe samples for on‐site analysis, are covered in section 3. Preparations for on‐site analysis are as described in the standard operating procedures (SOPs) of the international organization responsible for verifying the Convention (Technical Secretariat of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons) and those for off‐site analysis are as described in the corresponding recommended operating procedures (ROPs). Section 4 examines the question of quality control (QC) in sample preparation and section 5 the important matter of safety in handling samples containing CWC‐related chemicals. Section 6 reports on the use of the methods in international comparison and proficiency tests.
Biochemical Markers of Acute Coronary Syndromes
Authors: Azzazy Hassan M.E. , Christenson Robert H. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe acute coronary syndromes (ACSs) are a continuum of myocardial ischemia ranging from angina, indicating reversible tissue damage, through frank myocardial infarction (MI) with extensive tissue necrosis. The mortality from acute MI in the USA alone is 500 000 deaths per year. New predictors of cardiovascular events, that are easily measurable, are needed to improve diagnostic strategies for treating ACS patients. Cardiac markers, proteins released from the injured myocardium into the circulation, are useful for the diagnosis of MI according to the World Health Organization (WHO) criteria. Troponins I and T have emerged as sensitive, more cardiac‐specific clinical indicators for MI diagnosis and for risk stratification. A new generation of biochemical markers for indicating plaque rupture, platelet reactivity, and early MI offers promise for better assessment of patient risk so that clinicians may intervene to avoid adverse outcomes. Other biochemical markers, including the acute phase reactants and markers of thrombosis, may become useful for identifying a patient's location on the ACS spectrum and consequently the risk of adverse events.This article describes the spectrum of ACS current and future biomarkers that are closely linked to the progression of cardiac injury from ACS, and various applications of biochemical markers in assessment of reinfarction, reperfusion, perioperative MI, risk stratification, guiding therapeutic intervention, and infarct sizing. Finally, an assessment of the importance of rapid testing, different triage strategies for chest pain patients, and new trends to reduce the overall costs of patient hospitalization are discussed. The recommendations of the National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry for use of cardiac markers are also presented.
Lipid Analysis for Important Clinical Conditions
Authors: Leary Elizabeth Teng , Carlson Timothy H. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractLipid analyses are primarily used for determining the risk of diseases resulting from atherosclerosis, including coronary heart disease (CHD), ischemic cerebrovascular disease, and peripheral arterial disease. These disorders are often marked by hyperlipidemia, with increased serum low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL‐C) and apolipoprotein (Apo) B, but decreased high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL‐C) and Apo A‐I. For use in risk assessment, serum cholesterol, LDL‐C and HDL‐C cut‐points have been derived from epidemiological data from several nations. The acceptance of these cut‐points, coupled with the remarkable heterogeneity of lipoproteins, has made standardization of cholesterol analytical procedures essential. An international network of laboratories (the Cholesterol Reference Method Laboratory Network (CRMLN)) coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) was formed to address this issue. Thus, several reference methods have been adopted and are used to standardize and certify the commercial reagents for lipid assays for use in the routine clinical laboratory. Other standardization efforts include those by the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry, World Health Organization (WHO) and CDC on Apos or lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)). In addition to analytical standardization, it is important to standardize preanalytical procedures, and to be aware of potential biological variability.In the 1980s and 1990s, significant advances have been made in the procedures for routine analysis of lipids and lipoproteins. The analyses have become much more precise and efficient, frequently performed in automated analyzers using small sample volumes. A variety of enzymatic methods for cholesterol and triglyceride (TG) measurements are in current use. HDL‐C is generally determined after precipitation of low‐density lipoprotein (LDL) and very low‐density lipoprotein (VLDL). LDL‐C is calculated from the difference between total cholesterol (TC), and the sum of HDL‐C and a total TG‐derived estimate of the very low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL‐C) (the Friedewald equation). Several direct methods for measurement of LDL‐C and HDL‐C have been introduced with improvement in performance and labor efficiency, Apo B which is associated with LDL in equimolar ratio and Apo A‐I which is associated with high‐density lipoprotein (HDL) may be measured in conjunction with LDL‐C and HDL‐C or used in their place for clinical assessment. Other important lipid measurements include the C and E Apos, Lp(a), TG‐rich remnant lipoproteins, lipoprotein particle size and markers of oxidative stress.
Laboratory Instruments in Clinical Chemistry, Principles of
Authors: Karnik Hemant B. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In the last 40–45 years, instruments have evolved from simple analyzers that analyze few analytes in an hour to auto analyzers that analyze hundreds of tests in a fraction of an hour. A historical perspective on the evolution of the instruments, with discussion on the basic principles of their operation, along with the advantages and limitations of methodologies, is provided. Information on standardization, quality control and quality assurance in the clinical laboratory is also included. The article concludes with a brief discussion on the future developments in instrumentation. The material presented in this article is meant as a reference. For detailed information the reader is referred to other books and publications.
Phospholipids of Plasma Lipoproteins, Red Blood Cells and Atheroma, Analysis of
Authors: Ravandi Amir , Kuksis Arnis 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe large number of lipid classes and great complexity of molecular species present in blood plasma, red cells, platelets and atheromatous lesions requires a combination of analytical techniques for comprehensive analyses, including chemical and enzymatic derivatization of samples. In many instances only partial analyses are required, which can be accomplished by specific analytical techniques. This chapter describes the full spectrum of the methodology ranging from the most basic thin‐layer chromatography (TLC) to the detailed mass spectrometric assays. Traditional sample extraction by liquid–liquid partition is time‐consuming and involves large volumes of solvents. Liquid–solid extraction using adsorbent cartridges is more economical. At the present time total lipid extracts can be effectively assayed for lipid class content and molecular species composition by flow injection tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), while a more detailed analysis of complex lipid mixtures is provided by a combination of liquid chromatography with on‐line electrospray mass spectrometry (LC/ESMS). The new techniques permit completion of the analyses in a few hours, where previously several days or weeks may have been required. The soft ionization mass spectrometric techniques have permitted the recognition and detailed analysis of such minor components of blood as the lipid oxidation and glycation products often observed in disease.