bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Lex Varia
Authors: Gruen Erich S. 
Published: May 2006

The outbreak of the Social War brought in its wake a furious succession of criminal prosecutions with important political implications. The wheels of ‘justice’ were set in motion by the notorious lex Varia, a criminal law passed on the motion of the tribune Q. Varius Severus Hybrida. It was not long before numerous prominent individuals came under attack and the Roman political scene was thrown into turmoil. The lex Varia will repay close scrutiny.Modern scholarship has been content with the analysis of this measure delivered by Appian. Some time after the death of M. Livius Drusus, the tribune of 91 B.C., the equites endeavoured to make his liberal policy towards the Italians a ground for malicious prosecution of their enemies, and to this end they induced Q. Varius to pass his law. The purpose was to bring the entire senatorial oligarchy under the odious charge of sympathy with the Italian insurgents and to entrench equestrian control of the state. Such is the version of Appian. It is certainly true that, as was by now customary, external crises were made the pretext for attacks upon political opponents. The charge of bearing responsibility, in some sense, for the outbreak of war could be stretched to fit a wide variety of activities. But a careful examination of the lex Varia and of the cases heard under it will demonstrate that Appian's judgment leaves much to be desired. Legal and political consequences have never yet been fully understood or analysed, and the law can shed much light on Roman internal struggles in this period.
The Geographical Catalogue in Acts II, 9–11
Authors: Weinstock Stefan 
Published: May 2006

If this note should prove persuasive, the credit will not belong to me; if not, I must accept the blame for publishing something not published by its author.Recently I acquired an offprint of Cumont's article ‘La plus ancienne géographie astrologique’ (Klio ix, 1909, 263–273) which deals with the doctrine that divides up the various countries among the signs of the zodiac. On p. 265, where the list of Paulus Alexandrinus (which I reproduce below in the left column) is given, I found a marginal note (here on the right) in the hand of the late Professor F. C. Burkitt:—Burkitt's opinion obviously was that, if we want to understand this list of the Acts, we must turn to astrological geography. This seemed a convincing suggestion and became even more convincing when I found how this passage had puzzled the commentators. Some of them felt that the writer meant to say ‘the whole oecumene’, but they could not explain why he mentions just these countries. What follows is intended to show that Burkitt's suggestion is sound.
An Augustan Document Recovered
Authors: Turner E. G. 
Published: May 2006

Since its publication in 1930 by G. Vitelli and M. Norsa (Bull, de la Soc. roy. d'Alexandrie n.s. VII, 1930, 9 ff.) the text conveniently known as the ‘Boule’ papyrus, or (to give it the serial number under which it was republished) PSI 1160 (x, 1932), has been the centre of a furious controversy. Is the text an official document from the Egyptian archives, or is it non-documentary, whether that means ’rhetorical exercise’, suasoria, or semi-fictional narrative ? H. A. Musurillo's admirable collection The Acts of the Pagan Martyrs (Oxford, 1954) sums up present views and excuses me from giving a bibliography.One important piece of evidence has, however, been strangely neglected, namely the language of the text. It can, I think, be demonstrated that PSI 1160 is a Greek translation of a Latin original. The decisive point is the grammatical form of the sentences in col. 11, in which φημὶ ταύτην φροντιεῖν ἴνα μὴ beginning in line 1 continues to govern subjunctives down to the end of line 14. A total of seven finite verbs in the subjunctive occur in these lines, all owing their mood to this introductory phrase, a phrase never repeated or reinforced even though there are two breaks of sense sufficiently distinct for Musurillo to mark one with a colon, and one with a full stop.
Triumvirate and Principate
Authors: Millar Fergus 
Published: May 2006

More than thirty years after its publication The Roman Revolution still stands unrivalled, not as the ‘definitive’ account of the emergence of a monarch from the ruins of the Republic but as something far more than that, the demonstration of a new method in the presentation of historical change. The aspect of this method, which has found most imitation, is of course prosopography; and it is indeed essential to it. But far more important is the use made of contemporary literature to mirror events, and to analyse and define the concepts and the terms in which the events were seen by those who lived through them.It is the common characteristic, perhaps even the definition, of great works of history that they invite imitation and offer a challenge, not just to apply their methods and standards to other areas, but to pursue their own conclusions further. The present paper is gratefully offered as an attempt to portray with a different emphasis some aspects of the establishment of Octavian as a monarch, first by demonstrating the extent to which the institutions of the res publica remained active in the Triumviral period, and secondly by redefining the change which culminated in 27 B.C., precisely by asking again in what terms it and the novus status which emerged from it were seen by contemporaries.
The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquity
Authors: Brown Peter 
Published: May 2006

To study the position of the holy man in Late Roman society is to risk telling in one's own words a story that has often been excellently told before. In vivid essays, Norman Baynes has brought the lives of the saints to the attention of the social and religious historian of Late Antiquity. The patient work of the Bollandists has increased and clarified a substantial dossier of authentic narratives. These lives have provided the social historian with most of what he knows of the life of the average man in the Eastern Empire. They illuminate the variety and interaction of the local cultures of the Near East. The holy men themselves have been carefully studied, both as figures in the great Christological controversies of the fifth and sixth centuries, and as the arbiters of the distinctive traditions of Byzantine piety and ascetic theology.The intention of this paper is to follow well known paths of scholarship on all these topics, while asking two basic questions: why did the holy man come to play such an important rôle in the society, of the fifth and sixth centuries ? What light do his activities throw on the values and functioning of a society that was prepared to concede him such importance? It is as well to ask such elementary questions. For there is a danger that the holy man may be taken for granted as part of the Byzantine scene. Most explanations of his position are deceptively easy.
The Division of Britain
Authors: Graham A. J. 
Published: May 2006

ὁ δὲ Σεβῆρος … διοικήσας δὲ τὰ κατὰ Βρετανίαν καìδιελὼν ἐς δύο ἡγεμονίας τὴν τοῦ ἔθνους ἐξουσίαν….Thus Herodian (III, 8, 1–2), referring to the time after the Battle of Lugdunum in 197. It is a sign of our imperfect knowledge of the history of Roman Britain that the character of this division, its purpose and even its date, are all matters of doubt. Not only is there no evidence to confirm Herodian's statement until a considerably later period, but there are several contrary indications which suggest that his date, at least, is wrong. Such a conflict of ancient testimony leads, not surprisingly, to differences in modern authorities. It is not necessary, however, for it to lead to such a confusing picture as they now seem to present. Ritterling and E. Birley drew attention to the problem, and S. N. Miller set out all the evidence in the Cambridge Ancient History. It therefore seems unfortunate that eminent authorities in more recent works continue to accept Herodian's date, or, more rarely, offer an alternative, without any warning that they are handling dubious or hypothetical material. My aim in this paper is, therefore, partly one of clarification and restatement. But I also wish to draw attention to a small addition to the evidence on the subject, and to treat the whole problem anew in the light of recent additions to our knowledge of Roman Britain in Severan times. Until a fortunate epigraphic discovery solves the problem for us, all such discussions are bound to be inconclusive; but while we wait for a British Julius Cerealis, an interim statement may crave a hearing.
The World of the Panhellenion I. Athens and Eleusis
Authors: Spawforth A. J. , Walker Susan 
Published: May 2006

In A.D. 131/2 the emperor Hadrian created a new organization of Greek cities, the Panhellenion. This paper is the first of two in which we explore, from a provincial perspective, the implications of this novel initiative by Rome in Greek affairs.The foundation of the Panhellenion belongs to a series of interventions by Hadrian in the Greek world, the others mostly in the form of acts of benefaction towards individual communities. Although Hadrian's reign marked a watershed in Greek relations with Rome, these relations had already evolved significantly over the previous two generations. The two most obvious developments lay in the overlapping areas of cultural and political life. Not only did educated Greeks and Romans now share an intellectual milieu, but a renaissance of Greek literary and rhetorical activity had begun under the leadership of provincials enjoying (more often than not) close ties with Rome. At the same time, a Roman career had become more available to ambitious Greeks; a marked increase in the numbers of Greek senators may be dated to the last quarter of the first century.
Effects of temperature on spring bloom dynamics of epilithic diatom communities in the Gulf of Bothnia
Authors: Snoeijs Pauli J. M. 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. In order to forecast consequences of climatic changes for littoral algae in coastal ecosystems, the effects of temperature increase on spring bloom dynamics of epilithic diatom communities were studied in two ways: (1) Communities were compared from sites receiving different amounts of cooling water discharge from a nuclear power plant. (2) Communities from the exceptionally warm spring of 1989 were compared with those from the same sites in the preceding normal years. The studies were carried out in and around the Forsmark Biotest Basin, an artificial waterbody that receives brackish cooling water from the Forsmark nuclear power plant on the Swedish east coast. Species composition and biomass data from 200 epilithic diatom samples taken in the period January‐May from 1983 to 1989 were analysed.Multiple regression analysis was used to show the responses of diatom cover, community diversity and abundances of individual taxa to water temperature and other environmental factors. Constrained ordination (CCA) was used to display the relationship of overall community composition to environment. Increased water temperature resulted in higher biomass through a chain of ecological effects. Strong reduction of ice cover was crucial in this chain, resulting in reduced loss of diatom cells by reduced abrading and higher primary production by higher availability of light, nutrients and substrate.The conclusion is that large blooms of fast‐growing epilithic diatoms in large colonies can occupy the niche that emerges when the ice‐free season is prolonged in the northern Baltic Sea and areas similar in salinity and climatic conditions. Dramatic species shifts may only be expected if the winter ice cover is totally absent.
Plant functional types and ecological strategies in Patagonian forbs
Authors: Golluscio Rodolfo A. , Sala Osvaldo E. 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. We identified four major functional types of forbs in the Patagonian steppe, taking into account phenological and morphological traits: (1) shallow‐rooted mesophytic species (annuals), (2) shallow‐rooted non‐mesophytic species, (3) deep‐rooted evergreen species, and (4) deep‐rooted deciduous species. The major attributes differentiating these groups were the date at which seasonal growth ended, rooting depth, sprouting depth, distance between shoots of the same plant, and degree of ‘mesophytism’. We used Cluster and Principal Components Analyses to identify the groups, and the attributes determining them. Late‐growth‐cycle types had deep roots and/or high ‘xerophytism’. Late‐cycle‐xerophytic types had a great sprouting depth, and late‐cycle‐deep‐rooted types had a great distance between shoots of the same plant.On the basis of current knowledge of the structure and functioning of the Patagonian steppe, we suggested three explanations to account for these correlations. 1. Late‐cycle forbs survive summer water deficit if they have xerophytic characteristics that reduce transpiration water losses, and/or they have deep roots that increase water uptake. 2. Sprouting depth results from the shift of active buds to dormant buds at the end of the cycle. Summer forbs have a great sprouting depth because only buds which are located deep in the soil survive hot and dry summers. 3. Distant shoots of summer forbs allow them simultaneously to use the high protection against desiccating winds provided by shrubs, and the ample water availability of bare soil patches. All the functional types of forbs depend on winter water recharge to begin their cycles, but each one completes its cycle by using a different portion of the water resources available in spring and summer.
Canonical Correspondence Analysis with variation partitioning: some comments and an application
Authors: Økland Rune Halvorsen , Eilertsen Odd 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. This study presents an alternative treatment of data from a comprehensive vegetation study in which the main gradient structure of boreal coniferous forest vegetation in southern Norway was investigated by ordination techniques. The data sets include vegetation samples of different plot sizes, supplied with measurements of 33 environmental explanatory variables (classified in four groups) and nine spatial explanatory variables derived from geographical coordinates. Partitioning the variation of the species‐sample plot matrices on different sets of explanatory variables is performed by use of (partial) Canonical Correspondence Analysis.Several aspects of vegetation‐environment relationships in the investigation area are discussed on the basis of results obtained by the new method. Generally, ca. 35% of the variation in species abundances are explained by environmental and spatial variables. The results indicate support for the hypothesis of macro‐scale topographic control over the differentiation of the vegetation, more strongly so in pine than in spruce forest where soil nutrients play a major role. Towards finer scales, the primary topographical and topographically dependent factors lose importance, and vegetational differentiation is more strongly affected by the accumulated effects of the vegetation (including the tree stand) on soils, shading, litter fall, etc.The fraction of variation in species abundance explained by significant environmental variables was found to be ca. twice as large as the fraction explained by spatial variables. The fraction of variation explained by the supplied variables differed between data sets; it was lower for cryptogams than for vascular plants, and lower for smaller than for larger sample plots. Possible reasons for these patterns are discussed.Some methodological aspects of CCA with variation partitioning are discussed: improvements, necessary precautions, and the advantages over alternative methods.
Plant succession in areas of scorched and blown‐down forest after the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington
Authors: Halpern Charles B. , Frenzen Peter M. , Means Joseph E. , Franklin Jerry F. 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Patterns of plant succession were studied in areas of scorched and blown‐down forest resulting from the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington. Changes in species abundance were observed for 7 years in permanent sample plots representing four post‐disturbance habitats, or site types. Total plant cover and species richness increased with time on all site types. In blown‐down forests supporting snowpack at the time of eruption, understory recovery was dominated by the vegetative regeneration of species persisting through disturbance. In forests without snowpacks, plant survival was poorer. Increases in cover and diversity were dominated first by introduced grasses, then by colonizing forbs characteristic of early successional sites. Epilo‐bium angustifolium and Anaphalis margaritacea showed widespread recruitment and clonal expansion throughout the devastated area. As a result, species composition on previously forested sites converged toward that on formerly clearcut sites, where early serai forbs resprouted vigorously from beneath the tephra.Total plant cover and species diversity were poorly correlated with post‐disturbance habitat and general site characteristics (e.g. distance from the crater, elevation, slope, and aspect). However, distributions of several life‐forms (e.g. low sub‐shrubs and tall shrubs) were strongly correlated with depth of burial by tephra and with cover of tree rootwads. Thus, early community recovery may reflect microsite variation or chance survival and recruitment rather than broad‐scale gradients in environment or disturbance.Recovery of pre‐disturbance composition and structure will undoubtedly be much slower than after other types of catastrophic disturbance. The rate and direction of community recovery will largely depend on the degree to which original understory species survived the eruption.
Climate and vegetation at the Eurosiberian‐Mediterranean boundary in the Iberian Peninsula
Authors: Moreno José M. , Pineda Francisco D. , Rivas‐Martinez Salvador 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The Northern Iberian Peninsula is dominated by various types of vegetation from deciduous oak and ash to evergreen oak woodlands. A recent vegetation map of Spain portrays vegetation series which are characterized in terms of their phytogeographic region or bioclimatic (altitudinal) belt. The aim of this paper is to determine whether the areas comprised by both phytogeographic regions (Eurosiberian and Mediterranean) in the study area, as established from the phytogeographic characterization of the vegetation, can be discriminated by climatic variables using multivariate methods, and to compare these with other conventional approaches.In addition, bioclimatic (altitudinal) belts and the main vegetation types were tested for discrimination by climatic variables. Conventional climatic criteria as well as discriminant and principal component analysis were applied to climatic data from 205 meteorological stations for which vegetation information had been taken from the vegetation map. Conventional criteria are good predictors of the phytogeographic division (Mediterranean and Eurosiberian regions) in the study area. Results were improved by multiple discriminant analysis based on climatic data of the dry period of the year (June to September). Both regions in the study area can be predicted with over 95 % accuracy. Using the same multivariate procedure and temperature data the bioclimatic (altitudinal) belts of the study area can be predicted with over 90 % accuracy. The main vegetation groups of the study area can also be predicted with over 80 % accuracy. Ordination analysis supported the results of the discriminant analysis. Empirical models have been generated to predict the phytogeographic‐ and belt character of any station in the area. The significance of the various periods of the year for discriminating regions and belts is evaluated. The responsiveness to climatic events during the year may be region specific. This study confirms the strong relationship between climate and vegetation in the Northern Iberian Peninsula, particularly regarding the Eurosiberian‐Mediterranean boundary.
Yield and species density of grasslands during restoration management
Authors: Oomes M. J. M. 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The relation between the dry matter production and species density of 27 grasslands with different fertilization histories in the Netherlands was studied. The range in species density was 12–28 species on 150 m2, the average annual dry matter production in 1983–1985 varied between 3.3 and 12.8 ton /ha. The results show an optimum curve and confirm the hump‐backed model proposed by other researchers for a great variety of vegetation types.It is concluded that a high species density can be expected when the annual dry matter production above a stubble height of 5 cm, is between 4 and 6 ton/ha (ca. 4.6 ‐ 6.0 ton seasonal maximum standing biomass). Species density can be expected to decrease when the dry matter production exceeds values of 6 ‐ 7 ton ha‐1yr‐1 (ca. 6.0 ‐ 6.7 ton seasonal maximum standing biomass). The implications of this relation for grassland restoration, aimed at an increase in species density, are discussed.The results agree with other grassland data based on the seasonal maximum standing biomass. The difference between annual production estimated by harvesting the biomass after mowing at 5 cm above the soil surface (mostly in two cuts), and the maximum seasonal standing biomass must be taken into account. It is proposed to compare data on the basis of the estimation that 62 ± 5% of the annual yield is harvested at the first cut, and that there is a linear relation between the total standing biomass, y (g/m2), and the biomass harvested above a stubble height of 5 cm, x (g/m2) that could be described by the regression line y = 1.10 x + 189.6 (r = 0.89, p < 0.01, n = 34).
Effects of grazing on seedling establishment: the role of seed and safe‐site availability
Authors: Oesterheld Martin , Sala Osvaldo E. 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The first objective of this paper was to assess the effects of grazing on seedling establishment of two species whose relative abundance at the adult stage is affected by grazing in a contrasting fashion. Second, we evaluated the relative importance of seed versus safe‐site availability in explaining the effect of grazing on seedling establishment. We monitored seedling establishment on a grazed area, on two areas which had not been grazed for two and seven years, and on plots which had been experimentally defoliated. The species compared were Dan‐thonia montevidensis, a native perennial grass which dominates both grazed and ungrazed communities, and Leontodón taraxacoides, an invading exotic rosette species from the Compositae family.Continuous grazing enhanced seedling establishment of both species through its effect on the availability of safe sites. Seed availability accounted for only one, but very important, grazing effect: the lack of response by L. taraxacoides to the defoliation in the seven‐year old exclosure. Its seed supply was depleted by exclusion of grazing and, consequently, its short‐term regeneration capacity after disturbance was lost.