bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Investment: A Worldwide Boom
Authors: DICKS GEOFFREY , DINENIS ELIAS , HOLLY SEAN 
Published: January 2008

Investment is booming: not only in the UK but also in the US, Japan and in Europe. In this Briefing Paper we seek to understand why this is happening – a global phenomenon clearly requires a global not a local explanation – and to consider whether the boom will continue. To this end (and not in order to discriminate between alternative theories of investment), we examine the main theories of investment and show that recent developments are consistent with models based on the accelerator, or which emphasize the cost of finance or which depend upon stock market valuation effects. And, no matter which theory holds, the implication is the same: investment will weaken in 1989 and this is an important element in our forecast of slower world and UK growth next year.But there is an alternative view, which implies a more optimistic outlook. The theories which we consider are essentially cyclical: they focus on the key role of (volatile) investment spending in the business cycle. It may well be that the present surge in investment is a long‐tern, structural phenomenon reflecting either a shift in the pattern of world demand or the spread of computer‐based technology, which has raised the efficiency of investment. In this case, and notwithstanding this year's surge in investment, tighter monetary policy and the stock market crash, the present boom in investment may have a lot further to run.
The Dollar, the Oil Price and Policy Divergence
Authors: ALLEN CHRIS , SCOTT ANDREW 
Published: January 2008

There is currently a clear divergence of policy between the United States, Japan and Germany. With the US in recession and concern growing over the severity of the slump, interest rates have been cut in a move to revive the economy. In contrast Japan and Germany are both experiencing strong growth and monetary policy remains tight to combat inflation. This divergence was seen most clearly when the Federal Reserve Board lowered its discount rate to 6 per cent on 1 February, the day after the Bundesbank had raised its Lombard rate to 9 per cent. With G7 increasingly concerned about domestic factors, less emphasis is placed upon stable exchange rates and as a result the dollar is at an all‐time low. The last two G7 communiqués have stressed ‘stability oriented monetary policies’, an ambiguous phrase which fails to define ‘stability’ either in terms of exchange rates, inflation or growth. Thus both the German and Japanese policy of high interest rates to reduce inflation and low US interest rates aimed at stimulating the economy can be termed as ‘stability oriented’.This analysis focuses on these divergent policy responses in two alternative scenarios to the world forecast we presented last month. The first scenario considers what might happen if the Federal Reserve Board were to stimulate the US economy by further cuts in interest rates, whilst Japanese and German rates were unchanged in the face of inflationary pressures. This case may be relevant if the recent US loosening of monetary policy is not sufficient to encourage growth because of a ‘credit crunch’, so that a more expansionary policy is required by the Fed. As a consequence, policy diverges further and the dollar weakens. The second scenario focuses upon a reduction in inflationary pressures in Japan and Germany brought about by an oil price fall. In this case we assume that US policy is already loose enough to avoid a prolonged recession, but that German and Japanese monetary policy is relaxed as inflationary forces recede. In this case policies converge. Each scenario thus concentrates on one of !he two features which are causing the policy divergence amongst G3 countries: recession in the US, inflation in Germany and Japan.
ON THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE ECHINODERM EGG 1. THE VISIBLE CHANGES FOLLOWING FERTILISATION AND ARTIFICIAL PARTHENOGENESIS ON THE SURFACE OF THE EGG OF SPHAERECHINUS GRANULARIS.
Authors: CARTER G. S. 
Published: January 2008

Summary.The visible changes at the egg surface during early development with or without a fertilisation‐membrane are described. The relation of the substances of the vitelline membrane and of the “gelatinous layer” to the substance to which the extrusion of the fertilisation membrane is due is discussed.
THE EFFECT OF THE HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION ON THE BEHAVIOUR, GROWTH AND OCCURRENCE OF SPIROSTOMUM
Authors: SAUNDERS J. T. 
Published: January 2008

Summary.1. In a pond in which Spirostomum occurred in vast quantities the pH of the water was 7·4, that of an aquarium in which Spirostomum were present in large numbers was 7·5, and that of the water containing flourishing cultures of Spirostomum was 7·4 to 7·6.2. The Spirostomum showed the greatest activity in solutions of pH 7·4. Below this value the activity is reduced, but down to pH 6·0 at any rate the effect is not lethal. In solutions above pH 7·6 to 7·8 the Spirostomum are killed within a few hours if the pH greatly exceeds these values, and in a longer time if they are barely exceeded. In dying as result of the alkalinity of the water being too great the animals assumed a characteristic pear‐shaped malformation.3. Pütter (1903) supposed that the death of Spirostomum which occurred when the animals were placed in shallow vessels exposed to the atmosphere was due to oxygen poisoning. This is shown not to be the case but to be due to the pH rising above the lethal value.4. Spirostomum, when placed in tubes in which the pH of the water at one end is 8·0 and 6·8 at the other, are found to migrate rapidly into the water of pH 6·8 and then finally settle in the middle of the tube where the water is pH 7·4. This preference for water of a particular pH, which is stronger in its effects than those of light and gravity, disappears in the darkness.5. The normal behaviour of Spirostomum in the aquarium, in the pond and in the collecting jars may be explained to a large extent by the preference for water of a particular pH and by the presence or absence of a vertical pH gradient.6. No evidence was found to connect an epidemic of conjugation with the pH of the water.7. The temperature at which the experiments were performed or the observations made varied from 9 to 15· Centigrade, but the temperature was uniform throughout any tube or jar at the time it was observed. There was no temperature gradient.
THE TRICHOCYSTS OF PARAMECIUM
Authors: SAUNDERS J. T. 
Published: January 2008

Summary.1. The trichocysts are the means whereby Paramecium adheres to surfaces. Adherence takes place when Paramecium are attracted to a particular spot. The cause of this attraction is largely the pH of the water, but it may be masked in certain circumstances.2. The cause of the extrusion of the trichocysts is shown to be slight pressure such as may be set up by the Paramecium colliding with an object in the water. Verworn's view that the trichocyst consists of semi‐liquid material which hardens on being extruded into the water, is here adopted. It can be shown from the experimental evidence that the tip of the trichocyst thread is sticky, but the rest of the thread is not.3. Ciliary motion does not cease when Paramecium is attached by the trichocysts. The speed of movement, which is dependent on ciliary activity, is reduced when the/>H of the water in which the animals are living reaches 80. This reduction in ciliary activity results in the slender trichocysts being able to hold the Paramecium fast, when the pH is within 0.1 of 7.9. A further increase in the pH of the water above 8.0 results in the speed of the Paramecium being so much reduced as to render the force of a collision insufficient to expel the trichocyst. For the Paramecium studied the critical pH for adherence was 7.95.4. It is shown that the observations of previous workers on the structure of the trichocyst accord very well with their functioning as organs of adherence.
CHROMATOPHORES
Authors: PARKER G. H. 
Published: January 2008

Summary.Chromatophores, the parts concerned with the colour changes in animals, are best developed in the cephalopods, the crustaceans, and the three lower classes of vertebrates, the fishes, amphibians, and reptiles. In the cephalopods chromato‐ phores are really diminutive organs in that each one consists of a central coloured cell which is expanded against its own elasticity by radial muscle fibres. In the crustaceans a cellular complex often with several colours makes up each chromato‐ phore. This expands and contracts slowly and thus changes the tint of the animal. In the vertebrates a coloured background in the skin is exposed to view or covered up by motile black pigment cells whose melanin granules are made to migrate within the containing cell. Most animals show relatively uniform changes of colour, but in a few, as, for instance, flat‐fishes, a pattern may be imitated showing that the central control of the chromatophore system must be somewhat differentiated in the direction in which the musculature is.
PHOSPHAGEN
Authors: BALDWIN ERNEST 
Published: January 2008

Summary.1. The creatine of vertebrate muscle is mainly present in the form of a compound with phosphoric acid.2. This labile compound is intimately associated with muscular contraction. It is broken down in activity and reconstituted during rest, and is a more immediate energy source than is glycolysis. It is also broken down under conditions which are unfavourable to the organism as a whole.3. Similar considerations appear to hold in the case of the electrical organs of certain fishes, and may possibly hold for ciliary motion also.4. The creatine of the vertebrates is replaced, in many if not in all invertebrates, by arginine, which also forms a labile compound with phosphoric acid, and this is of a physiological significance exactly parallel to that of creatine phosphoric acid.5. The preparation, properties, and physiological behaviour of these compounds are described and discussed, while the methods in common use for their estimation are also described.6. Guanidine derivatives other than creatine and arginine may also behave in the same way, giving phosphagenic compounds of similar functional importance. One such compound appears to be present in cephalopod muscle.7. Creatine phosphate is practically confined to the vertebrates, whereas arginine phosphate is never found in members of that phylum. Both compounds have been found together in an echinoid and in an enteropneust. The Echinoderm‐Enteropneust theory of vertebrate affinity, previously postulated on purely morphological grounds, seems thus to find new support on biochemical grounds.8. The Cephalopoda appear to contain a phosphagen whose base is not arginine, whereas arginine phosphate appears to be present in the Lamellibranchiata. This is possibly of evolutionary significance, since the Lamellibranchiata are believed to have branched off from the main line of evolution at a date considerably earlier than that of the divergence of the other Mollusca.9. Protozoa appear not to contain phosphagen, but with a possible exception in the case of the Coelenterata, the Metazoa all make use of some phosphagen compound.The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr Joseph Needham and Mrs Needham for their continual help and advice, and to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research for a grant, during the tenure of which this article was written.
PROTOPLASMIC REORGANISATION AND ANIMAL LIFE CYCLES
Authors: TAYLOR C. V. 
Published: January 2008

Summary.Comparisons of the Protozoa and Metazoa have emphasised their structure‐function relationships without due regard to their historical relationships. Thus cellularity has been a common basis for this comparison as applied to unicellular organisms on the one hand and multicellular organisms on the other, equating in each group the cell as the unit of structure and function; or, on the contrary, denying that this comparison holds since Protozoa are to be regarded as non‐cellular organisms.It is proposed that genetic history, including both ontogeny and phylogeny, is the essential basis for this comparison. Since organic differentiation is the process by which the cell originated in phylogeny and each organism develops in ontogeny, maintaining its organismal unity throughout, it is suggested that primarily this process, protoplasmic differentiation, and secondarily its product, the primordial cell, should be given first importance in fundamental considerations of both protozoan and metazoan genetic history.Protozoa as well as Metazoa begin their life cycle as a primordial cell which is the stage of minimal protoplasmic differentiation. From this primordial stage comes to be differentiated epigenetically diverse organs with specific functions, derived for the Metazoa during numberless mitotic divisions but for the Protozoa during one mitotic division and are rederived during each succeeding division. Thus, Protozoa retain the capacity to reorganise, that is, to dedifferentiate and redifferen‐tiate, which they tend to do during fission, conjugation, endomixis, cystment, and regeneration; and are accordingly potentially immortal. Metazoan ontogeny, however, proceeds toward a fixed and irreversible state of differentiation which eventuates in disintegration and death.It is postulated further that protoplasmic reorganisation involves both cytoplasmic and nuclear structures which alike undergo a redifferentiation following dedifferentiation toward a primordial stage which represents the initial stage of the life cycle. While these changes may differ, with respect to the cytoplasm and nucleus, in the time, manner, or completeness of their occurrence; it is suggested that their visible manifestations have to do with dynamic processes which are fundamentally the same.
THE EQUILIBRIUM FUNCTION OF THE VERTEBRATE LABYRINTH
Authors: LÖWENSTEIN. OTTO 
Published: January 2008

Summary.1. The vertebrate labyrinth can be divided into a pars superior, consisting of the utriculus and the semicircular canals, and a pars inferior, consisting of the sacculus and its various appendages.2. Only the pars superior is concerned with the maintenance of muscle tone and with reflex reactions to gravity and to linear and angular accelerations. This has been demonstrated for fishes, amphibia and mammals, and, although the evidence is not completely satisfactory, it probably holds for reptiles and birds as well.The pars inferior takes no part in any of these functions (again with the above reservation as to reptiles and birds), but, even in those vertebrates which lack the organ of Corti, is concerned with sound reception.Breuer's theory of the localisation of the non‐acoustic function of the labyrinth has thus been shown to be erroneous.3. Attempts have been made to discover which of the receptor endings of the pars superior are involved in each of its functions, by eliminating separately the various endings. The results obtained are not entirely consistent. Production of the static reflexes and of the reflexes to centrifugal force and fast linear acceleration is in all probability the main function of the otolith organ (utriculus). It appears, however, that the assumption that the otolith organ is purely static in function is incorrect, for it has been shown that the utriculus can be involved in dynamic responses to rotations.The main function of the semicircular canals is the release of the dynamic reflexes. It has, however, been claimed that the vertical canals take part in the production of static reflexes as well.Both the utriculi and the semicircular canals are involved in the maintenance of muscle tone.4. In the discussion of the general conclusions as to the function of the utriculi and of the semicircular canals it is shown that one of the important functional differences between the two receptors consists in their different reaction time, which may be due to the difference in their auxiliary structures and to a different pattern of their nervous connection with the effector organs.
THE PASSIVE IRON WIRE MODEL OF PROTO‐PLASMIC AND NERVOUS TRANSMISSION AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL ANALOGUES
Authors: LILLIE RALPH S. 
Published: January 2008

SummaryThe phenomena of activation and transmission in the passive iron wire model are described, and the various parallels with the irritable living system, especially nerve, are discussed. In general, the similarity of behaviour is to be referred to a single structural feature common to both systems, namely the presence of a thin, polarisable and chemically alterable interfacial layer or surface film (oxide film; plasma membrane) situated at the boundary between the metal, or the protoplasm, and the surrounding medium. This film undergoes characteristic changes of chemical composition and physical properties, e.g. of permeability and electrical polarisation, when traversed by an electric current of an intensity and duration sufficient to produce a certain critical degree of chemical decomposition. The activity of the system as a whole is controlled by the electrochemical oxidations and reductions occurring in the film under these conditions. Hence both the model and the living system are electrically sensitive and transmit local states of activity, local changes on the film being associated with local electric circuits which have electrochemical effect at regions beyond. Hence, also, the essential conditions under which electrical activation occurs are the same in both systems (polar activation, intensity‐duration relationship, etc.). Activation and transmission are similarly affected in both by changes of temperature, by variations in the composition of the medium, by electrical polarisation (analogy to electrotonus), and by surface‐active compounds (analogy to narcosis). Closely analogous processes of progressive recovery occur in both systems after the passage of an activation wave (refractory phase). Other resemblances are seen in the phenomena of automatic rhythm, the mutual interference of activation waves, the transmission of inhibitory influence, irreciprocal transmission, and distance influence, excitatory and inhibitory. Biological analogies of a more general kind, relating to mutual interdependence between processes occurring in spatially separated regions traversed by the same electric current—a possible factor in certain types of integration—are briefly discussed.
DISEASE RELATIONSHIPS IN GRAFTED PLANTS AND CHIMAERAS
Authors: BOND T. E. T. 
Published: January 2008

SummaryDisease relationships in grafted plants and chimaeras are shown to have both theoretical and practical significance.Grafting experiments have been employed as a means of investigating the nature of resistance and susceptibility to diseases caused by pathogenic fungi and bacteria. The effects of grafting may be direct, owing to transmission through the graft union of the substance or substances actually responsible for the reaction concerned, or indirect, due to a change in the normal response to environmental conditions. Negative results, while necessarily inconclusive, indicate that resistance and susceptibility are either genotypic properties of the protoplasm, or else are due to some factor that is not, as such, transmissible.Inoculation experiments have also been used in the interpretation of graft hybrids and chimaeras. In the case of the artificially induced Solanum chimaeras, experiments with Septoria lycopersici have shown that the two components retain their characteristic reaction to infection unaltered. Unless this assumption can be made in other forms, whose mode of origin is unknown, it becomes impossible to distinguish the two components, as such, from the modified tissues of a true graft hybrid. Results with the Crataegomespili and Pirocydoniae are not altogether consistent with the periclinal chimaera theory.Examples are given of the practical importance of grafting in the prevention and control of disease and mechanical injury in fruit trees and other ornamental trees and shrubs. Choice of suitable stocks may entirely prevent leaf scorch and other physiological disorders, and a large body of information has accumulated concerning the influence of root‐stock on quality and storage life of the fruit.The importance of incompatibility between stock and scion is discussed, and examples are quoted in which grafting has led to the transmission of an unsuspected virus disease. Improper fitting and tying of the graft union is liable to result in the production of wound overgrowths, and also increases the danger of external infection.
FISH MIGRATIONS
Authors: RUSSELL E. S. 
Published: January 2008

SUMMARYA knowledge of the migratory movements of fish is of great practical importance in the commercial fisheries, and accordingly much research has been carried out on the subject by the maritime nations of Europe and by the United States, largely by means of marking experiments. The general schema of the migrations, which holds good for most species, is (1) a spawning migration of mature or maturing individuals towards a definite spawning area, generally upstream or up‐current, (2) a dispersion of the spent fish, generally downstream or down‐current, in search of food, leading sometimes to definite feeding migrations. The general effect of this cycle of migration is to keep the species within its ecological norm.These principles are illustrated by reference to the cod and the plaice in the North Sea, Norwegian coast and Barentz Sea, Iceland and Greenland. It is shown that in each of these areas there is a definite migration cycle, and evidence is brought forward that in most cases the spawning migration takes place against the prevailing current. The recent spread of cod from Iceland to Greenland and their return to the Icelandic spawning grounds is described in some detail.In cod and plaice the eggs and larvae are pelagic and are at first distributed passively by the currents. It seems impossible that they should retain any individual memory of their spawning places. In the case of the salmon, however, the eggs are deposited in the upper waters of rivers and streams and the young fish spend one or more years of their life in the vicinity. It has been shown for the chinook salmon of the Pacific that the fish returning from the sea to spawn remember and return to the stream in which they were brought up, even though they had been spawned in a stream hundreds of miles away. Hence individual and not ancestral memory is the dominant factor in the so‐called “homing instinct”.To provide a contrast with the salmon and other anadromous forms, which run up rivers to spawn, brief reference is made to katadromous forms such as the flounder, the eel, and the New Zealand “whitebait” (Austrocobitis). The last‐named appears to spawn just after the height of spring tides, as is also the case with the Californian grunion (Leuresthes), whose very remarkable spawning habits are discussed in detail.In conclusion, an account is given of the response of the local anchovy to the cutting off of its main spawning ground through the reclamation of the Zuider Zee; it has adopted new spawning grounds outside and has spread further north.The article is not to be regarded as exhaustive, but merely as supplementary to the comprehensive surveys of the subject by Meek and Scheuring.