bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Networks and Groups in Southeast Asia: Some Observations on the Group Theory of Politics
Authors: Landé Carl H. 
Published: May 2006

The paper describes a “dyadic” type of political structure which, it is argued, is a necessary supplement to class and interest group models for the analysis of informal political structure in contemporary Southeast Asia, and probably in other developing areas.Various types of simple and complex dyadic structures are described. The paper then examines four Southeast Asian polities, of different degrees of political development, with attention to the manner in which they combine group and dyadic structures. The examples are the Kalinga, a pagan ethnolinguistic group of Northern Luzon; the Tausug, a Muslim group of the Sulu archipelago; the traditional Thai monarchy; and the present Republic of the Philippines. In each case the effects of structure upon the operation of the system are explored. The paper concludes with a set of paired propositions concerning the characteristics of “trait associations” and “personal followings.”
Political Processes and Public Expenditures: A Re-examination Based on Theories of Representative Government
Authors: Godwin R. Kenneth , Shepard W. Bruce 
Published: May 2006

Studies attempting to predict public expenditures using political variables have generally incorrectly assumed that political, like socioeconomic, variables function as determinants of policy levels and types. If one assumes, however, that the function of the political process in representative government is to translate citizens' demands for various levels of services as accurately as possible, then political variables must be conceptualized as mediating in character. In the absence of knowledge of whether public services are being oversupplied or undersupplied in relation to citizen demands, the effects of political variables can therefore, be better tested by moving beyond single-equation regression models.An alternative method for examining impacts of political variables is presented by integrating them with conventional theories of political representation. This leads to a concept of “translation error,” and ways of examining relationships between this concept and political variables are explicated. Finally, the greater theoretical utility of this reformulation for the study of public policy is examined, and empirical studies which indicate its validity are cited.
The Theory of Political Ambiguity
Authors: Page Benjamin I. 
Published: May 2006

The ambiguity of politicians' words and actions is sometimes attributed to rational seeking of support or votes. Such an explanation must clearly specify the preferences and decision processes among constituents and the calculations by politicians which make ambiguity seem attractive.The leading effort of this sort is Shepsle's lottery theory, in which politicians take probabilistic stands on issues in order to appeal to risk acceptant, expected-utility-maximizing voters. But the lottery theory suffers from several difficulties. Its predictions are not strong; it can at best account for only certain kinds of observed ambiguous behavior; its main condition for the prediction of ambiguity—risk acceptance among constituents—may not be met; and the expected utility model of risky decision making is not well supported by available evidence.An emphasis allocation theory is suggested as an alternative. According to it, ambiguity involves an effort to reduce the salience of conflictual matters (such as specific policy alternatives) in the evaluation of politicians, so that attention will be paid to consensual appeals (peace, prosperity, honesty in government).
The Supreme Court and National Policy Making
Authors: Casper Jonathan D. 
Published: May 2006

The role of the Supreme Court of the United States in national policy making has long been a subject of debate among students of the American legal system and of democratic theory. Both the relative influence of the Court vis-à-vis other political institutions and the implications of judicial review for principles of majority rule and democracy have been central to this discussion. Perhaps the most influential account of the role of the Court offered in recent years is Robert A. Dahl's 1957 article, “Decision-Making in a Democracy: The Role of the Supreme Court in National Policy-Making.” Dahl argues that the Court, like other political institutions, is a member of the stable ruling coalitions that dominate American politics, and that its decisions are generally supportive of the policies emerging from other political institutions.Consideration of the way Dahl interprets his own evidence, of Court decisions since 1957, and of other relevant evidence that is excluded from his analysis (particularly the activities of the Court in statutory construction and in cases arising out of states and localities) suggests that the Court participates more significantly in national policy making than Dahl's argument admits.
Procedural Norms and Tolerance: A Reassessment
Authors: Lawrence David G. 
Published: May 2006

This paper is both a criticism and extension of a small existing literature on procedural norms and tolerance which has been influential in several interpretations of American politics but which suffers from both conceptual and empirical shortcomings.The existing literature concludes that tolerance is not widely distributed in the American mass public: unpopular groups such as Communists or atheists would not be allowed political activity by most Americans despite supposed acceptance by all of the principle of minority rights. The literature suggests that hostile attitudes towards the issue or group involved prevents application of the tolerant general norm in specific instances.By failing to adequately measure or control for either issue orientation or general norms, however, the existing literature risks misrepresenting the actual extent and character of tolerance. This study discusses the weaknesses of the existing literature, describes how such weaknesses can be eliminated, and reports data which modify and expand the findings of past research for an updated set of issues, groups, and political acts.
The Structure of Emotional Response: 1984 Presidential Candidates
Authors: Marcus George E. 
Published: May 2006

Over the past two decades psychological models of affect have changed from valence (one-dimensional) models to multiple-dimensional models. The most recent models, circumplex models, are two-dimensional. Feeling thermometer measures, which derive their theoretical logic from earlier (valence) models of emotional appraisal, are shown to be confounded. Underlying the variation obtained using feeling thermometer measures are two dimensions of emotional response, mastery (positive emotionality) and threat (negative emotionality). Analysis of the 1984 NES survey suggests that positive emotional response is twice as influential as negative emotional response in predicting presidential candidate vote disposition to the presidential candidates. Reliance on emotional response is shown to be uniformly influential across various strata of the electorate.Policy considerations have little direct influence on vote disposition, though policy considerations are indirectly related to vote disposition through the influence of issues on the degree of feelings of threat evoked by the candidates.
Interservice Competition and the Political Roles of the Armed Services
Authors: Huntington Samuel P. 
Published: May 2006

“Conventional wisdom” (to purloin a phrase from Galbraith) holds that interservice competition necessarily undermines economy, efficiency, and effective central control in the military establishment. The remedy is further unification, possibly even the merger of the services into a single uniform. The conventional wisdom also holds that political action by military groups necessarily threatens civilian control. The remedy is to “keep the military out of politics.” The pattern of American military politics and interservice rivalry since World War II, however, suggests that the conventional wisdom may err in its analysis of their results and falter in its prescription of remedies.Service political controversy between the world wars had two distinguishing characteristics. First, on most issues, a military service, supported, perhaps, by a few satellite groups, struggled against civilian isolationists, pacifists, and economizers. The Navy and the shipbuilding industry fought a lonely battle with the dominant forces in both political parties over naval disarmament. The Army lost its fight for universal service after World War I, and throughout the Twenties clashed with educational, labor, and religious groups over ROTC and with other groups over industrial mobilization preparation. In the annual budget encounters the issue usually was clearly drawn between service supporters who stressed preparedness and their opponents who decried the necessity and the legitimacy of substantial military expenditures. To the extent that the services were in politics, they were involved in conflicts with civilian groups.
Dilemmas of Political Leadership in the Arab Middle East: The Case of The United Arab Republic
Authors: Vatikiotis P. J. 
Published: May 2006

The use of traditional symbols by leaders of newly independent states to achieve consensus in their respective political communities is not unusual these days. The professed aspiration of these leaders to modernize their societies does not keep them from manipulating traditional symbols for the maintenance of order in a period of troubled transition. Often the student of politics in these states finds that formal changes in the institutions and functions of the state and government do not necessarily reflect or imply serious structural and conceptual changes. Nor do they necessarily affect appreciably the concept, use, or allocation of power.When members of the military establishment acceded to political power in some Middle Eastern states in the past decade, they announced their intention to “modernize” their societies. This aspiration raises a variety of questions for the student of Middle Eastern politics. What political ideology, order, and system was the new leadership proposing? The desire to “modernize” implied that their societies were still bound in a complex of traditional relationships and structures. The attitudes of the new military leaders, who claim to desire a departure from the past in national development, toward the Islamic religious-traditional background of society should be a primary factor in any analysis of the orientation of this new leadership.
The Impact of Personality on Politics: An Attempt to Clear Away Underbrush
Authors: Greenstein Fred I. 
Published: May 2006

There is a great deal of political activity which can be explained adequately only by taking account of the personal characteristics of the actors involved. The more intimate the vantage, the more detailed the perspective, the greater the likelihood that political actors will loom as full-blown individuals influenced by all of the peculiar strengths and weaknesses to which the species homo sapiens is subject, in addition to being role-players, creatures of situation, members of a culture, and possessors of social characteristics such as occupation, class, sex, and age.To a non-social scientist the observation that individuals are important in politics would seem trite. Undergraduates, until they have been trained to think in terms of impersonal categories of explanation, readily make assertions about the psychology of political actors in their explanations of politics. So do journalists. Why is it that most political scientists are reluctant to deal explicitly with psychological matters (apart from using a variety of rather impersonal psychological constructs such as “party identification,” “sense of political efficacy,” and the like)? Why is political psychology not a systematically developed subdivision of political science, occupying the skill and energy of a substantial number of scholars?
Interpreting House Midterm Elections: Toward a Measurement of the In-Party's “Expected” Loss of Seats
Authors: Hinckley Barbara 
Published: May 2006

Midterm congressional elections have been subjected to relatively little analysis. This is surprising because these elections exhibit three quite striking features which, when taken together, call for further explanation. First, every midterm House election since the Civil War, with the exception of 1934, has brought a net loss of seats to the President's party. Second, in the large majority of elections the net loss has approximated the gross loss. The in-party (i.e., the President's party) seldom has captured seats from the other party to offset its own loss. And third, although the in-party's loss has been persistent, the number of seats lost has varied widely.Attempts to incorporate midterm elections into a broader interpretive framework of American election studies usually stress one of the first two features outlined above. The fact that only the in-party loses—and that its losses are mainly in marginal districts—has led commentators such as V. O. Key Jr. and the authors of The American Voter to interpret these midterm elections as part of the stable, long-term trends in voters' party allegiance.
Note on a recent set of postulates for the calculus of propositions
Authors: Huntington K. V. 
Published: May 2006

In my American Academy paper of 1937 I gave a mathematical clarification and extension of C. I. Lewis's theory of strict implication using as the base (K, T, ×, ′, ≣). In that paper the element a⊰b (read “a hook b”) was defined by (a⊰b) = (ab′=cc′). The main purpose of the present paper is to show that this definition may be replaced by the simpler definition (a⊰b) = (ab≣a), provided Postulate 15 is replaced by two simpler postulates, 15a and 15b (see below). The paper may also serve to throw further light on the essential difference between Lewis's theory of “strict” implication and the more familiar theory of “material” implication. This paper and the earlier one, when read together, are entirely self-contained, all proofs (including proofs of independence) being given in full and no reference to earlier literature being required.We begin by reviewing briefly the rôle which logical deduction plays in the writing of any scientific book.Suppose you sit down to write. What do you actually do? In the last analysis, your activity as an author is a process of voluntary selection, restricted by certain inescapable rules. From an indefinite number of possible propositions which may occur to your imagination, you voluntarily select certain propositions which you accept as being worthy of being written down, one after another, in your book. Every proposition which occurs to you is either accepted, or rejected, or laid aside for further consideration.
A system of axiomatic set theory. Part III. Infinity and enumerability. Analysis
Authors: Bernays Paul 
Published: May 2006

The foundation of analysis does not require the full generality of set theory but can be accomplished within a more restricted frame. Just as for number theory we need not introduce a set of all finite ordinals but only a class of all finite ordinals, all sets which occur being finite, so likewise for analysis we need not have a set of all real numbers but only a class of them, and the sets with which we have to deal are either finite or enumerable.We begin with the definitions of infinity and enumerability and with some consideration of these concepts on the basis of the axioms I—III, IV, V a, V b, which, as we shall see later, are sufficient for general set theory. Let us recall that the axioms I—III and V a suffice for establishing number theory, in particular for the iteration theorem, and for the theorems on finiteness.
Concatenation as basis for a complete system of arithmetic
Authors: Löb M. H. 
Published: May 2006

In [3] Myhill has constructed a complete system K which allows in it the development of a large and important section of classical mathematics. Completeness is achieved essentially by sacrificing universal quantification and introducing instead the proper ancestral as a primitive idea.In the following we are presenting a system K0 which will be shown to be equivalent to K (i.e. the primitive operators of both systems are mutually definable in terms of one another). K0 is also complete and covers the same ground as K. K0, however, differs from K by the introduction of the limited universal quantifier instead of the proper ancestral and of concatenation instead of the ordered-pair function as primitive operators. By a further reduction K0 will be shown to be equivalent to the system K1 not containing the abstraction-operator and the class-membership relation.
On axiomatizability within a system
Authors: Craig William 
Published: May 2006

Let C be the closure of a recursively enumerable set B under some relation R. Suppose there is a primitive recursive relation Q, such that Q is a symmetric subrelation of R (i.e. if Q(m, n), then Q(n, m) and R(m, n)), and such that, for each m ϵ B, Q(m, n) for infinitely many n. Then there exists a primitive recursive set A, such that C is the closure under R of A. For proof, note that , where f is a primitive recursive function which enumerates B, has the required properties. For each m ϵ B, there is an n ϵ A, such that Q(m, n) and hence Q(n, m); therefore the closure of A under Q, and hence that under R, includes B. Conversely, since Q is a subrelation of R, A is included in C. Finally, that A is primitive recursive follows from [2] p. 180.This observation can be applied to many formal systems S, by letting R correspond to the relation of deducibility in S, so that R(m, n) if and only if m is the Gödel number of a formula of S, or of a sequence of formulas, from which, together with axioms of S, a formula with the Gödel number n can be obtained by applications of rules of inference of S.
Toward an inscriptional semantics
Authors: Martin R. M. , Woodger J. H. 
Published: May 2006

Classical syntax and semantics make fundamental use of variables ranging over classes, relations, etc. In syntax, one speaks exclusively of such objects as symbols, formulae, terms, in short of what may be called (following Carnap) sign-designs. A sign-design is a class of similar concrete marks or sign-events or inscriptions or sequences of typographical characters. In semantics, in addition to sign-designs, one also speaks of the objects denoted or designated by the sign-designs called constants or of the objects which are values for the sign-designs called variables.Interest in the possibility of a syntax and semantics based upon sign-events or inscriptions rather than upon sign-designs appears to have originated with Lesniewski and Tarski. Not until recently, however, in a paper by Goodman and Quine, has a purely inscriptional syntax been explicitly formulated. The discussion in that paper is confined to the syntax of one object language, but the methods developed are applicable to other systems as well and should suffice for many of the purposes of syntax.In the present paper we make an attempt to construct a purely inscriptional semantics, in which, as with Goodman and Quine, sign-designs or classes of similar inscriptions in no way figure as values for variables. In rejecting such entities it might appear that the resulting semantics would be drastically curtailed. That the methods used here are of sufficient power to be of interest, however, is shown by constructing a definition of a semantical concept of truth for a given sample elementary object language L. The definition of a predicate for truth in L is given, and the predicate is shown to be adequate in essentially the sense due to Leśniewski, Kotarbiński, and Tarski.
On undecidable statements in enlarged systems of logic and the concept of truth
Authors: Tarski Alfred 
Published: May 2006

It is my intention in this paper to add somewhat to the observations already made in my earlier publications on the existence of undecidable statements in systems of logic possessing rules of inference of a “non-finitary” (“non-constructive”) character (§§1–4).I also wish to emphasize once more the part played by the concept of truth in relation to problems of this nature (§§5–8).At the end of this paper I shall give a result which was not touched upon in my earlier publications. It seems to be of interest for the reason (among others) that it is an example of a result obtained by a fruitful combination of the method of constructing undecidable statements (due to K. Gödel) with the results obtained in the theory of truth.1. Let us consider a formalized logical system L. Without giving a detailed description of the system we shall assume that it possesses the usual “finitary” (“constructive”) rules of inference, such as the rule of substitution and the rule of detachment (modus ponens), and that among the laws of the system are included all the postulates of the calculus of statements, and finally that the laws of the system suffice for the construction of the arithmetic of natural numbers. Moreover, the system L may be based upon the theory of types and so be the result of some formalization of Principia mathematica. It may also be a system which is independent of any theory of types and resembles Zermelo's set theory.
Note on a conjecture of Skolem
Authors: Post Emil L. 
Published: May 2006

In his excellent review of four notes of Skolem on recursive functions of natural numbers Bernays states: “The question whether every relation y = f(x1,…, xn) with a recursive function ƒ is primitive recursive remains undecided.” Actually, the question is easily answered in the negative by a form of the familiar diagonal argument.We start with the ternary recursive relation R, referred to in the review, such that R(x, y, 0), R(x, y, 1), … is an enumeration of all binary primitive recursive relations.
A proof procedure for quantification theory
Authors: Quine W. V. 
Published: May 2006

The purpose of this paper is to present and justify a simple proof procedure for quantification theory. The procedure will take the form of a method for proving a quantificational schema to be inconsistent, i.e., satisfiable in no non-empty universe. But it serves equally for proving validity, since we can show a schema valid by showing its negation inconsistent.Method A, as I shall call it, will appear first, followed by a more practical adaptation which I shall call B. The soundness and completeness of A will be established, and the equivalence of A and B. Method A, as will appear, is not new.The reader need be conversant with little more than the fairly conventional use (as in [8]) of such terms as ‘quantificational schema’, ‘interpretation’, ‘valid’, ‘consistent’, ‘prenex’, and my notation (as in [7]) of quasi-quotation.