bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Circadian Rhythms in Cyanobacteria
Authors: Johnson Carl Hirschie , Golden Susan S , Kondo Takao 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cyanobacteria express circadian (daily) rhythms, even when growing with doubling times that are as fast as once every 8 hours. The fitness of cyanobacteria is improved when the circadian period is similar to the period of the environmental cycle. Three novel clock genes have been identified in the cyanobacterial genome.
Heat Shock Response
Authors: Schumann Wolfgang 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In all organisms, a sudden increase in temperature leads to the accumulation of partially unfolded proteins which tend to form life‐threatening aggregates within cells. These non‐native proteins induce the transiently increased expression of a set of genes termed heat shock genes, and most of their products, designated as heat shock proteins, are involved in either refolding or degradation of the non‐native proteins. This reaction is termed the heat shock response
Psychrophiles and Psychrotrophs
Authors: Morita Richard Y 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Psychrophiles are cold‐loving bacteria having an optimal temperature for growth at about 15°C or lower, a maximal temperature for growth at about 20°C and a minimal temperature for growth at 0°C or lower. Psychrotrophs are cold‐tolerant bacteria that have the ability to grow at low temperatures but have optimal and maximal growth temperatures above 15°C and 20°C, respectively.
Hepatitis Viruses
Authors: Zuckerman Arie J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Viral hepatitis is a major public health problem throughout the world, affecting many hundreds of millions of people. Hepatitis is a cause of considerable morbidity and mortality in the human population both from acute infection and chronic sequelae, which include, with hepatitis B and hepatitis C infection, chronic liver damage, chronic active hepatitis, cirrhosis and primary liver cancer.
Herpesviruses (Human)
Authors: Whitley Richard J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Human herpesvirus are a family of eight DNA viruses which commonly inflict individuals. They consist of
Herpes simplex virus type 1
(HSV‐1),
Herpes simplex virus type 2
(HSV‐2),
Varicella‐zoster virus
(VZV),
Cytomegalovirus
(CMV),
Epstein–Barr virus
(EBV),
Human herpesvirus 6
(HHV‐6),
Human herpesvirus 7
(HHV‐7), and
Kaposi sarcoma‐associated herpesvirus
(KSHV or HHV‐8).
Parvoviruses
Authors: Tattersall Peter , Cotmore Susan F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Parvoviruses are amongst the smallest known animal viruses, consisting of a single‐stranded DNA genome of approximately 5 kb, encapsidated in an icosahedral protein shell built from 60 copies of a single polypeptide. Viral DNA is replicated by a unique, unidirectional, leading‐strand specific mechanism dubbed ‘rolling hairpin replication’, which depends critically upon a virally‐coded nickase, and the sequential folding and unfolding of small palindromic terminal sequences.
Bacterial Evolution
Authors: Maniloff Jack 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe Earth formed about 4600 million years ago and, 400–700 million years later, life originated and evolved to form metabolic pathways, information storage molecules, catalysts and membrane‐enclosed ‘organisms’. Evolution continued, with high levels of mutation and lateral gene transfer, to produce bacterial anaerobic heterotrophs, autotrophs, lithotrophs, phototrophs (anoxygenic and later oxygenic), and, by 2200 million years ago, aerobes.
Crenarchaeota
Authors: Huber Harald , Stetter Karl O 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Crenarchaeota, one of the two kingdoms of the archaeal domain, consists primarily of hyperthermophiles, thriving at temperatures of up to 113°C. They have been isolated from submarine hydrothermal systems or from continental solfataric fields. So far, 3 orders with 18 genera and more than 30 species have been described.
Euryarchaeota
Authors: Huber Harald , Stetter Karl O 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The Euryarchaeota, one of the two kingdoms of the archaeal domain, consists of the strict anaerobic methanogens, the extreme halophiles, the hyperthermophilic Archaeoglobales and Thermococcales, and the cell wall free Thermoplasmales
.
So far, 8 orders with 35 genera and more than 115 species have been described.
Thermotogales
Authors: Huber Robert , Stetter Karl O 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Members of the order Thermotogales show an outstanding phylogenetic position within the domain Bacteria, based on their 16S rDNA sequences. Some Thermotogales organisms or relatives have an upper temperature limit of growth at 90°C. Together with representatives of the order Aquificales, they represent the bacteria with the highest growth temperatures currently known.
Biodegradation of Organic Pollutants
Authors: Wackett Lawrence P , Ellis Lynda BM 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Biodegradation refers to the microbial decomposition of compounds, typically of those that negatively impact human health, in the environment. The genes, enzymes and pathways have been elucidated to understand environmental processes, engineer remediation of polluted environments and to predict the fate of chemicals in the environment.
Bioremediation
Authors: Philp Jim C , Atlas Ronald M , Cunningham Colin J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Bioremediation refers to the clean‐up of pollution from soil, groundwater, surface water and air, using biological, usually microbiological, processes. It has left the confines of the laboratory and is established in some parts of the world, especially the USA, as a full‐scale, biotechnology‐based industry.
Dissimilatory Metal Transformations by Microorganisms
Authors: Lloyd Jonathan R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
There has been a dramatic increase in the understanding of the biological mechanisms underpinning metal transformations in the environment. The techniques used to gain a better understanding of these microbial processes will be discussed, along with an overview of assimilatory, dissimilatory and detoxification transformations of a range of metals and radionuclides.
Immune Mechanisms Against Extracellular Pathogens
Authors: Autenrieth Ingo B , Hein Joachim , Schulte Ralf 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Extracellular pathogens replicate and/or persist on mucosal surfaces or in host tissues outside host cells and may rapidly spread or establish an infection. In this habitat, however, they have to fight against several humoral (e.g. defensins, lactoferrin, antibodies) and cellular (phagocytes, T cells) immune defence mechanisms.
Complement: Classical Pathway
Authors: Arlaud Gérard J , Colomb Maurice G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The classical pathway of complement is a major recognition system in innate immunity that is found in mammals and other animal species. It triggers various mechanisms via two multimolecular proteases – C1 and the
MBL/MASP complex
– to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms and other‐s from blood and tissues.
Immunology of Birds and Reptiles
Authors: Jaffredo Thierry , Fellah Julien S , Dunon Dominique 
Published: September 2006

AbstractProtection against disease requires a complex regulated network of interactions between cells and molecules to mount the immune responses. Birds were a pioneer model to study immunology. They have led notably to the identification of the B and T lineages. Sauropsidae consist of two animal groups, reptiles and birds, in which the immune system has been subjected to a variety of selective pressure. This is reflected by differences in the organization and function of their immune system.
t
RNA
Modification
Authors: Motorin Yuri , Grosjean Henri 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Naturally occurring transfer RNA (tRNA) always contains numerous chemically altered nucleosides formed by enzymatic modification of the primary RNA transcript during tRNA maturation. These stabilize the tRNA architecture and improve its performance in the different interactions in which tRNA is involved, namely in aminoacylation by cognate aminoacyl‐tRNA synthetases, interactions with initiation and elongation factors as well as in decoding of messenger RNA on the ribosome.
Transfer RNA Synthetase Proofreading of Amino Acids
Authors: Jakubowski Hieronim 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIn many cases, the intrinsic binding energies of amino acids to aminoacyl‐tRNA synthetases are inadequate to give the required accuracy of translation. This has necessitated the evolution of a second determinant of specificity, proofreading or editing mechanisms that involve the expenditure of energy to remove errors in amino acid selection.
Translational Components in Prokaryotes: Genetics and Regulation
Authors: Wagner Rolf 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The regulation of the biosynthesis of ribosomes, which constitute the catalytic organelles for the translation reaction, is central for the adaptation of bacteria to different growth conditions. The synthesis of the different ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and ribosomal protein (RP) components is controlled and coordinated by a complex network of regulatory mechanisms to adjust the translational capacity to the required cell demands.
Protein Synthesis Initiation in Prokaryotes
Authors: Grunberg‐Manago Marianne 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The term ‘translational initiation’ refers to the sequence of events leading up to the formation of the first peptide bond. It is usually the rate‐limiting step of translation and its efficiency can vary by several orders of magnitude. It is therefore a major determinant of the overall expression level for a gene and is a target for a variety of translational control mechanisms.
Initiation Factors in Eukaryotes
Authors: Merrick William C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Initiation factors are those proteins that facilitate the assembly of the initiator tRNA, mRNA and ribosomes into an initiation complex. This assembly correctly matches the AUG start codon of the mRNA with the anticodon of the initiator tRNA in the ribosomal P site and thereby determines the translational reading frame.
Evolution of the Genetic Code
Authors: Watanabe Kimitsuna , Ueda Takuya 
Published: September 2006

AbstractFrom the present situation of genetic code so far elucidated for various species of extant organisms, it is speculated that the genetic code system had started from a single or limited number of amino acids and evolved to the universal genetic code which is being used by most present organisms. During evolution the genetic code is changeable by some factors such as directional mutational pressure on genomes and genome economization. The extreme case is the vertebrate mitochondrial genetic code which is greatly deviated from the universal genetic code.
Mutagenesis
Authors: Ennis Don G 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMutations have a potential for either positive or negative effects on an organism. To combat the deleterious effects of excessive mutagenesis, elaborate systems of enzymes have evolved to correct errors that arise spontaneously in cells or induced following DNA damage. However, DNA must necessarily change as organisms evolve, thus, some low level of mutagenesis is tolerated perhaps even promoted to assure normal and healthy levels of genetic variation of populations.
Methanogenesis Biochemistry
Authors: Ferry James G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Methanogenesis is the biological production of methane mediated by three major pathways: (1) reduction of carbon dioxide, (2) fermentation of acetate, and (3) dismutation of methanol or methylamines. Investigations of the biochemistry of the pathways have revealed novel enzymes with metal and cofactor requirements that have introduced new principles of biochemistry.
RecBCDHelicase/Nuclease
Authors: Arnold Deana A , Kowalczykowski Stephen C 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe RecBCD enzyme ofEscherichia coliparticipates in several aspects of DNA recombination and repair. It is essential to the main pathway of genetic homologous recombination, where it contributes to the exchange of genetic material between homologous DNA molecules (i.e. conjugal recombination), and to the recombinational repair of potentially lethal chromosomal double‐stranded breaks.
Immunoglobulin Gene Rearrangements
Authors: Lieber Michael 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
V(D)J and class switch recombination are two DNA recombination processes that occur at immunoglobulin genes during the generation of B cells and the attendant rearrangement of immunoglobulin heavy and light chain loci. V(D)J occurs during early B‐ and T‐cell development whilst class switch recombination occurs exclusively in mature B cells.
Yeast Mating Type
Authors: Montelone Beth A 
Published: September 2006

AbstractYeast mating type is determined by alleles of a single genetic locus that encodes regulatory proteins governing genes encoding mating pheromones, pheromone receptors and downstream effectors regulating cell type. Some yeast are capable of switching mating type, a process involving gene replacement by information from silenced copies of the mating type locus found elsewhere in the genome.
Acid–Base Catalysis by Enzymes
Authors: Kirby Anthony John 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Proton transfer is the commonest reaction that enzymes perform. Most enzyme reactions go by ionic mechanisms, involving the creation or disappearance of charge. Such reactions are typically acid‐ or base‐catalysed, but acid and base concentrations are minimal under physiological conditions near pH 7. Enzymes have evolved subtle but highly effective solutions to this problem.
Phosphoryl Transfer Reactions
Authors: Hengge Alvan C 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPhosphoryl transfer is the name given to the chemical process of the transfer of the phosphoryl group (PO3) from a phosphate ester or anhydride to a nucleophile. Nucleophilic attack by water on a phosphate monoester gives the hydrolysis product inorganic phosphate. This net dephosphorylation reaction is the process catalysed by phosphatases. The formation of phosphate esters is termed phosphorylation, and is accomplished in biological systems by kinases.
Cholesterol Metabolism Regulation
Authors: Metherall James E , Nash Elizabeth A , Warnick Darren C 
Published: September 2006

AbstractA complex set of homeostatic mechanisms maintains strict control over the level of free cholesterol within the cell. Disruption of these mechanisms can lead to developmental and/or neurodegenerative disorders as well as increased levels of circulating low‐density lipoprotein and an increased risk of coronary artery disease.
Adenosine Triphosphate
Authors: Cohn Mildred 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAdenosine triphosphate consists of the purine adenine linked through its N9 tod‐ribose via a β‐N‐glycosidic C(1′) linkage; the α‐phosphoryl group is linked via an ester linkage to the alcoholic O of ribose (C5′) and the β‐ and γ‐phosphoryl groups form anhydride bonds. The chemical energy stored in the anhydride bonds is released upon hydrolysis at the γ‐ or β‐phosphorus.
Protein Translocation Across Membranes
Authors: Ryan Michael T , Pfanner Nikolaus 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Genes found in the nucleus encode almost all enzymes. Enzymes, along with proteins involved in their maintenance, must therefore be targeted to their correct destination. Proteins are synthesized with signal sequences that guide them to receptor proteins that in turn transfer them to large transmembrane protein channels of organelles. Following their translocation across membranes, the newly inserted proteins are often folded with the assistance of molecular chaperones.
Nitric Oxide: Synthesis and Action
Authors: Wu Kenneth K 
Published: September 2006

AbstractNitric oxide is an important mediator of diverse physiological functions such as vascular relaxation, neurotransmission and host defence. It is synthesized endogenously by the action of nitric oxide synthases and formed from organic nitrates and nitrites. Through its action on guanylyl cyclase it increases cellular levels of cyclic GMP, which accounts for most NO activities. Excessive NO production causes tissue damages through its direct actions on intracellular constituents and its formation of peroxynitrite with superoxide.
Metabolic Turnover
Authors: Nielsen J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Metabolic turnover is the sum of all biochemical reactions – the metabolic network – within a living cell that are involved in the conversion of substrates, particularly carbon, nitrogen and energy sources into Gibbs free energy, secreted metabolites and cell mass. Analysis of metabolic turnover involves identification of which reactions are active in a cell, and of quantifying the fluxes carried by the branches of the network and elucidating how these fluxes are controlled. Control of fluxes takes place at many levels, but the usual distinction is between global and local control.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
: Applications
Authors: Pausch Mark H , Kirsch Donald R , Silverman Sanford J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has traditionally found useful applications in the production of food and alcoholic beverages. The completed sequence of its genome has revolutionized the use of yeast as a model system for the investigation of eukaryotic cell processes at a whole‐genome level. The production of enzymes and recombinant proteins and the development of drug screening assays are commercial applications of yeast cells.
NAD
+
and
NADP
+
as Prosthetic Groups for Enzymes
Authors: Oppenheimer Norman J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

NAD(P)
+
serves as a cosubstrate of pyridine nucleotide‐dependent dehydrogenases. When the coenzyme is nondissociable it can function as a prosthetic group promoting dismutation, epimerization, and rearrangement reactions.
Enzymes: Coenzyme
A
dependent
Authors: Shoolingin‐Jordan Peter M , Crump Matthew P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A large group of unrelated enzymes involved in primary and secondary metabolism utilize a thiol group to form acyl thiol esters. The enzymes form noncovalent interactions with the coenzyme A moiety and utilize the ketonic properties of the thiol ester to facilitate acyl transfer and nucleophilic activation.
Folates
Authors: Blakley Raymond L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Folates are hydrogenated forms of the vitamin folic acid present in biological materials. Enzymes attach one of several additional groups to tetrahydrofolate, each of these groups containing a single carbon atom. In cellular synthesis of the building blocks required for making nucleic acids and proteins, utilization of the one‐carbon groups attached to tetrahydrofolate is essential.
Quinone Cofactors
Authors: Schwartz Benjamin , Klinman Judith P 
Published: September 2006

AbstractQuinone cofactors are used by several classes of enzymes that catalyse the oxidation of biogenic amines and alcohols to help catalyse these reactions. Previous to 1990 only one cofactor, pyrroloquinoline quinone, had been identified, but from 1990–1996 three new quinone prosthetic groups derived from naturally occurring amino acids have been discovered.
S‐Adenosylmethionine
Authors: Markham George D 
Published: September 2006

AbstractS‐Adenosylmethionine is one of the few sulfonium ions found in nature. The positively charged sulfonium centre endowsS‐adenosylmethionine with a chemical versatility matched by few other biochemicals, perhaps only adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Thus, not only isS‐adenosylmethionine used in a multitude of metabolic pathways, but the types of chemical reactions in which it partakes are highly varied, ranging from alkylation to free radical formation.S‐Adenosylmethionine and its metabolites play essential roles in the metabolism of all known organisms; it appears to be one of the molecules required for life.
Muscle Contraction: Regulation
Authors: Squire John M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Muscular contraction is remarkable in that we can instruct our arms or legs to move, and normally they do it. We can directly control or regulate the activity of our skeletal muscles. Muscular movement is produced by the interaction of the proteins myosin and actin. In vertebrate striated muscles, such activity is regulated by the accessory proteins tropomyosin and troponin.
Muscle Contraction Mechanism: Use of Synchrotron X‐ray Diffraction
Authors: Wakabayashi Katsuzo , Ueno Yutaka , Takezawa Yasunori , Sugimoto Yasunobu 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Muscle contraction occurs when the muscle proteins actin and myosin interact, powered by hydrolysis of ATP. It is a physical process that transduces chemical into mechanical energy, producing directional motion. X‐ray diffraction with synchrotron radiation has demonstrated a structural basis for the molecular mechanism underlying muscle contraction. Conformational changes in actin and myosin are coordinated to perform efficient energy transduction in the actomyosin motor system.
Tubulin and Microtubules
Authors: Amos Linda A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The protein tubulin is the principal constituent of microtubules, whose dynamic behaviour allows them to perform a vital role in various forms of cell motility. Found in almost all types of eukaryotic cell, microtubules are an essential component of cell division, provide tracks for the transport of cellular organelles and vesicles and are responsible for the relative positioning of cellular compartments.
Glycosides: Naturally Occurring
Authors: Cheeke Peter R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Glycosides are substances produced in plants by metabolic processes. They are usually bitter‐tasting and are important in human and animal nutrition and they have both toxic and beneficial properties. The most important glycosides are saponins, glucosinolates, cyanogenic glycosides, cardiac glycosides, and other glycoalkaloids.
Chitin
Authors: Martínez José P , Gozalbo Daniel 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Chitin is a naturally occurring fibre‐forming polymer that plays a protective role in many lower animals similar to that of cellulose in plants. Chemically it is a long‐chain unbranched polysaccharide made of
N
‐acetylglucosamine residues; it is the second most abundant organic compound in nature, after cellulose.
Cellulose: Structure and Distribution
Authors: Stone Bruce 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cellulose, a (1→4)‐β‐glucan, is the most abundant carbohydrate polymer in the biosphere, where it may account for 50% of the carbon. Cellulose has a structural and protective function in walls of plant cells and surfaces of other organisms. The insolubility and high textile strength of cellulosic materials arises from the regular, extended, ribbon‐like conformation of the individual molecules, their enormous lengths and their ability to aggregate into crystalline microfibrils.
Polysaccharides: Plant Noncellulosic
Authors: Morrison Ian M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Plant cell walls are composites that consist of polysaccharides, proteins and, if they are secondary cell walls, lignin as well as a number of minor constituents. The major components are the polysaccharides and, owing to their complexity, they are usually subdivided into cellulose and others, namely the noncellulosic polysaccharides. These noncellulosic polysaccharides encompass pectins (
d
‐galacturonans) and hemicelluloses (
d
‐xylans,
d
‐glucans,
d
‐mannans, etc.) and each has its own specific function and responsibility within a particular type of cell wall.
Glycosaminoglycans: Structure and Biological Functions
Authors: Antonio James D San , Iozzo Renato V 
Published: September 2006

AbstractGlycosaminoglycans are among the most complex polysaccharide chains that are either covalently linked to protein cores (to form proteoglycans) or free as unsulfated hyaluronan. They exist associated with virtually all cell surfaces and extracellular matrices of higher organisms, where their fine structure facilitates interactions with proteins, which underlie their myriad biological functions.