bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Pay of the Auxilia
Authors: Speidel Michael 
Published: May 2006

One of Rome's greatest achievements was the successful enlistment of her conquered peoples for the defence of her empire. How much was Roman statesmanship willing to pay for this? Part of the answer lies in the dignity, freedom, and participation which Roman rule granted to these peoples. Another part of the answer will be found in the pay of the auxilia; for although they were recruited from among the subject nations they matched the legions in numbers, fighting spirit, and efficiency at integrating the provinces into the Empire.The pay of the auxilia and its relation to the pay of the legions is a vexing problem which has elicited the ingenuity of many scholars. Recently, however, a new reading of the papyrus P. Gen. Lat. l and a newly-found inscription have increased the scanty evidence. They may now reveal at least part of the answer.
Housing and Population in Imperial Ostia and Rome
Authors: Packer James E. 
Published: May 2006

In the accounts of contemporaries imperial Rome looms as the largest and most magnificent capital of its age, and it is only natural, therefore, that modern scholars have attempted to determine with some precision both the size of the city's population and the way in which that population was housed. The evidence relating to the two closely connected problems is both archaeological and written : the ruins of ancient houses which still exist in Rome and the literary works which deal in part with the number of inhabitants or the buildings in the capital.The remains of several relatively well-preserved antique structures in Rome lend substance to Guido Calza's assertion that the apartment-house was the most common form of domestic architecture in the imperial capital. The ruins of one such dwelling (Plate VI, 1) are embedded in the city walls built by the Emperor Aurelian in the third century A.D. Located just south of the Porta Tiburtina, the remains comprise the garden facade of a four-storey brick building which originally contained apartments whose plans varied from floor to floor. This variation in the layout of flats within the building may be traced today in the placement of windows on each level.
Between Man and God: Sacrifice in the Roman Imperial Cult
Authors: Price S. R. F. 
Published: May 2006

Because men addressed him as Augustus in view of his claim to honour they revere him with temples and sacrifices over all the islands and continents, in cities and tribes requiting him for the magnitude of his virtue and his benefactions towards them.This passage from a biography of Augustus by a contemporary writer, Nicolaus of Damascus, gives a rare picture of the way in which the emperor was honoured in his lifetime throughout the provinces of the empire. The temples and sacrifices to which it refers formed part of a nexus of cultic honours, classified by the Greeks asisotheoi timai, honours equivalent to those given to the gods, which also included priests, festivals and games. This form of royal ritual stretched back in the Greek lands three hundred years to the time of Alexander the Great and beyond and constitutes a fundamental aspect of the relationship between subject and ruler in the ancient world.
The ancient ports of Cumae
Authors: Paget R. F. 
Published: May 2006

Cumae was the first city founded by Greek colonists on the mainland of Italy. It attained pre-eminence for a time in the Bay of Naples and its influence was exercised over a wide area for more than 500 years. Yet the detailed phases of its long history are still very nebulous and patchy. References in ancient writers deal mainly with its contacts with the rising power of Rome. Little excavation has been carried out on the site (apart from the cemeteries) and the published information is mostly of a general nature, more suited to tourist appreciation than to that of serious students. Serious students do not lack interest in the problems presented by Cumae, but they may perhaps lack familiarity with its topography. Whatever its faults of scholarship may be, this present study is at least the product of eight years' residence and assiduous delving into the archaeology of the Cuma/Bacoli Peninsula.The story of Cumae is naturally divisible into two stages; the Greek and the Roman. Most accounts begin with a discussion about the date of its foundation, and where the colonists came from. But it is not the date that interests us here in this enquiry; it is the reason why exploring sailormen not only visited here but chose Cumae as their trading station, when there were apparently more attractive sites at Misenum and other places round the Bay of Naples; to say nothing of all the sites they will presumably have passed by on their voyage from Greece.
To Entertain an Emperor: Sperlonga, Laokoon and Tiberius at the Dinner-Table
Authors: Stewart A. F. 
Published: May 2006

Even to-day, twenty years after its discovery in September 1957, the great corpus of sculptures from the grotto by the sea-shore at Sperlonga still retains many of its secrets. The sheer quantity and richness of the material, its clearly programmatic character, and the enigmatic personalities and affiliations of its sculptors cannot but prompt any visitor to the cave and museum, specialist or no, to ask: what was the purpose of this great complex of Odyssean themes? When were they carved and for whom? Only recently, with the preliminary publication of the major fragments and their replicas by Conticello and Andreae, have their subjects and positions been satisfactorily determined, and the groundwork laid for a solution to such problems as these.All four major groups had, as their protagonist, Odysseus. First of all, at the mouth of the cave on the left, he was shown dragging the limp corpse of Achilles away from the battle before Troy (Pl. IX, 1), and on the right, standing thwarted of his plan to snatch the Palladion away from Diomedes (Pl. IX, 2 and 3); in the centre of the pool the scene shifted to his wanderings, with his ship, its helmsman still clinging desperately to the stern, enmeshed in Scylla's coils (Pl. IX, 4–X, 2), while in the dim light of the cavern at the rear to the right, he appeared for the last time to direct his companions in the blinding of a gigantic Polyphemus (Pl. X, 3–XI, 4; cf. Pl. XII, I).
Empire and City, Augustus to Julian: Obligations, Excuses and Status
Authors: Millar Fergus 
Published: May 2006

The early Roman Empire rested on a network of cities, which were capable both of conspicuous expenditure locally, in the form of public buildings, shows and festivals, and of carrying many of the functions of government; but by the fourth century their capacity to perform these roles had drastically declined. Both the capacity and the decline depended in part on the availability or inavailability of the richer classes to undertake expenditures associated with public offices or with liturgies. These remarks are of course mere commonplaces. They have become so, in the first place, because precisely these changes were noted, and the issues relating to them consciously formulated, in the fourth century itself. So Libanius writes in his Funeral Oration for Julian:He showed the same care also in relation to the councils in the cities, which formerly flourished in both numbers and wealth, but by that time had come to nothing, since their members, except for a very few, had switched course, some into military service, some into the Senate … The remainder were all but sunk, and for the majority of them undertaking public services (to leitourgein) ended in beggary. Yet who does not know that the vitality of its council is the soul of a city ? But Constantius, while in theory aiding the councils, in practice was their enemy, by moving elsewhere men who sought to evade them, and granting illegal exemptions (ateleiai).Three points should be noted here: Libanius assumes an evolution which was, if not universal, at any rate general throughout the Empire; the crisis is regarded as having been caused by the availability of roles or statuses which offered an alternative to the obligations of city councillors ; and this availability itself is seen as a product of imperial actions, which (as Libanius goes on to say) Julian had taken steps to reverse.
Shaping the Rural Environment: Surveyors in Ancient Rome
Authors: Campbell Brian 
Published: May 2006

Horace, reflecting on his relationship with Maecenas and the top men or ‘gods’ in Rome, complained that passers-by asked him questions about affairs of state, expecting him to be privy to the deliberations of the great. One question was: ‘What about the land allocations (praedia) that the emperor promised to the soldiers? Will they be on the three-cornered island (Sicily) or on Italian soil? When I swear that I know nothing about it they are amazed at me as the only mortal who knows how to keep a vital unfathomable secret’ (Serm. 11.6.51–8).The poet strikingly illustrates how land distribution was a familiar and important aspect of Roman life and of great interest not only to soldiers but also to many citizens, perhaps partly because of their apprehension about expropriations, which had created great anguish during the civil wars. We see too how the whole business was viewed as under the personal direction of the emperor and his entourage, and incidentally how difficult it was for people to find out about decisions taken behind the scenes.
The Amount of Wages Paid to the Quarry-Workers at Mons Claudianus
Authors: Cuvigny Hélène 
Published: May 2006

O.Claud, inv. 4751; 14.5 × 10.5 cm; A.D. 136–146.Instructions from Pachoumis for the month of Thoth. Wages: 47 drachmae. Deductions: advance 20 drachmae (you get a receipt); 3 cotylae of oil; I mation of lentils; I mation of onions; I amphora of wine; symbole: 3 drachmae. My wheat to the desert. Dapane: 4 obols. The rest to the desert.Pachoumis worked in the imperial quarries at Mons Claudianus. He was either a quarryman, a stone-mason, or a smith. He belonged to the group of workers called pagani.
Paternal Power in Late Antiquity
Authors: Arjava Antti 
Published: May 2006

One of the most peculiar features of Roman law was the father's dominant position. In theory, he exercised an almost absolute authority,patria potestas, over his descendants until his own death. The uniqueness of their family system did not escape the Romans themselves. In his mid-second-century legal textbook Gaius explained:Item in potestate nostra sunt liberi nostri quos iustis nuptiis procreavimus. Quod ius proprium civium Romanorum est; fere enim nulli alii sunt homines, qui talem in filios suos habent potestatem, qualem nos habemus. Idque divus Hadrianus edicto, quod proposuit de his, qui sibi liberisque suis ab eo civitatem Romanam petebant, significavit. Nec me praeterit Galatarum gentem credere in potestate parentum liberos esse. (Inst.1.55)Again, we have in our power our children, the offspring of a Roman law marriage. This right is one which only Roman citizens have; there are virtually no other peoples who have such power over their sons as we have over ours. This was made known by the emperor Hadrian in an edict which he issued concerning those who applied to him for Roman citizenship for themselves and their children. I have not forgotten that the Galatians believe that children are in the power of their parents. (Translated by W. M. Gordon and O. F. Robinson, The Institutes of Gaius (1988))This account immediately raises at least one fundamental question: Ifpatria potestaswas a distinctive feature of Roman society, how did the other peoples of the Empire react to it after the universal grant of the Roman citizenship in A.D. 212?
Association between cacti and nurse perennials in a heterogeneous tropical dry forest in northwestern Mexico
Authors: Arriaga Laura , Maya Yolanda , Diaz Sara , Cancino Jorge 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The Sierra de La Laguna, Baja California Sur harbors the only tropical dry forest of the Peninsula. An inventory of the perennial plants was carried out at the eastern part of this mountain range. Plant spatial distribution was analyzed considering the species composition and vertical stratification of plant clusters in a study plot of 2 500 m2. A plant cluster was defined as a group of at least three individuals with a maximum distance between plants of 1 m. Soil physical‐chemical characteristics and soil surface temperatures were compared between shade and sun conditions.The tropical dry forest of Baja California Sur presents a highly aggregated pattern of species distribution. Most of the perennial plants grow clumped, yet not all of the six cactus species recorded were significantly associated with them. Pattern analysis revealed that only Stenocereus thurberii and Ferocactus peninsulae were aggregated and associated to perennial plants. There is no replacement pattern between cacti and perennial plants. Nutrient content, including soil fertility, between shade and sun conditions does not seem to explain the patchy distribution of perennial plants, while the differences in solar radiation between these conditions appear to be restrictive and determinant of this spatial pattern of distribution.
A morphological classification of plants, with special reference to the New Zealand alpine flora
Authors: Halloy S. 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. A plant is a complex of integrated systems (leaves, leaf groups, stems, roots, inflorescences), coexisting side by side or superimposed on each other to produce the life form (orphysiognomy) of the individual. The classic Raunkiaer classification based fundamentally on one character (apex position) is insufficient for the purpose of a functional classification.Five keys are given to determine the categories of:

the plant silhouette or general shape resulting from a combination of other systems, with 11 categories proposed;
the leaf group, with 14 categories;
the stem, with 27 categories;
the root, with 5 categories; and
the inflorescence, with 3 categories.

Each plant can be named according to the category or model of each of the five different systems that they most resemble, or by using only the name(s) of systems which are more conspicuous than others. Characters are selected primarily for their influence on form and secondarily on size.This scheme allows for detailed studies of a flora in terms of morphological characteristics (alone or in systems), expressed as frequency of occurrence of each character in the flora. Characters can be analysed separately (e.g. entire margined leaves), as a combination of characters (e.g. leaf groups) or as a combination of systems (e.g. rosettes without stems). Thus correlations between environmental variables and plants canbe made with more precision than in previous classification schemes.The classification also serves as the framework for including additional morphological data and incorporating new models.The New Zealand alpine flora is used as a test case and to exemplify the classification.
Distribution of submerged macrophytes in the Camargue in relation to environmental factors
Authors: Grillas Patrick 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The species composition of stands of submerged macrophytes was studied in relation to the main environmental factors in oligohaline wetlands of the Camargue, southern France. Correlations were sought between the environmental factors and the abundance of the different species using canonical analysis. 24 species of submerged macrophytes, including 10 species of Charophyta, were recorded in the 60 sites studied. The hydrological regime and the salinity appeared to be the main factors controlling the abundance of the different species. This is related to the management of the marshes in the Camargue, which is carried out using these two controlling factors, particularly the hydrological regime, and also includes the destruction of emergent vegetation, mechanically or by grazing.The bivariate ecological amplitude of the individual species was calculated from field data along the gradients of flooding duration and conductivity of the water. My‐riophyllum spicatum, Potamogetón pectinatus and Ruppia cirrhosa dominate permanent marshes along the conductivity gradient. In temporary marshes, all having a low conductivity, Zannichellia pedunculata, Ranunculus baudotii, Chara áspera and Callitriche truncata dominate.
How environmental and disturbance factors influence species composition in temperate Australian grasslands
Authors: McIntyre S. , Lavorel S. 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. A distinctive feature of Australian vegetational history is the abruptness of change since European settlement, involving the influx of exotic species and the imposition of exogenous disturbances which are novel in both intensity and character. This can produce two sources of habitat variability: the natural patterns arising from environmental variation, as well as an overlying effect of disturbance. The relative importance of these two types of variables were compared in temperate herbaceous vegetation. Canonical Correspondence Analysis showed that environment and disturbance had similar contributions to floristic variability. Individually, lithology, altitude and soil disturbance were the strongest variables while slope position, grazing and water enrichment were slightly less important.Despite generally low levels of site specificity, groups of species associated with lithology, slope position, altitude and different disturbance regimes were identified. Exotic species were associated with higher levels of disturbance, but showed levels of environmental specialization similar to the native component.Through combination of this analysis with a previous analysis of species richness for the same data set, it became evident that environmental variation mostly resulted in species substitutions while disturbances led to losses of species, with partial replacement by exotics.Synthesizing these results, we identified three broad groups in relation to tolerance of levels of exogenous disturbance: (1) intolerant species ‐ native taxa intolerant of severe disturbances and constituting the species ‐ rich component of the vegetation; (2) tolerant species ‐ exotic and native taxa occurring at both disturbed and undisturbed habitats and (3) disturbance specialists ‐ predominantly exotic species, correlated with high levels of disturbance.
Revegetation of harvested peat surfaces in relation to substrate quality
Authors: Salonen V. 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The relationship between substrate quality and pattern of revegetation of harvested peat surfaces was studied by means of a survey and a field experiment examining influences of modest NPK‐fertilization on plant colonization of an initially bare peat surface. The harvested peat surfaces varied a great deal in their chemical and physical characteristics and the sites differed in revegetation pattern. Early successional vegetation was dominated by perennial species native to nutrient‐poor habitats on all sites. Soluble phosphorus and ash content, mean particle size of surface peat, and thickness of peat layer had the strongest influence in a CCA‐ordination of species. The species composition depended on the amount and form of soluble nitrogen in the surface peat. Sites with a high content of phosphorus and ammonium nitrogen, and with a thick peat layer were usually densely revegetated by Eriophorum vaginatum alone, while sites characterized by thin peat layers associated with a high ash content, large particle size and a high content of nitrate nitrogen were mainly dominated by different grass and weed species. Deschampsia cespitosa clearly favoured sites with a high potassium content and small particle sizes of the peat.The importance of nutrient availability for the rate and pattern of colonization was also demonstrated by the field experiment. Application of 20 g/m2 of NPK‐fertilizer resulted in a significant increase in the number of established plant individuals and marked differences in species composition compared to unfertilized plots.
Influence of grazing and soil conditions on secondary savanna vegetation in India
Authors: Pandey C. B. , Singh J. S. 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Savanna vegetation and pertinent soil features were studied on 43 sites in a dry tropical forest region of India. Grazing intensity ranged from 0.68 to 0.98. Soil moisture was positively related to the proportion of fine soil particles (< 0.1 mm), and the latter decreased while the proportion of coarse particles (2.0‐0.5 mm) increased with increasing grazing intensity. Canopy biomass ranged from 28 to 104 g/m2 in grazed communities and from 230 to 337 g /m2 in ungrazed communities and was positively related to vegetation cover which ranged between 30–72 % in grazed and 68 ‐ 91 % in ungrazed communities. Vegetation cover was negatively related to grazing intensity. Species richness and diversity were highest at low grazing intensity. Using community coefficients and Detrended Correspondence Analysis, the grazed stands were clustered into six and the ungrazed ones into three communities.The grazed communities were recognised as degradation stages and the ungrazed ones as recovery stages. Only five grass species, in various combinations were able to dominate in one of the different stages. Evidently the harsh climatic conditions (high temperatures, high variability in rainfall and a long dry period) in the region permit only a few species already adapted to these conditions to participate in the succession.
Secondary succession in disturbed Pinus‐Quercus forests in the highlands of Chiapas, Mexico
Authors: González‐Espinosa Mario , Quintana‐Ascencio Pedro F. , Ramírez‐Marcial Neptalí , Gaytán‐Guzmán Patricia 
Published: May 2006

AbstractWe present floristic and structural data on serai plant communities (Old‐Field, Grassland, Shrubland, and Early Successional, Mid‐Successional, and Mature Forest) resulting from the current land use pattern in the Pinus‐Quercus forests in the highlands of Chiapas, Mexico. The number of species ranged from 24 in the Old‐Field stage up to 100 in the Mature Forest, and the shrub layer was richest in all the forested stands. An almost complete floristic replacement exists between the open and the forested communities. Quercus and Pinus dominate the canopy of old‐growth stands, but their recruitment does not occur or is very low in the shade. Vigorous seedlings and saplings of these species are found only in the open serai stages or in forest gaps. Demographic and phytosociological data are used to indicate the successional role of dominant species in the forested stages. Some implications of the regional land use patterns for conservation and succession are discussed.
Patterns of species richness among North Carolina hardwood forests: tests of two hypotheses
Authors: Palmer Michael W. 
Published: May 2006

AbstractThe number of species (species richness) and 13 soil variables were determined in 30 0.1 ha plots in the Duke Forest, Durham and Orange Counties, North Carolina, in order to test whether variability in species richness can be accounted for by the environmental variability hypothesis, or the sampling effect hypothesis. The environmental variability hypothesis predicts a positive correlation between the variance in factors which are ecologically important and species richness. However, the variabilities of environmental factors are unrelated to richness. The sampling effect hypothesis predicts that more rare species will be found in species‐rich sites. However, as richness increases, the number of species in all abundance classes increases. Both the environmental variability hypothesis and the sampling effect hypothesis are therefore unlikely to account for the substantial variability in species richness which exists in the Duke Forest.