bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Belt Construction Optimization for Tire Weight Reduction Using the Finite Element Method
Authors: Weiss M. , Tsujimoto S. , Yoshinaga H. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The influence of five belt constructions on high speed endurance, ride comfort, and rolling resistance was investigated for a high performance 225/50R16 92V radial passenger car tire, using the finite element method. The belt constructions were combinations of belt edge shapes (cut, folded) and reinforcement materials (steel, aramid). The goal was to find optimized belt constructions for tire weight reduction, considering important tire properties like high speed endurance, ride comfort, and rolling resistance. A full aramid belt construction with a folded belt around a cut belt was chosen for design parameter variation calculations to reduce rolling resistance. This leads to a tire with smaller belt width, increased folding width, additional center cap ply, and reduced non-skid base and depth. The effect of inflation pressure and speed on rolling resistance was evaluated for this construction.
Application of the Boundary Element Method and Modal Analysis to Tire Acoustics Problems
Authors: Nakajima Y. , Inoue Y. , Ogawa H. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Road traffic noise needs to be reduced, because traffic volume is increasing every year. The noise generated from a tire is becoming one of the dominant sources in the total traffic noise because the engine noise is constantly being reduced by the vehicle manufacturers. Although the acoustic intensity measurement technology has been enhanced by the recent developments in digital measurement techniques, repetitive measurements are necessary to find effective ways for noise control. Hence, a simulation method to predict generated noise is required to replace the time-consuming experiments. The boundary element method (BEM) is applied to predict the acoustic radiation caused by the vibration of a tire sidewall and a tire noise prediction system is developed. The BEM requires the geometry and the modal characteristics of a tire which are provided by an experiment or the finite element method (FEM). Since the finite element procedure is applied to the prediction of modal characteristics in a tire noise prediction system, the acoustic pressure can be predicted without any measurements. Furthermore, the acoustic contribution analysis obtained from the post-processing of the predicted results is very helpful to know where and how the design change affects the acoustic radiation. The predictability of this system is verified by measurements and the acoustic contribution analysis is applied to tire noise control.
A Mathematical Model for Tire/Wheel Assembly Balance
Authors: Ni E. J. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A mathematical model is developed to calculate the weight required on a tire/wheel assembly to balance wheel nonuniformity effects such as the lateral runout. A finite element model of a tire mounted on a rigid wheel is used to simulate the free spinning about a skewed axis. The result showed that Euler's equation of motion in rigid body dynamics can be used to calculate the imbalance caused by wheel lateral runout. This equation is then used in a Monte Carlo model to simulate a production distribution. The model can be used to define tire and wheel specification limits, and to predict the number of assemblies that will have unacceptable imbalances. The verification of the model and results of the Monte Carlo simulation are presented.
Tire Tread Temperatures in Actual Contact Areas
Authors: Fujikawa T. , Funazaki A. , Yamazaki S. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
This report treats the temperature in an actual contact area between the pavement and the tread of a cornering tire. A method to compute the temperature by using Jaeger's formula for a moving heat source is proposed. Additionally, a temperature measurement was conducted. The computed value is consistent with the measured value. The computed results for various pavement parameters show that the actual contact area size and pavement thermal diffusivity significantly affect the temperature, and that the distribution of tire tread temperature around the actual contact area varies considerably along the slip direction of the tread.
The Effect of the Environment on the Friction and Wear of Blended Rubber
Authors: Uchiyama Y. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The friction and wear of rubber are properties that are affected by the environment, especially by the oxygen in the air. Natural rubber (NR) is most sensitive to air, butadiene rubber (BR) is scarcely affected by the presence of air, while styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) is intermediate compared to NR and BR. Both the abrasive and fatigue wear rates of NR and BR blends are known to decrease by increasing the BR content. To reduce the wear rates of NR vulcanizates in the air, SBR was blended with NR. In severe rubbing experiments against abrasive cloths, the wear rate of the NR-SBR blends slightly decreased by increasing the SBR content. The NR-SBR blends showed considerable reduction in wear under fatigue wear conditions against metal gauze. Similar experiments were also conducted for SBR-BR blends. Blending with BR showed a substantial reduction in wear, especially in fatigue wear. When NR-BR, NR-SBR, and SBR-BR blends were rubbed against metal gauze in vacuum, the friction and wear of these three blended rubbers was lower in vacuum than in room air. It is concluded that the wear resistance of the blended rubber is affected by its sensitivity to air as well as by the mechanochemical properties of the blends under fatigue wear conditions.
Testing and Evaluation of Aircraft Tire Coupons
Authors: Singh M. , Pai D. M. , Sadler R. L. , Avva V. S. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Coupons from unused aircraft tires were pre-loaded in tension and conditioned in three ways: static thermal aging, room temperature dynamic aging, and dynamic thermal aging. The degradation of peel strength between plies was then studied. The results indicate that elevated temperature is more important than flexural stress or hoop stress in affecting the degradation of peel properties. A micrographic study indicates that there is a difference in failure mechanisms between unconditioned and conditioned coupons.
Effect of Tire Rolling Loss on Vehicle Fuel Consumption
Authors: Schuring D. J. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Empirical data published since 1925 suggest a linear relation between tire rolling loss and vehicle fuel consumption. The background of this relation is discussed and then updated to include current passenger cars and trucks. Finally, the relation is transformed into a simple rule that would allow an estimate of the fuel savings achieved by tire rolling loss reductions.
An Analytical and Experimental Study of a Tire Rolling Over a Stepped Obstacle at Low Velocity
Authors: Mousseau C. W. , Clark S. K. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The ring on elastic foundation (REF) model has been used as a pneumatic tire analog for many types of two-dimensional contact problems. This paper investigates the suitability of the model to reproduce hub forces during large deformation, quasi-static contact. Two types of tire contact problems are considered in this paper. The first problem is a tire deforming against a flat plate, and the second is a tire rolling over a 50 mm step. The REF model is implemented in a nonlinear, finite element program with elements that accommodate large deformation and contact. Experimental hub force measurements verify the simulation results. This paper shows that the best match with experimental data is accomplished with a model that consists entirely of beam elements and includes a softening foundation. Also, it shows that the hub force is strongly dependent on the radial stiffness of the foundation and the inflation pressure.
Modeling Tire Performance During Antilock Braking
Authors: Padovan J. , Padovan P. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
This paper develops an analytical-numerical model of antilock braking system (ABS) cycles, vehicle slowdown dynamics and their concomitant influence on tire tread lug wear. Overall, the model handles the effects of tire slip-friction behavior, brake-slip behavior, vehicle slowdown dynamics including lift and drag, ABS cycling, tire wheel rotation and vibration dynamics, and local tread level thermomechanical-chemical degradation “shear off” of the surface rubber. The results of several benchmark studies are also presented. These demonstrate potential tire wear characteristics under ABS.
Characteristics of Tire Force and Moment Data
Authors: Pottinger M. G. , Fairlie A. M. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Tire force and moment data are fundamental inputs to vehicle handling simulations. Tire asymetries and tire and test variability must be considered in force and moment testing.
This article provides a discussion of asymmetries in tire force and moment behavior and of variation in their data. The asymmetry discussion is thoroughly general. The variability discussion is philosophically general, but the data are specific to the test specifications and tests used. Variability data are presented for the range from −14 to +14 degrees slip angle.
The data and concepts concerning tire asymmetries and test data variability presented are especially important now because work to produce up-to-date force and moment testing standards is beginning under the auspices of the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
Tire-Road Interactions — Harmony or Conflict?
Authors: Williams A. R. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
This is a summary of work by the author and his colleagues, as well as by others reported in the literature, that demonstrate a need for considering a vehicle, its tires, and the road surface as a system. The central theme is interaction at the footprint, especially that of truck tires. Individual and interactive effects of road and tires are considered under the major topics of road aggregate (macroscopic and microscopic properties), development of a novel road surface, safety, noise, rolling resistance, riding comfort, water drainage by both road and tire, development of tire tread compounds and a proving ground, and influence of tire wear on wet traction. A general conclusion is that road surfaces have both the major effect and the greater potential for improvement.
Tire Design Theory Based on Optimization of Stress-Strain Cycles of its Elements (CSSOT)
Authors: Tretyakov O. B. , Sokolov S. L. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Some criteria are presented for evaluating the various tire design theories that are based on the equilibrium shape of the sidewall and on the rolling contour of a tire (RCOT). Tire failure types and the mathematical models by which they can be predicted by modern theories of rubber/cord fatigue are also described. A tire design theory based on stress-strain optimization of its elements is proposed as is a hierarchic system of complicated tire models for calculation of stress-strain cycles. Approaches are suggested for estimating fatigue strength of rubber-cord composites. Influence of the cross-section geometry and of the inner structure of the tire on stress-strain cycles in the belt and bead of radial tires is investigated. Results obtained with the different design theories are compared.
Computer Modeling of a Tire under Cornering Loads
Authors: Gardner I. , Theves M. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
During a cornering maneuver by a vehicle, high forces are exerted on the tire's footprint and in the contact zone between the tire and the rim. To optimize the design of these components, a method is presented whereby the forces at the tire-rim interface and between the tire and roadway may be predicted using finite element analysis. The cornering tire is modeled quasi-statically using a nonlinear geometric approach, with a lateral force and a slip angle applied to the spindle of the wheel to simulate the cornering loads. These values were obtained experimentally from a force and moment machine. This procedure avoids the need for a costly dynamic analysis. Good agreement was obtained with experimental results for self-aligning torque, giving confidence in the results obtained in the tire footprint and at the rim. The model allows prediction of the geometry and of the pressure distributions in the footprint, since friction and slip effects in this area were considered. The model lends itself to further refinement for improved accuracy and additional applications.
Phase Lag of Tire Cornering Force
Authors: Hanada R. , Nagumo T. , Mashita T. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Automobile handling can be greatly improved by reducing the phase lag of tire cornering force behind imposed distortion. We have shown experimentally that this lag is related to in-plane stiffness of the belt and to radial, lateral, and circumferential stiffnesses of the sidewall. While the cornering stiffness is related to the belt rigidity, either can be changed without affecting the sidewall stiffnesses. The cornering stiffness, for example, is sensitive to design factors such as tread compound and tread pattern. The radial, lateral, and circumferential sidewall stiffnesses, however, are mutually perpendicular at a given point in a tire, so they cannot be changed independently of each other. In order to reduce the phase lag of the cornering force, the lateral and circumferential stiffnesses must be increased with a minimum increase in radial stiffness. This can be done by either lowering the radial location of the maximum section width of the inflated tire or by proper changes in material and/or design elements of the sidewall.
A Three-Dimensional Rolling Contact Model for a Reinforced Rubber Tire
Authors: Faria L. O. , Bass J. M. , Oden J. T. , Becker E. B. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A steady state formulation of the rolling contact problem with friction that allows the analysis of free rolling, cornering, acceleration, and braking is presented. This formulation is applied to the finite element analysis of tires. A layered shell finite element with shear deformation that allows for large deflection and rotation is developed. In each layer, orthotropic Hookean materials or Mooney-Rivlin type materials with fiber reinforcements can be used and the incompressibility constraint is enforced with Lagrange multipliers. The contact constraint is enforced with a penalty and the friction term, instead of the usual Coulomb friction, is regularized by a differentiable form that makes it more suitable for numerical analysis. A numerical example for a typical tire is also given.
Torsional Stiffness of a Steel-Cord-Reinforced Belt Structure
Authors: Akasaka T. , Katoh M. , Makinouchi H. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Torsional stiffness of its steel-cord-reinforced belt structure affects various characteristics of a radial tire, particularly when it is operating at a camber angle other than zero. We analyzed the torsional stiffness of the belt, with consideration of interply shear deformation, by modeling it with a laminated biased composite strip of unidirectional cord-reinforced rubber (UDCRR) layers. The coupled torsional-extensional deformation of the belt was shown to vanish at the particular bias angle of 54.7°. It is pointed out that the torsional rigidities of constituent steel cords, which were not considered in the classical lamination theory, could increase the twisting stiffness of the belt structure over that predicted by the conventional lamination theory. A test specimen of low aspect ratio was fixed at both ends under torque loading for the tests. Experimental results of the torsional stiffness together with the coupled torsional-extensional strain agreed well with the analytical results.
A Fundamental Study on Sliding Friction
Authors: Purushothaman N. , Tielking J. T. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
In this paper we report on an experimental investigation on the friction of tire tread sections sliding over a variety of surfaces. The Texas A&M friction tester was used to measure sliding friction at various speeds and contact pressures. The friction test machine is also described. Actual bituminous and concrete road pavements and artificial 3M Safety Walk were used as surface samples. Tread rubber sections taken from passenger car, truck, and aircraft tires were tested. The influence of major test parameters such as sliding speed, surface texture and contact pressure on friction are discussed.
Nonlinear Cord-rubber Composites
Authors: Clark S. K. , Dodge R. N. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
An analytical method is proposed for the prediction of load-deflection and stress-strain relations in two-dimensional elastomeric composites where the properties are highly nonlinear. Such materials are represented by various textile cords used as reinforcements in a rubber matrix. The analytical procedure involves a forward prediction process for simultaneous nonlinear equations and can readily be implemented for automated computer use. Experiments on nonlinear tubes are reported and computation of load-deflection relationships observed in those experiments are compared with experimental data. The predictions generally agree with the observed behavior.
Towards Predicting Relative Belt Edge Endurance With the Finite Element Method
Authors: De Eskinazi J. , Ishihara K. , Volk H. , Warholic T. C. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The paper describes the intention of the authors to determine whether it is possible to predict relative belt edge endurance for radial passenger car tires using the finite element method. Three groups of tires with different belt edge configurations were tested on a fleet test in an attempt to validate predictions from the finite element results. A two-dimensional, axisymmetric finite element analysis was first used to determine if the results from such an analysis, with emphasis on the shear deformations between the belts, could be used to predict a relative ranking for belt edge endurance. It is shown that such an analysis can lead to erroneous conclusions. A three-dimensional analysis in which tires are modeled under free rotation and static vertical loading was performed next. This approach resulted in an improvement in the quality of the correlations. The differences in the predicted values of various stress analysis parameters for the three belt edge configurations are studied and their implication on predicting belt edge endurance is discussed.
Finite Element Simulation of Destructive Tire Testing
Authors: Tseng N. T. , Pelle R. G. , Chang J. P. , Warholic T. C. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Three destructive tire tests, burst pressure, high speed free rotation, and DOT plunger energy are performed to check the ultimate strength of new tires. These tests represent some of the extreme, although unusual, overload conditions that may be applied to a tire. They are used to determine how far above normal service conditions one might take a tire before it reaches its ultimate strength.
A nonlinear incompressible rubber model and a nonlinear cord-rubber composite model were used in the tire analyses. Various rubber compounds as well as the rubber in the cord-rubber composite were modeled as nonlinear incompressible Mooney-Rivlin materials. The bimodulus cord and the cord angle change effect due to deformation were also considered. In addition, gap elements were used at the tire-rim interface and between tread grooves where required to provide appropriate boundary conditions.
Numerical simulations of these destructive tire tests represent three excellent benchmarks to verify and to evaluate the robustness of a finite element code due to very large strain and deformation occurring in the tire. The numerical results predicted by the finite element tire models agreed very well with the available experimental data.
A Beam Model for Tire Critical Speeds
Authors: Clark S. K. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A brief review of tire critical speeds is given using the beam under tension as a physical model. In its most common form, this model visualizes the critical speed as that speed just sufficient to sustain a continuous sinusoidal bending wave in the tire tread band. A number of studies have been published modifying this concept by the introduction of material damping, centrifugal effects, and other characteristics, some of which aid in explaining the fact that the wave pattern observed experimentally is local and decays rapidly away from the contact patch. This paper presents a different view of the wave pattern needed for a critical speed to exist, namely that a naturally occurring local wave can arise independent of material damping and that as a practical fact, material damping may have little to do with the onset of the phenomenon. A discussion on the effect of tire design variables on critical speed is given based on the expressions derived here.
Influence of Compound Heat Conductivity on the Temperature Distribution in Rotor Type Curemeters
Authors: Ernst G. K. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The effective temperature in rotor type curemeters is — according to DIN 53529 — controlled using an unfilled EPDM compound with dicumylperoxide as cross-linking agent. The rate of DCP decomposition has a well-known temperature dependence. This rate is also in all practical cases the same as the rate of cross-linking. Therefore, the measured rate of cross-linking indicates the effective temperature in the reaction cavity. The rotor in common curemeters is clamped. Because it can not be heated directly, this rotor is a heat sink in the cavity. The effect is a temperature gradient in the cavity depending on the heat conductivity of the tested compound. This temperature gradient in rotor type curemeters is compared to rotorless curemeters. It is shown that using the unfilled EPDM/DCP compound for temperature calibration leads to a too high effective temperature for filled compounds.
Mechanics of the Dynamic Flex Test
Authors: Assaad M. C. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The dynamic flex test is a comparative test used for screening synthetic cords. The test objective is to subject the cord through accelerated test conditions as observed in an underinflated and deflected tire. This test ultimately determines the percent break strength retained for flexed synthetic tire cords. It consists of a two-layer composite laminate subjected to a constant tensile load while dynamically flexing around a spindle. After flexing for two to six hours (the time depends on the cord material and construction), the break strength is determined for the flexed and for an unflexed cord and the percent retained break strength is reported. The objective of this paper is to quantify the stress and strain distributions in the cord under conventional laboratory conditions and identify the conditions required for prescribing the desired tension and compression cyclic strain for a cord construction. The tension-compression behavior is controlled by the location of the neutral plane which, in turn, is a function of the static tensile load, fiber reinforcement and rubber matrix moduli, epi, geometry of the laminate cross section, and the diameter of the spindle.
A Technique to Predict the Acoustic Radiation Characteristics of an Automobile Tire
Authors: Wright C. , Koopmann G. H. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A technique to predict the acoustic radiation characteristics of the predominant structural modes of an automobile tire is presented. A stationary tire is excited by an electrodynamic vibrator and, through conventional modal analysis methods, a description of the surface velocity is obtained. With this information, and a representation of the tire geometry, numerical procedures are used to predict the acoustic surface intensity and field pressure, for a given frequency of interest, based on a Helmholtz integral formulation. Predicted far field sound pressure levels are in close agreement with experimental measurements taken in an anechoic chamber. This provided the necessary validation of the technique.