bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Negro Slaves in Early Colonial Mexico
Authors: Boyd-Bowman Peter 
Published: July 2006

I the widow Catalina Vélez Rascón do hereby promise to pay to you, Diego de Villanueva, alderman of this City of los Angeles, 1,100 pesos of pure gold … for six slaves (piezas de esclavos), to wit: the Negro Lorenzo, ladino, born on the Island of Tercera (in the Azores), his wife Antonia, Negress, born in Biáfara, with a young mulatto daughter of hers named María, plus a Negro called Manuel, born in Zapa, and a Negress Catalina, born in Portugal, with a young Negro daughter of hers named Paula, making six slaves in all, all of whom were disposed of in public auction as part of the estate of Francisco Muñoz, deceased, in two lots, and were sold to my son-in-law Don Juan de Zúñiga, bidding on my behalf. … Given in this city of los Angeles on the 16th day of July in the year of the birth of Our Savior Jesus Christ 1554.The notarial archive of the Mexican city of Puebla de los Angeles, virtually complete from 1540 on, is a treasure-house of information about social and economic life in the early colony. Many of its earliest documents are, however, in deplorable physical condition, unindexed and chronologically unorganized, which makes them extremely difficult and time-consuming to consult. In order to remedy this condition and make the archive more accessible to scholars both in Mexico and elsewhere, I have indexed and extracted from microfilm the substance of over 1,600 documents executed between 1540 and 1555. These will probably appear in a two-volume collection published by the Editorial Jus in Mexico City. The documents make fascinating reading. There are wills, dowries, contracts, law-suits, partnerships, promissory notes, rentals, powers of attorney, as well as bills of sale itemizing every imaginable kind of property from real estate to livestock to produce to general merchandise.
Alvaro Obregón and Anticlericalism in the 1910 Revolution
Authors: Bailey David C. 
Published: July 2006

A social revolution must concern itself immediately with the past, since it is a basic conviction of the revolutionist that the moribund and corrupt order which causes society's distress makes impossible the kind of future that he sees as desirable and necessary. Old institutions, structures, and habits of thought must be abolished or severely modified, and persons who direct or personify those vestiges must change, step aside, or be removed from positions of power and influence.Religious institutions and beliefs present a peculiarly complicated problem to a social revolution. Invariably associated with traditional ways, they are often too deeply rooted in the national mentality and sentiment to admit of any easy or rapid modification. Obliteration, even if though to be the desirable solution, is usually recognized as impossible; and to change mass attitudes by persuasion alone, is at best a long and uncertain process.
The Mexican Empire and the Vatican, 1863–1867
Authors: Blumberg Arnold 
Published: July 2006

In the course of the long struggle between Mexican conservatives and liberals, the issue of the fate of the church was the first preoccupation of both parties. The Liberal president, Don Benito Juárez, had cut the Gordian knot by seizing the church's landed wealth. Thereafter, from 1859 to 1867, Mexico's conservatives bent their efforts to the repeal of Juárez's Reform Laws. Liberals staked their future upon their maintenance.In April 1864, before quitting Europe for Mexico, Maximilian and his consort, Empress Charlotte, had visited Rome. That visit excited a great deal of speculation in the diplomatic world because it was thought that Maximilian might attempt to lay the foundation for a concordat through personal negotiation. Instead, the new sovereign merely asked the Pope to send a nuncio to Mexico to open negotiations as soon as possible. He had also taken the occasion to establish a Mexican Legation at the Vatican and to name Ignacio Aguilar as his envoy at that court.
The Destruction of the Religious Orders in Paraguay, 1810-1824
Authors: Cooney Jerry W. 
Published: July 2006

For three centuries the Church in colonial Spanish America was the primary cultural institution affecting the lives of all Spain's overseas subjects. Education, charity, art, architecture, all the humane arts had been the legacy of the Church as well as its greatest gift to the New World, the Christianization of the Indians. In all these pursuits the Church was ably and dutifully supported by the Crown. Concurrently, clerics of all ranks and occupations were tied closely to the civil authority by the Royal Patronage.The achievements of the orders of the Church were out of proportion to their numbers. Franciscans, Dominicans, Mercedarians, then Jesuits and others all left their mark on Spanish America and often expanded the empire through missionary activities. Paraguay, an isolated province in the Río de la Plata, was a striking example of the successful toil of various orders. However, in 1767 by command of the regalist Carlos III, the Jesuits were expelled from this region (and the entire empire) and at the turn of the century there remained but three orders in the province, Franciscans, Dominicans, and Mercedarians. Of the three the Franciscans were the most important in the colonial era. Ever since the 1530's, this order was concerned with the conversion and welfare of the Indians. Reductions of the Guaraní were established by the Franciscans long before those of the better known Jesuits. Among the great figures of the Franciscan first century in Paraguay were Fray Martín Ignacio de Loyola and especially fray Luis de Bolaños, the “Apostle of Paraguay.”
The Catholic Lay Movement in Peru: 1867-1959
Authors: Klaiber Jeffrey L. 
Published: July 2006

The dramatic changes in the Latin American church since the Second Vatican Council have taken many observers by surprise. In search of an explanation for these changes, much recent scholarship has devoted itself to analyzing the changing political climate, the influx of foreign religious personnel, the creation of radical priests' groups, the impact of Vatican II itself and the episcopal assemblies of Medellín and Puebla and, of course, the varying currents of liberation theology. In contrast, the tendency has been to overlook pre-Vatican II history. The pre-conciliar Peruvian church in particular has been characterized as tradition-bound, obscurantist or subservient to the upper classes. One author writing in the early seventies stated:“The intimacy between the church and the Peruvian upper class has been an unvarying characteristic of colonial, post-independence and modern eras in Peru.”
Reflections on Revolution in America, 1776–1976
Authors: Savelle Max 
Published: July 2006

The year 1976 is correctly taken to be the bicentennial year of United States independence, which officially began on July 4, 1776. In a broader sense, however, the year 1776 was also pivotal year in the “Age of the Democratic Revolution” that swept through the entire Atlantic Community of nations during the last decades of the eighteenth century and the first decades of the nineteenth.This year, 1976, therefore, may also be properly considered the bicentennial of the opening year of the “age of revolutions” in the whole of America. Professor Robert R. Palmer, in his distinguished work on the subject, convincingly shows that, as he says,All of these agitations, upheavals, intrigues, and conspiracies were part of one great movement. It was not simply a question of the “spread” or “impact” or “influence” of the French Revolution . . . But revolutionary aims and sympathies existed throughout Europe and America. They arose everywhere out of local, genuine and specific causes; or, contrariwise, they reflected conditions that were universal throughout the Western world. They were not imported from one country to another. . . . There was one big revolutionary agitation, not simply a French revolution due to purely French causes and foolishly favored by irresponsible people in other countries.
Spanish Folklore in the Southwest: The Pioneer Studies of Aurelio M. Espinosa
Authors: Espinosa J. Manuel 
Published: July 2006

The centuries-old Spanish folk heritage of our Southwest, and its many faceted and enduring influence on the cultural life of the region, has been written about from various rims of observation. This article describes the pioneer studies of Aurelio M. Espinosa on Spanish folklore in the Southwest, with special emphasis on northern New Mexico. Although he made important contributions to the study of Spanish folklore of southern Colorado, Arizona, and California, and to that of Spain, Mexico, and other parts of Spanish America as well, he devoted most of his research and field work to the upper half of New Mexico which is the richest field of Spanish folklore in the Southwest.In viewing the cultural history of New Mexico, Espinosa reminded his readers that its first century as a Spanish colony, the 17th, was the second great century of Spain's Golden Age of arts and letters. With the vigor of Spain's sense of mission in those centuries, her Golden Age radiated to all parts of Spanish America via Mexico City, Lima, and the other principal colonial capitals. At the same time, from the bookshelf and the store of knowledge of the humble missionary, and the folklore of the Spanish settlers, passed down from generation to generation, the spirit of the Golden Age was reflected on the most remote settled frontiers.
Societal Competition in Northwest New Spain
Authors: Voss Stuart F. 
Published: July 2006

Late in the spring of 1783, a Franciscan friar, Antonio de los Reyes, arrived in the Province of Sonora and Sinaloa, the first prelate for the newly created bishopric of Northwest New Spain. The bishop was accompanied by his young nephews, Padre José Almada y Reyes and his brother Antonio. A third brother had decided to remain behind in Spain with his parents. The brothers were hidalgos, from the town of Aspe in the province of León.New Spain was expanding northwestward and the Almada brothers were part of the large influx of peninsulares immigrating from the mother country in the latter third of the 18th century. Their uncle, the bishop, represented royal recognition and promotion of that movement. Like the Almadas, most of the immigrants coming to the Northwest were from the small towns and cities of northern Spain. They brought with them a tradition of urban life in the peninsula dating back into at least the eleventh century. For them, the town was the focal point of civilized society — the center of learning, of business, and of whatever level of culture society had achieved. Not surprisingly, they settled in the embryonic urban centers then emerging in the Province of Sonora and Sinaloa. Urban life was what they knew and what they wanted. They aimed to re-create in the Northwest what they had grown up in back home.
Latin American Militarylore: An Introduction and a Case Study
Authors: Nunn Frederick M. 
Published: July 2006

This essay deals with the lore of the military profession in Latin America in two ways. First, it presents a general introduction to militarylore, its applications to the study of military-civilian relations and its limitations as a research tool. Second, it presents an application (with obvious limitations) of concepts discussed in part I to a case study, part II: the lore of the Chilean Army officer class in the twentieth century. I am convinced that militarylore as defined and discussed herein is an especially fertile field for research in the study of the interaction between the armed forces and state, nation and society.Terminology used in the following pages is for the most part selfexplanatory and free from neologisms, jargon and “sociologese.” There are, though, some terms which merit clarification, not because of their vagueness, but so that they not be confused with similar terms. There is, I believe, a decreasing tendency to generalize about military-civilian relations; clarity is important.
“Links to the Frontier; Jesuit Supply of its Moxos Missions, 1683-1767.”
Authors: Block David 
Published: July 2006

Our view of the Spanish missionary Church results from the convergence of two streams of historical writing. The first uses the activities of a particular religious order or its most illustrious members to frame the foundation and growth of a missionary enterprise. The second pursues a thematic approach, emphasizing the importance of the missions as foci of Spanish culture in a native world. Within this second stream falls the particularly North American interest in the frontier with its stress on the mission stations as the vanguard of Iberian religious, political, and social institutions.Though widely divergent in organization and emphasis, both streams present a picture of isolation. Solitary missions existed as self-contained theocracies on the very edge of the viceroyalty. The missionaries themselves constantly stressed this view. Their correspondence cites the difficulties of operating stations at great remove from the seats of Spanish power in America. Professional historians, following the diaries and letters of the missionary fathers, have placed priests, neophytes, and — in North America — presidial soldiers beyond the aid or control of metropolitan authority touched only by an occasionalvisitaor supply train.
A Study in Military Leadership: The Sargento Mor in the Portuguese South Atlantic Empire
Authors: Tengwall David 
Published: July 2006

The principal and only talent requisite for a governor was conscience… A good lawyer sufficed for administering justice, the camera for political affairs, and for war, the sargento mor…Padre António Vieira commenting on the colonial government of Brazil to the Crown in 1654.On the Tagus River approximately eight kilometers from the center of Lisbon stands a monument to Portuguese overseas exploration and expansion—O Padrão dos descobrimentos — erected in 1960 on the 500th anniversary of Prince Henry the Navigator. Facing the Tagus is Prince Henry. Flanking him on each side and representing the reasons behind the success of Portuguese exploration and expansion are several symbolic figures. King Manuel, during whose reign many of the discoveries were made, illustrates the complete support of the Crown that many of the expeditions enjoyed. A priest carrying a cross depicts the religious motives behind expansion—the spreading of Christianity to the heathen. There are also a caulker and a carpenter both important in the production of new sailing vessels. A pilot with an astrolabe portrays the significance of the scientific aspects of overseas exploration. Luís de Camões holds his Os Lusiadas, the epic poem that depicted the triumphs of Portuguese expansion. There are even widows in tears to remind viewers of the great loss of men that Portugal suffered during her conquests. Another important figure depicted on the monument is the conquistador with drawn sword, the symbol of the military—“the backbone of the empire.”
The Expropriation of Pious and Corporate Properties in Costa Rica, 1805-1860: Patterns in the Consolidation of a National Elite
Authors: Gudmundson Lowell 
Published: July 2006

Conflicts between Church and State, and between liberals and conservatives over the role of the Church, were a constant feature of nineteenth-century Mesoamerican history. These struggles eventually stripped the Church of much of its wealth, with a consequent decline in its political influence. However, the timing of this disinvestiture, the composition of liberal and conservative factions, and the role of the Church varied substantially throughout Mexico and Central America.In Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador, the Church survived the turmoil of the Independence period, to continue as a major holder of wealth and an important political actor. Notwithstanding repeated royal attacks upon Church prerogatives, and innumerable forced loans levied by both colonial and national authorities against Church wealth, the decisive confrontation between the Church and the Liberal-dominated State in these nations awaited the second half of the nineteenth century.
The Function of the Market in Changing Economic Structures in the Mission Communities of Pimería Alta, 1768-1821
Authors: de Murrieta Cynthia Radding 
Published: July 2006

The initial thrust of Spanish conquest and colonization in Northwest Mexico, as throughout the great Chichimec frontier, was centered in the mission. Under the terms of thepatronato real, the mission served as an instrument of Spanish imperial policy, aimed to accomplish the pacification and acculturation to Christian and Hispanic norms of society, of the semi-nomadic peoples who occupied the vast regions of mountain barrancas, mesas and valleys, coastal plains and desert lands to the north of the Mesoamerican civilizations.The mission communities were designed to place the Indians in fixed settlements, thereby preparing the way for civil colonization and further exploitation of the potential riches of these remote dominions of the Kingdom of Castile. The Indians gathered into the missions represented to the Crown a force for productivity as field and mine laborers. Although mission Indians were exempt from tribute, in the Northwest, the surplus produce from mission lands contributed to the economy of the region; and, as early as the seventeenth century, mission Indians appeared in the mines of Sonora and Chihuahua.
Fiscal Policy and Royal Sovereignty in Minas Gerais: The Capitation Tax of 1735
Authors: White Robert Allan 
Published: July 2006

A study of the capitation tax of 1735 in Minas Gerais is interesting since it illustrates the way in which the Crown of Portugal succeeded in enforcing its will through the machinery of colonial administration in a newly incorporated, frontier society. It also tells something about the men of that administration and the political process in which they were involved.The collection of the tax on mineral wealth known as the quinto was one of the most enduring problems confronting Crown officials in Brazil during the eighteenth century. The king permitted his subjects to mine precious metals in his dominions in return for the payment of one fifth of the annual production. Rich alluvial gold deposits discovered in the closing years of the seventeenth century, lay beyond the territory effectively controlled by the governors of the littoral captaincies. Hidden in the shadows of Sabarabuçú, the shining mountain of Indian legends, the isolation of the mines and the tenuous control of the region by the royal administration made collection of the tax haphazard. As the eighteenth century progressed, the production of the gold mines increased, however the king's share failed to grow accordingly. The need for added revenue and the realization that the full amount due the Crown was not arriving at the customs house in Lisbon convinced the king that payment of the quinto should be rigorously enforced.
Effects of ovariectomy and estrogen therapy on type II collagen degradation and structural integrity of articular cartilage in rats: Implications of the time of initiation
Authors: Oestergaard Svetlana , Sondergaard Bodil C. , Hoegh‐Andersen Pernille , Henriksen Kim , Qvist Per , Christiansen Claus , Tankó László B. , Karsdal Morten A. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractObjectiveTo investigate how the time of initiation influences the effects of estrogen therapy on type II collagen (CII) turnover and the structural integrity of articular cartilage in ovariectomized rats and to determine whether estrogen exerts direct effects on the catabolic function of chondrocytes ex vivo.MethodsA total of 46 Sprague‐Dawley rats were distributed into 1 of the following treatment groups: 1) ovariectomy, 2) ovariectomy plus early estrogen therapy, 3) ovariectomy plus delayed estrogen therapy, or 4) sham operation. Cartilage turnover was estimated by measuring the serum levels of C‐telopeptide of type II collagen (CTX‐II). Cartilage lesions at week 9 were quantified using a published scoring technique. The presence of the CTX‐II epitope in articular cartilage was assessed by immunohistochemistry. The effects of estrogen (1–100 nM) on chondrocytes were investigated in bovine cartilage explants subjected to catabolic cytokines (tumor necrosis factor α [TNFα] and oncostatin M [OSM]).ResultsIn ovariectomized rats, estrogen therapy evoked significant decreases in serum CTX‐II independently of the time of initiation; yet, delayed initiation resulted in diminished efficacy in terms of preventing cartilage lesions. CTX‐II fragments were present in articular cartilage, colocalizing with early lesions at the cartilage surface. In untreated animals, the early relative increases in serum CTX‐II were proportional to the severity of cartilage lesions at week 9 (r = 0.73, P < 0.01). Estrogen significantly and dose‐dependently countered CTX‐II release from TNFα plus OSM–stimulated cartilage explants ex vivo.ConclusionOur results suggest that estrogen counters the acceleration of CII degradation and related structural alterations, and these benefits can be maximized by early initiation after menopause. The protective effect of estrogen seems to involve direct inhibition of the catabolic function of chondrocytes.
Reduced levels of antiinflammatory cytokines in patients with chronic widespread pain
Authors: Üçeyler Nurcan , Valenza Regine , Stock Michael , Schedel Robert , Sprotte Günter , Sommer Claudia 
Published: July 2006

AbstractObjectiveThe term chronic widespread pain refers to a group of painful diseases of poorly understood pathophysiology. One major subgroup is fibromyalgia (FM), as defined by the criteria of the American College of Rheumatology. Among other hypotheses, a potential pathophysiologic role of cytokines in chronic widespread pain has been proposed. We undertook this study to investigate whether cytokine profiles differ in patients with chronic widespread pain and controls.MethodsWe analyzed cytokine expression patterns in 40 patients with chronic widespread pain (26 of whom had FM), 40 age‐ and sex‐matched healthy controls, and an additional 15 patients with chronic widespread pain who were recruited from a different center. Expression of messenger RNA (mRNA) for interleukin‐2 (IL‐2), IL‐4, IL‐8, IL‐10, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), and transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1) in peripheral blood was analyzed using quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Serum protein levels were measured by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay.ResultsWe found significantly lower relative gene expression (P < 0.0001 for IL‐4; P = 0.03 for IL‐10) and lower levels of serum protein concentrations (P < 0.0001 for IL‐4; P = 0.04 for IL‐10) of the Th2 cytokines IL‐4 and IL‐10 in patients with chronic widespread pain than in the control group. This finding was corroborated in an additional group of 15 patients with chronic widespread pain. There were no significant differences between the groups in levels of mRNA for IL‐2, IL‐8, TNFα, or TGFβ1. Protein data paralleled the real‐time PCR results.ConclusionChronic widespread pain is associated with a lack of antiinflammatory and analgesic Th2 cytokine activity, which may contribute to its pathogenesis.