bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Role of the Nucleus in Formation of Ferromanganese Nodules: Processing Guide lines for the Marine Miner
Authors: Morgan Charles L. , Moore J. Robert 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
Detailed chemical and micro-analyses of ferromanganese deposits from the North Pacific and Blake Plateau reveal several key elemental and textural trends which are of interest to the ocean miner. By using wet chemical separation procedures and spectroscopic elemental analyses, we determine the bulk composition of the different nodule constituents, and on the same samples use the micro-analysis capabilities of the scanning electron microscope and energy dispersive detector to discover how the economically important metals, such as Cu, Ni, and Co are arranged around the nuclei of the same nodules. These experiments use operationally defined distinctions between the authigenic and detrital fractions of the nodules, and then justify these distinctions by comparison of the chemical, mineralogical, and geometric features of the separated fractions. Comments on application to chemical processing of the nodules, chiefly economic aspects, are presented.

Introduction
It has often been said that diversity is the only common denominator among the many ferromanganese oxide deposits of the world, in terms of minor element abundances and growth substrates. In fact, only a very few relationships between the compositions of the deposits and the various substrates (which comprise the nucleating surfaces of growth) have been established. Most investigations of world-wide trends have relied chiefly upon bulk chemical data for comparison of the different deposits, and the role of the nucleating surfaces in determining the composition of the resultant nodules, or crusts, has remained largely unknown. Since ferromanganese oxide deposits of all types are unquestionably surface-related, if not surface- controlled phenomena, we have proposed that a fine-scale examination of these growth surface when combined with a series of bulk chemical analyses on the same samples, would help ascertain which surface-related factors are important in controlling the metal content and extractability in the different deposits. Thus, with support from the National Sea Grant Program we began a series of experiments directed toward determining what effect, within the framework of regional source controls, the nucleus has on the ultimate composition and structure of ferromanganese deposits.
The results of these experiments have provided much useful data in deciding among the various models of nucleation and growth in ferromanganese deposits, and they also reveal several trends which strongly influence the ore grade of the deposits. It is with these latter trends that we are concerned with here, with special emphasis on the respective roles of iron silicates, and carbonates as nuclei and as possible hindrances to easy metal extraction.
Power Testing of Offshore Generating Systems
Authors: Stephen D.D. 
Published: October 2008

Introduction
The commissioning of an electrical installation off-shore on a drilling/ production platform presents very different problems to those experienced with equivalent equipment on-shore. Many factors combine to cause this and among the most important are the restricted number of personnel which can be accommodated, the significance of time delay on a project with such high capital investment, the great importance placed on the maximum safety, security, and reliability throughout the complete operation, the concentration and complexity of the many control, monitoring, safety and alarm systems in combination with the many systems of power generation provided, and not least the adverse environmental conditions suffered by the equipment during erection, storage and transportation in modules, and final erection on the platform with considerable exposure to shock, vibration and severe climatic conditions.
To reduce these off-shore problems and ensure minimum off-shore time required to put the electrical system to work it was decided to carry out full-scale on-shore testing programmes on the electrical generation equipment for the first two BP Forties platforms. These involved considerable logistical problems as well as those involved in the purely technical operations but the results obtained from both sets of tests have fully justified the operation.

Testing Programme
The electrical generation equipment and its layout on the platform has been fully described elsewhere, refs. 1, 2 and 3. Packages 1 and VII contain the main gasturbine generator sets, their control and starting equipment, the 11 kV switchgear, power transformers, 3.3 kV switchgear convert or equipment, diesel-generator ' set,415V switchgear and motor control centres, and items such as switchgear batteries, neutral earthing resistors and items necessary to provide a complete generation system. By placing these two packages close to each other, in the case of the Rotterdam unit on the same barge, interconnection was relatively simple.
Although all the separate items of equipment were fully inspected and tested at their place of manufacture many of the control and operation sequences are unique and had not been used previously on such a concentrated and self-contained system. In addition the procedures of packing, transportation, prolonged storage, sometimes under adverse environmental conditions, erection in modules still under fabrication, and intercabling, all combine to introduce a high probability that considerable rechecking would be essential to detect any damage or deficiencies. It was also considered desirable to fully test and prove the coordinated functioning of interconnected systems of power generation, control, protection and instrumentation whose components had never been operated conjointly although this would require considerable expenditure on test equipment and manpower.
The testing programme enabled the following aspects to be proved to a very high degree ofcompletion.
The Sea Ratchet for Semi Heave Reduction
Authors: Haselton F.R. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
The SEA RATCHET* is a device which will substantially reduce wave induced motions as well as increase deck loading flexibility.
Slung deeply beneath existing semis using chains, the ratchet action results from its upward only damping action entraining a hundred thousand tons of apparent mass. Filmed scale model tests are shown.

INTRODUCTION
All relative motions between drilling platforms and the earth are undesirable with the single exception of forward translation during mobilization. Semis present a logical attempt to reduce heave, pitch and roll motions through the use of large size and mass coupled with small water plane area. The heave motions which remain are reduced even further through the use of drill string heave compensators. There occur, however, periods when the sea state overrides the present capabilities to deal with heave and operations must shut down. Unfortunately, daily costs do not shut down and, in some areas, significant annual down-time losses mount to millions of dollars. What recourses have semi users for reducing these losses? There are three: larger platforms, creating a larger ratio of platform mass to wave energy, active six degree of freedom hydrodynamic controls, as suggested last year in paper 2030; and more effective passive damping. The size of present semis is not likely to increase enough to significantly reduce wave induced motions because of construction limitations as well as costs. Active control systems, while feasible for future design semis, can do nothing for existing platforms or those already planned. A retro-fitable damping system may offer a solution and is the subject of this paper.

DAMPLNG TECHNIQUE TODAY
Nearly all semis embody damping techniques most generally in the form of the flat deck surfaces of the submerged hulls. -Unfortunately, these surfaces are neither large enough nor deep enough to significantly reduce heave, particularly in very heavy weather. Structural as well as stability considerations preclude longer columns and more deeply submerged pontoons. If adequate damping surfaces could be sufficiently removed from the sea surface yet rigidly attached to the semi, their effectiveness would be greatly improved. One such system has been proposed and scale tested as reported in OCEAN INDUSTRY, August 1971, by Jack R. Hilder, Jr., of Special Offshore Services. Its mechanical complexity coupled with the difficulty of retrofitting existing semis probably has hindered its acceptance in the community despite the improved model test results indicated in the article.
A brief review of basic wave theory will reveal- that the vertical component of water wave particle motion decays exponentially with depth such that for every A* increase in depth below the mean water surface the motion is halved. Unfortunately, higher waves are associated with longer wave lengths and longer periods while a semi's heave response generally degrades with longer periods. As any submariner can verify, virtually all vertical surface induced motion ceases below 100 meters, even in the most violent storms.
What Will We See Beneath The Sea?
Authors: Savit Carl H. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
If present trends in marine geophysical exploration continue, and if the rate of new technology advance is not inhibited by political or other external factors, great advances may be expected in what can be seen beneath the sea?s bottom. The bright spot technique is in its infancy and is evolving lines of advance in the extraction of stratigraphic information from seismic reflection data. The next five years should see the doubling of the resolving power of the seismic method together with a reasonably reliable method for determination of gross lithology. In the fine detailing of individual prospects, methods should be available for fine-tuning lithologic identification.

TEXT
That a question such as the one posed by our title can be a serious subject of a technical meeting is in itself a remarkable sign of the growth of science in this century. To the 19th-century scientist, the depths of the sea were a great mystery. He had a few soundings made with a rope or wire line to tell him tantalizing bits of information about the topography of the sea bottom. But even so prominent and ubiquitous a submarine topographic feature as the sea mount or guyot had to wait until World War II to be discovered. Only within the last three decades have we really been able to hope to map, in any detail, the interfaces beneath the sea bottom.
The seismic refraction method was the first technique used to map submarine layers. As with the old soundings, however, the refraction method brought only isolated, discontinuous bits of information about some submarine layers.
It was not until the seismic (or acoustic) reflection method was introduced into submarine mapping that some continuous map data became available.
Submarine seismic reflection profiling has two distinct and distinctive ancestral lines. One group of marine technologists had developed the technique of mapping the ocean bottom with sound waves--sonar. With time, the sonar transmitters had become increasingly powerful to cope with deeper or more poorly reflecting ocean bottoms. Inevitably, sonar records (fathograms) were found to depict reflecting boundaries beneath the bottom.
From this beginning, it was quite natural to continue to increase the power of the sonar system to achieve ever greater penetration beneath the bottom. All of the successors or descendants of sonar had a common configuration. On or near the survey ship was a transmitter of some sort. Almost anything that could (or might) be used to make an underwater sound was pressed into service. Devices ranged from piezoelectric crystals and magnetostrictive metal rods, through rubber balls inflated to bursting, to spark generators and electro-mechanical implosion devices. To receive the return signal, a single hydrophone or single hydrophone array was mounted on the hull or towed close to the ship.
Penetrations of the sea bottom of up to one or two thousand feet were routinely obtained. When the late, great Maurice Ewing substituted half-pound blocks of TNT for the other sound sources, the results were spectacular.
W1nd and Current Effects on Large-Scale Oil Slicks
Authors: Murray Stephen P. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
The relative effect of local winds and near-surface currents in determining the movement of oil slicks in coastal and shelf waters was determined from 39 surveys by Raydist equipped helicopters during the Main Pass 41C spill off the Mississippi Delta in March 1970. Orientation of oil slicks is closely controlled by local wind direction; slicks usually form 10°−40° to the right of the wind. Wind shifts associated with various sectors of migrating high-pressure cells quickly realign new slicks and actively dissipate old ones. Density fronts, both ambient and quasi-stationary, also play important roles in determining slick movement and size. An easily utilized regression model for slick area and orientation as a function of wind velocity and local conditions is also presented.

INTRODUCTION
Production platform MP−41C, off the east flank of the Mississippi Delta in 15 m of water (see Fig. 1), caught fire at 3 a.m. on Tuesday, February 10, 1970. While it burned unchecked over the following 4 weeks, small, light slicks formed around the platform as water was pumped onto the flame. On March 10 the fire was extinguished, and large-scale oil slicks began to develop immediately from the estimated 1,000 barrel per day discharge. Significant oil slicks continued over the next 20 days, until all wells were capped. The geometry and movement of these slicks are the subject of this paper.
From March 5 to March 21 the Coastal Studies Institute of Louisiana State University, in cooperation with the U.S. Coast Guard, conducted an intensive field investigation of tides, winds, and currents throughout the area affected by the oil slicks.1 The information on oil slicks and subsequent conclusions about their behavior were deduced from a number of brief aerial reconnaissance flights by Institute personnel and the study of aerial imageries taken intermittently, mainly for test and evaluation purposes, by the U.S. Geological Survey, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and a private company, Remote Sensing Inc. The few complete oil slicks present in that data set were found to agree quite well with a turbulent diffusion theory of oil spreading outlined by Murray. 2 That diffusion analysis applied, however, only to the idealized case of an oil slick in a steady, uniform current; no effects of unsteadiness in wind, spatial changes in the current field, or time-dependent tidal currents were considered owing to lack of sufficient data.
Fortunately, the Chevron Oil Company, owner of the MP−41C structure, independently surveyed oil slick geometry on a twice-daily basis.
The Mechanical Efficiency Of A Seismic Energy Source
Authors: Jenkins Peter E. 
Published: October 2008

INTRODUCTION
The energy source evaluated in this paper is the pneumatic air gun now being used by Texas Instruments, Inc. of Dallas, Tex. in their marine seismic operations. To the author's knowledge, the only efficiency that has been previously determined on the gun was an acoustical effectiveness, based on an isothermal system. The present analysis will show that the system is, not isothermal and that the efficiency of the gun decreases proportionately to the gun's operating depth.
The principle of operation of the pneumatic source is that a volume of high pressure air (2,000 psia) is suddenly released underwater to form an air bubble. The resulting air bubble oscillates (expands and contracts) until all of its energy is dissipated; part of the energy is radiated acoustically and the rest is dissipated viscously.
In examining the sequence of events in greater detail, an acoustic pulse is emitted when the volume of high pressure air is suddenly released. The amplitude and rise time of this acoustic pulse depend primarily on the air gun chamber pressure (Pc) and volume (Vc) and on the local hydrostatic pressure. A portion of the energy is liberated in this first pulse and the rest resides as potential energy of the bubble to do work on the surrounding water. The bubble then starts to contract due to this pressure deficit, and its inward motion is checked due to the compressibility of the air bubble. Hence, a damped oscillatory system is set up by inertia of the water and elastic properties of the air and water, with damping being provided by viscous effects. The number of oscillations the bubble undergoes, depends on the initial conditions of the bubble (Pc and Vc), the depth at which the gun is fired, and the damping properties of the surrounding water.

EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of the energy source can be described as(Equation available in full paper)To determine each of these energy terms, the following analysis will be made, using the principles from the first law of thermodynamics.(Equation available in full paper)
Two Years Experience With the SBS
Authors: Dangles O. , van Heijst W.J. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
The first SINGLE BUOY STORAGE (SBS) system was installed in February, 1974 and became operational on March 23rd, 1974. The technical merits of the SBS are described in OTC paper 1918 (May 1973). After 23 month of operation it is concluded that the BBS system has given full satisfaction to the operator, Aquitaine Tunesie, a subsidiary of the Elf/SNPA Group.
This paper describes the experience obtained from the mooring operation, the off-loading, the equipment and the limitation of the operational procedures during the loading of 120 tankers with a total of 26 million barrels.

INTRODUCTION
The SBS storage is a barge of 70,000 DWT called Ifrikia which is permanently moored to an SBM by means of a rigid arm. Tankers of about 35,000 DWT are loaded when moored side by side the SBS.
For the operation of the SBS system a staff of 20 to 25 persons is permanently on board the Ifrikia.
All operations - loading, mooring, maintenance, etc. - are directed by the terminal superintendent, who also acts as barge captain, mooring master and pilot. Assistance can be obtained from a tug permanently on site for emergencies, pollution and fire fighting, etc.

GENERAL INFORMATION, ECONOMICS
The estimated production rate during the discovery period in 1971 was 10 million barrels per year and the production equipment was laid out for a maximum production rate of 17 million barrels per year. This production level has now been achieved.
The field includes:One drilling platform with a possibility of a total of 18 wells including those for water injection.One production platform.One flare platform.One Single Buoy Storage system (SBS).
Apart from the SBS, the system is, completely conventional. Economical and technical calculations showed at the time of development, that a pipeline would be more economical if the total production was about 25 million barrels/ year. These economics will however differ from field to field depending on the site conditions, distance to shore, and the prevailing market costs for the various systems (pipeline versus floating storage etc.).
It is interesting to note that the investment in the SBS and off-loading equipment installed for SNPA is relatively low and is equivalent to $10.50 per barrel of storage. The total cost associated with the ownership and operation of the SBS system amounts to $ .42 per barrel.

DETERMINATION OF STORAGE CAPACITY AND SUBSEQUENT OPERATIONAL CAPABILITY
Initial studies at the project stage indicated that wave heights up to approximately 6 feet were a reasonable basis for berthing, subject to favorable wind and current conditions.
Available weather data predicted that waves in excess of 6 feet with a continuous duration of 96 hours would only occur once every ten years. It was therefore decided to base the storage capacity on 96 hours field production.
Movement Of Sediment On The Gulf Of Mexico Continental Slope And Upper Continental Shelf
Authors: Woodbury H.O. , Spotts J.H. , Akers W.H. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
Grain-size, coarse-fraction analyses and depositional environment as interpreted from microfauna are related to the character of sparker reflections at the location of core holes drilled by Exxon, Chevron, Gulf, and Mobil on the continental slope of the northern Gulf of Mexico. Continuous sparker reflections are correlated with slowly deposited, evenly bedded sediments containing bathyal faunas. The coarse fraction is dominated by the tests of foraminifera.
Discontinuous, discordant reflections and diffractions are correlated with sediments more rapidly emplaced in the bathyal environment of the continental slope by slumping and sliding from the continental shelf. Their coarse fraction is dominated by terrigenous sand grains. A large portion of the volume of continental slope sediments appears to consist of these "displaced" sediments, including an area 3 to 24. km wide and 80 km long, southeast of Corpus Christi, Tex.
Comparable processes of movement of sediments are interpreted on the continental shelf south of the Southwest Pass of the Mississippi River. Bathymetry in this area is characterized by a series of subaqueous "gullies" radiating from the river mouth leading to terraces at their southern extremities. Side scan sonar and PDR surveys show a rough bottom in these gullies and terraces as contrasted with a relatively smooth bottom elsewhere. The rough bottom is interpreted as indicative of slump and creep of the sediments from shallower water. Some foundation soil borings in this area south of Southwest Pass find a low strength material gradually increasing in strength with depth. Other borings find a "crust" of anomalously strong material B to 15 m below the mud line. The microfauna recovered from the crust has moved to its present position by slump or creep from shallower water along a pattern comparable with the gullies shown in the present-day bathymetry.

INTRODUCTION
This paper discusses and interprets sediments and sedimentation of the continental slope of the northern Gulf of Mexico based upon data from core tests and sparker seismic surveys conducted by Exxon, Standard Oil Co. of California, Gulf, and Mobil in 1966, and relates these data to sediment movement south of the Southwest Pass of the Mississippi River. Sediment penetration of the core holes was restricted by government regulations to 305 m (1,000 ft) in water depths no leas than 200 m (650 ft). The general procedure was to cut a 4.6-m (15-ft) core and then to drill approximately 15 m (50 ft), followed by another 4.6-m core, and so on.
Environment of deposition, as determined by W. H. Akers, from the microfauna and other materials in washed residue; grain-size and coarse-fraction analysis, as interpreted by J. H. Spotts; lithologic descriptions by J. W. Low and N. E. Cygan; color photographs of the cores; bulk density measurements; and mechanical logs have all been used in varying degrees to interpret sedimentation on the continental slope.