bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Induction and Consistency
Authors: Kyburg Henry E. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter addresses the question of how a reasoning agent comes to accept conclusions that are based on inductive or uncertain inference. This is an important matter for plausible inference, particularly given the groundwork laid earlier in this book that puts induction at center stage for both common sense and rationality. Two approaches to uncertainty in dealing with such matters are considered. One is the Bayesian approach, which holds that observations or evidence is incorrigible, while all other statements have an associated number that indicates their degree of uncertainty. The other is a nonmonotonic approach, which supposes that people come to accept statements tentatively and that we might reject them when more evidence is collected. It is argued that the Bayesian reconstruction of induction is misguided both in its assumption that evidential statements are certain and in its attempt to avoid nonobservational acceptance. There is a way of casting the nonmonotonic approach in terms of probability intervals, which allows for the association of a level of error or uncertainty with individual statements and the recognition that the conjunction of all such statements is false, while still supporting the acceptance of each individual statement. Although the cost of this acceptance approach is that sometimes mistakes will be made, it is more realistic psychologically and more efficient computationally as a representation of rational inference.
How Good Are Fast and Frugal Heuristics?
Authors: Gigerenzer Gerd , Czerlinski Jean , Martignon Laura 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter argues that models of reasonable and rational judgment should look outside the mind to the structure of the environment in which the mind must operate. The everyday world presents reasoners with finite computational resources and limited time to solve problems for which there is often scarce and uncertain information. Problem-solving heuristics that are fast and frugal would seem particularly effective in such environments. Using several real-world data sets, it is shown in this chapter that certain fast and frugal heuristics performed nearly as accurately as and sometimes better than optimality methods (such as decision models that employ linear and multiple regression techniques). Such heuristics are ecologically valid satisficing strategies, that is, information-processing strategies that are effective for the real-world environment in which people must render most of their decisions.
The Huang-po Literature
Authors: Wright Dale S. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter carries out a literary, philosophical, and historical study of the 9th century Buddhist texts that provide images of the Chan master Huang-po Hsi-yun, the Ch’uan-hsin Fa-yao, and the Wan-ling lu. It explores the relation of these texts to predecessor literature, the question of authorship in Zen, and the evolution of the “recorded sayings” (yulu) genre. The chapter summarizes the teachings of the Huang-po texts, including the ideas of transmission, mind, Buddha-nature, sudden awakening, and non-dualism.
Unprincipled Virtue
Authors: Arpaly Nomy 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis book presents a positive theory of moral worth. Chapter 1 examines the complexities of moral life that appear to differ from the paradigmatic cases of moral psychology. Chapter 2 argues against the common assumption that akrasia is always irrational, or at least, always less rational than the corresponding self-controlled action. The theory is presented in Chapter 3 — that people are praiseworthy for acts of good will and blameworthy for acts of ill will or absence of good will, and the amount of praise or blame they deserve varies with the depth of their motivation or extent of their indifference. Chapter 4 and 5 defend this theory against potential objections to the effect that there is something wrong with its failure to invoke autonomy, and clarifies the theory’s implications about some issues in moral responsibility often associated with autonomy (i.e., responsibility of kleptomaniacs, drug addicts, makers of Freudian slips, and persons driven to murder by hypnotists).
Varieties of Autonomy
Authors: Arpaly Nomy 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of the concept of autonomy, focusing on the meaning of autonomy as self-control, as material independence, as psychological independence, and as normative autonomy. It then analyzes David Velleman’s distinction between autonomy, which he takes to be some form of self-control, and authenticity or being true to oneself. It argues that agent-autonomy is not as important to moral responsibility as generally assumed, and rejects the claim that only agent-autonomous action is blameworthy or praiseworthy.
Blame, Autonomy, and Problem Cases
Authors: Arpaly Nomy 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter presents examples which show that agent-autonomy is a necessary condition for moral praise- or blameworthiness. It argues that commonsensical conclusions about praise and blame can be held and accounted for, if one follows the theory of moral worth developed in Chapter 3. The cases of kleptomaniacs, of a person operating under the influence of a nefarious neurosurgeon or hypnotist who instills in him a bad desire, and the role of constitutive moral luck in moral life are discussed.
Introduction
Authors: Harrison Milmon F. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the Word of Faith Movement, one of many new forms of evangelical, charismatic Christianity to develop in the United States since World War II. It is a contemporary American religious subculture made up of denominationally independent churches, ministries, Bible training colleges and other educational institutions, voluntary organizations and fellowships, information and entertainment production facilities, and mass media broadcast networks. Rather than being part of a formal organizational structure, all of these entities are bound together into a relational network, based upon a shared understanding of the Bible, according to the movement's doctrine, the Faith Message. The founders of the movement, core beliefs and practices, and the structure and distribution of the movement are discussed.
Satisfying Our Eager Longing
Authors: Shuman Joel James , Meador Keith G. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
The proper Christian response to sickness and suffering is care. Care refers to politics of the Christian community with respect to sickness and suffering, in that it encompasses the entire range of obligations the community has toward the sick person and vice‐versa. God has called women and men into a community of friends who are to offer hospitality to one another and to the world as a sign of God's care for the world. Such care requires the cultivation of virtue, especially the virtue of misericordia.
Acceptance, Belief, and Commitment
Authors: Costa Newton C. A. da , French Steven 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThe focus on the models or, more generally, the structures in which sentences are satisfied encourages a shift to a broadly representational and nonpropositional account of the objects of belief. The consequences of such a move have yet to be fully explored in this context. This chapter sets out a possible doxastic framework for understanding this shift in epistemic attention. It draws on Sperber's account of the difference between “factual” and “representational” beliefs, where the object of the latter is a “semipropositional” representation of incomplete conceptual content. It is argued that the fundamental idea behind this notion can be conveniently grasped in terms of partial structures: a “representational” belief that p is then understood as a belief that p is partially true only, whereas a factual belief that p is a belief that p is true in the correspondence sense.
From Pragmatic Realism to Structural Empiricism
Authors: Costa Newton C. A. da , French Steven 
Published: February 2006

AbstractLadyman has incorporated partial structures into his version of “structural realism” which he sees as realism's best hope in the face of the ontological perplexities presented by modern physics. On the other side of the divide, Bueno has also used partial structures to elaborate a form of “structural empiricism”, which extends van Fraassen's antirealist “constructive empiricism” in significant respects. This chapter does not aim to defend either realism or antirealism, but to indicate how both sides in the debate can benefit from the partial structures approach. This debate needs just the kind of detailed articulation that structural realism and empiricism offer, and that these positions represent at least two of the more interesting hopes for the future.
Extending Ourselves
Authors: Humphreys Paul 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Computational science, especially computer simulations, is now the dominant procedure in many areas of science. This book contains the first systematic philosophical account of this new scientific method, and draws a parallel between the ways in which such computational methods have enhanced our abilities to mathematically model the world, and the more familiar ways in which scientific instruments have expanded our access to the empirical world. This expansion forms the basis for a new kind of empiricism better suited to the needs of science than the older anthropocentric forms of empiricism. Human abilities are no longer the ultimate standard of correctness within epistemology. The book includes arguments for the primacy of properties rather than objects, for how technology interacts with scientific methods, and a detailed account of how the path from a computational template or model to a scientific application is constructed and revised. This last feature allows us to hold a form of selective realism in which anti-realist arguments based on abstract reconstructions of theories can be avoided. One important consequence of the rise of computational methods is that the traditional organization of the sciences is being replaced by an organization founded on computational templates.
Durkheim as a Teacher of Religion
Authors: Schmaus Warren 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter traces the development of Durkheim's thinking about religion in terms of courses in philosophy, sociology, and education that deal with religious topics. Durkheim's sociological view about religion is interpreted as a natural outgrowth of the metaphysical views he expressed in his earliest teaching about religion as a lycée philosophy professor, and it is argued that it was through his teaching that he developed the sociology of religion of The Elementary Forms of Religious Life.
Perspective
Authors: Stillwaggon Eileen 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter discusses the modes of transmission, worldwide distribution, and environmental conditions necessary for the spread of HIV. It explains the epidemiological framework for understanding disease spread, which includes characteristics of the pathogen, the host, and the environment. The appendix to this chapter presents cross-national survey data on sexual behavior. The data demonstrate that there is no correlation between higher national prevalence of HIV and countries with higher rates of early initiation of sex, premarital sex, or multipartnered sex.
Individual Bias in Methodology
Authors: Stillwaggon Eileen 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter discusses the methodologies employed by health scientists and social scientists that prevent them from seeing the interactions that produce the epidemic spread of HIV, from measuring those interactions, and from using that information in prevention policy. It examines the methodological limitations in the fields of public health, epidemiology, and health economics that impede the understanding of health in the developing world and obstruct the prevention of HIV/AIDS. It criticizes the limitations of the transmission models used by major organizations administering AIDS funds to evaluate HIV-prevention programs.
HIV/AIDS Policies
Authors: Stillwaggon Eileen 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines the impact of misguided development policy and inadequate epidemiology and health economics methodology on the choice of interventions for HIV and other health problems in poor countries. It discusses the influence of post-World War II development policy and its preoccupation with population control in promoting HIV/AIDS prevention plans that are narrowly focused on provision of condoms, behavior modification, and treating cofactor STDs. It criticizes the programs of UNAIDS, USAID and its private-sector partners, and other AIDS organizations.
Workplace Interventions for STD and HIV/AIDS Prevention
Authors: Stillwaggon Eileen 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines workplace HIV/AIDS programs as an example of the limitations of global AIDS policy. It discusses practical, political, philosophical, and economic problems with workplace HIV programs, but supports the use of the workplace as a convenient venue for broad public health programs that also address HIV prevention and care. The chapter emphasizes the public goods nature of health-promotion programs and encourages government cooperation with businesses to achieve mutually beneficial health goals.
Guishan jingce (Guishan's Admonitions) and the Ethical Foundations of Chan Practice
Authors: Poceski Mario 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter examines the attitudes toward monasticism and conventional morality evidenced within the Hongzhou school of classical Chan. Its main focus is Guishan jingce, one of the key texts from the Hongzhou school’s literary output, which so far has been ignored by Chan/Zen scholarship. Composed by Guishan Lingyou (771-853), the foremost representative of the Hongzhou school’s third generation, this important text is the earliest Chan document that is primarily concerned with monastic discipline, or Rules of Purity, and the place of morality in the Chan path to awakening. Its contents shed unique light on the Hongzhou school’s rather conventional attitudes toward monastic ideals and mores, and brings into question the currently prevalent views about the iconoclastic turn that Chan supposedly took under the direction of Mazu (709-788) and his Hongzhou school.
Objective Understanding
Authors: Waxman Wayne 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines Locke’s theory of objective understanding. It discusses the presupposition of an empirical subject, the understanding of the existence and nature of substances, and Locke’s conception of mechanistic materialism. Locke believes that the ideas of primary qualities permit human understandings to conceive and know the constitutions of substances only up to a certain point, beyond which they lack the conceptual means to penetrate.
Notions of Mind
Authors: Waxman Wayne 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines Berkeley’s theory of the mind, focusing on how he proposed to distinguish the perceiving mind from its perceptions without violating his own separability principle. Berkeley’s justification of treating the mind as substance, particularly a spiritual material, depended on whether reflexive perceptions provided notions of causal inefficiency. His psychologistic explications of causality and substance, the nonmanifold I, the mind as substrate of successive perceptions, and the substantiality of spirit are discussed.
Reasoning Reasonably
Authors: Waxman Wayne 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines Hume’s theory of empirical reason, and the difference between its rational and its irrational exercise (reasoning reasonably and unreasonably). The theory has five structural levels: (1) reasoning from one matter of fact or real existence to another takes the form of an inference from an impression to an idea; (2) necessary connections between cause and effect; (3) past experience and our remembrance of the constant junction of distinct, successive, contiguous objects; (4) our belief in the uniformity of nature; and (5) customary association. The role of customary association in regulating empirical rationality, first species probable reasoning, and contrariety are discussed.
Remembering Abraham
Authors: Hendel Ronald 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThe past in the Hebrew Bible is a represented past, not the past itself. This book argues that the biblical portrayal of the past consists of a complex interplay of historical memory, folklore, cultural self-definition, and literary brilliance. The chapters of this book attempt to survey and, to the degree possible, untangle these various layers, concentrating on the foundational narratives of the patriarchs, the Exodus, and the united monarchy. The biblical sense of the past combines traits that we separate into different genres — myth, epic, and history — but form a seamless synthesis in the biblical conception.
Execution and Invention
Authors: Berkowitz Beth A. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractExecution and Invention: Death Penalty Discourse in Early Rabbinic and Christian Cultures argues that ancient rabbis and Christians used death penalty discourse to invent themselves as figures of authority. This approach runs counter to much previous scholarship on the subject, which claims that ancient Jews opposed the death penalty and would have abolished it if not for its presence in the Bible. The book explores this scholarship and shows it to have been fueled by modern anti-Semitism, polemics with the the Jewish Enlightenment’s inheritance of anti-rabbinism, as well as controversy in the United States over capital punishment and its abolition. The book moves beyond this “humanitarianism” approach, inviting us instead to see the problem of building and maintaining authority as the crux around which ancient death penalty discourse developed. Drawing on ritual theory, postcolonial theory, and scholarship on criminal execution in other historical contexts, Execution and Invention asks new questions of the ancient texts: How and why do ancient western religions talk about killing criminals? What are the social consequences of this kind of violent talk? What kind of authority is imagined by these texts, and What strategies do the texts use to make this authority seem compelling? Combining the contemporary theory with classical source critical approaches, the book closely reads a variety of ancient texts describing criminal executions. It newly interprets these texts, showing that their descriptions of violent deaths have a complex social function. In the process, the book spins out the social implications of capital punishment and overturns enduring stereotypes of Judaism and Christianity.
Reading Execution
Authors: Berkowitz Beth A. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines the history of scholarship on the ancient Jewish death penalty, focusing in particular on the last century of scholarship in the United States and Israel. It includes within its survey a variety of approaches and disciplines: jurisprudence, responsa, New Testament historiography, religious denominational writing, Jewish intellectual history, philosophy, Zionist reformism. It give this scholarship “thick description,” contextualizing it within the social forces that shaped it. It also offers some concluding reflections on what aspects of the scholarship might be most productive for further study.
The Ethics of Care
Authors: Held Virginia 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
The book presents the ethics of care as a promising alternative to more familiar moral theories. The ethics of care is only a few decades old, yet it has become a distinct moral theory or normative approach, relevant to global and political matters as well as to the personal relations that can most clearly exemplify care. The book examines the central ideas, characteristics, and potential importance of the ethics of care. It discusses the feminist roots of this moral approach and why the ethics of care can be a morality with universal appeal. The book explores what is meant by “care” and what a caring person is like. Where such other moral theories as Kantian morality and utilitarianism demand impartiality above all, the ethics of care understands the moral import of ties to families and groups. It evaluates such ties, differing from virtue ethics by focusing on caring relations rather than the virtues of individuals. The book proposes how values such as justice, equality, and individual rights can “fit together” with values such as care, trust, mutual consideration, and solidarity. In considering the potential of the ethics of care for dealing with social issues, the book shows how the ethics of care is more promising than other moral theories for advice on how limited or expansive markets should be, showing how values other than market ones should have priority in such activities as childcare, health care, education, and in cultural activities. Finally, the book connects the ethics of care with the rising interest in civil society, and with limits on what law and rights are thought able to accomplish. It shows the promise of the ethics of care for dealing with global problems and with efforts to foster international civility.
The Ethics of Care as Moral Theory
Authors: Held Virginia 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
The ethics of care is a distinct moral theory, not merely a concern that can be added on to or included within the most influential moral theories such as Kantian morality, utilitarianism, or virtue ethics. The ethics of care arose out of feminists’ appreciation of the importance of care and caring labor. As a fully normative theory, it has developed far beyond its earliest formulations in the work of Sara Ruddick, Carol Gilligan, and Nel Noddings. It is recognized as highly relevant to political and global contexts as well as to the more personal ones of family and friendship. It includes concern for transforming the structures within which practices of care take place, so that they are no longer oppressive. The ethics of care has the great advantage in a moral theory of being based on experience that is truly universal: the experience of having been cared for.
Care as Practice and Value
Authors: Held Virginia 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter argues that for the ethics of care, “care” is defined as various practices that take place and various values by which to evaluate actual practices. As there are theories of justice to evaluate practices of justice, an ethics of care is needed to evaluate caring practices. The practice of taking care of children or those dependent in other ways or with special needs involves work, and should be done with appropriate motives and should meet appropriate standards. Practices incorporate values, but must also be evaluated to improve them.
Justice, Utility, and Care
Authors: Held Virginia 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Care is often contrasted with justice. Historically, care, women, and the household have been devalued and considered irrelevant to morality compared to men’s activities in public life. Kantian moral theory and utilitarianism differ significantly, but both are theories of justice thought suitable for public life, emphasizing impartiality, rationality, universal principles, equality, and rights. This chapter contrasts the ethics of care with such theories, and explores the question of how care and justice might be meshed. It considers how we might conceptualize the fitting together of its various parts into a satisfactory, comprehensive, moral theory.