bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Postscript
Authors: Baer Marc David 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This postscript argues that Mehmed IV's reign has been overshadowed by subsequent historical events and silenced by two centuries of historical interpretation. It also contends that one of the most long-lasting consequences of Mehmed IV's era may have been the creation of communities of descendants of 17th-century Christian and Jewish converts to Islam that either maintained religious beliefs and engaged in practices that combined elements of the original and adopted faiths, or created new religions following their ostensible conversion experience. The converters' and converteds' aims of conversion can be radically different; conversion is not a one-way street, as converts shape their religion in light of their own interpretation. Mehmed IV thought that he had converted the messianic claimant Shabbatai Tzevi into Aziz Mehmed Efendi, a proselytizing force for Islam. His actions and those of his followers, however, provide another example of the fleeting effects and ultimate unraveling of Mehmed IV's successes.
2 Is Innateness a Confused Concept?
Authors: Samuels Richard 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis chapter argues that cognitive science's concept of innateness is not confused. It begins by setting out the Argument for Confusion, which seeks to show that the concept of innateness is confused because it confounds several independent properties. This argument is shown to be inconclusive by highlighting two ways in which innateness might be associated with a range of distinct properties without confounding them. Although this perhaps shows that the Argument for Confusion is inconclusive, it leaves an important challenge unaddressed: how to explain in detail the relationship between the various properties associated with innateness and innateness itself. It is shown that the concept of innateness, at least as it figures in cognitive science, is not a confused one. This leaves a residual puzzle: if the concept of innateness is not confused, then why are debates over innateness in cognitive science often accompanied by confusion? The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of this matter.
13 The Creative Action Theory of Creativity
Authors: Carruthers Peter 
Published: January 2008

AbstractMost models of creative thought and creative activity assume that thought is normally the precursor of action: we think first, then we act. This chapter argues that creative action can't be reduced to creative thought, and that at least some forms of creative action aren't preceded by a creative thought. It then briefly argues that it is implausible that there should be two distinct and independent sources of creativity — one for action and one for thought. It shows how creative thought can be explained in terms of creative action, utilizing known mechanisms including a well-established system for the mental rehearsal of action, and a cognitive architecture for global broadcasting of sensory or quasi-sensory (imagistic) states. It is argued that act-first accounts of creativity have evolutionary precursors, some of them quite ancient. It is shown that thought-first accounts of creativity, in contrast, face problems of evolvability, and that they need to assume a heavy explanatory burden in comparison with the act-first account. Some of the costs and benefits of accepting an act-first account of creativity are outlined.
19 The Moral Mind
Authors: Haidt Jonathan , Joseph Craig 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis chapter discusses how morality might be partially innate, meaning organized, to some extent, in advance of experience. It begins by arguing for a broader conception of morality and suggests that most of the discussion of innateness to date has not been about morality per se; it has been about whether the psychology of harm and fairness is innate. Five hypotheses about the origins of moral knowledge and value are considered, and one of them (a form of flexible and generative modularity) is endorsed as being the best candidate. The importance of narrativity in moral functioning is discussed. In some respects, this is another corrective to what is seen as an overemphasis on deductive and calculative conceptions of value and rationality among both philosophers and psychologists. It is shown that a narrative approach to morality fits well with the nativist ‘five foundations’ view developed in the first part of the chapter, and also helps to explain how the intuitive, evolved foundations of morality are elaborated by cultural activity into the complex, diverse moral functioning that mature human beings display.
Sacred Arrangements
Authors: Murphy Michael Patrick 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
Chapter 3 focuses on Balthasar's theological aesthetics as a well‐articulated critical methodology. Balthasar's fusion of aesthetics with history forges both a Christology and an analogy of being that is developed in light of that Christology. Balthasar urges us to “see the form [of Christ]” in all manner of being and experience—human activities, natural phenomena, and especially human works of art. “Seeing the form” becomes a central critical and theological hermeneutic; and the chapter cultivates a parallel between “seeing the form” and interpreting, broadly, the “word(s)” of narrative art. The first three sections of the chapter develop an aesthetics of a representative word (in this case, the term “hierarchy”); the last section is an application of what is gleaned from the first three upon Flannery O'Connor's “Revelation.” While a close reading of O'Connor's text serves as a literary exemplum of a Catholic imagination, other poets and authors who demonstrate a similar theological aesthetic are considered in order round out the discussion.
Contested Island
Authors: Connolly S. J. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This book is a study of the multiple transformations that reshaped the character of early modern Ireland. It covers the extension across the whole island of English state power, a process often referred to as the Tudor conquest, as well as Ireland's early years as part of the Stuart composite monarchy. It also explores the associated shift from a society based on consumption and distribution, to a primitive but rapidly developing market economy. The arrival, as part of the process of conquest and assimilation of growing numbers of English and Scottish settlers, brought new ethnic complexity to an island already divided in language and culture between the Gaelic Irish and the Old English descendants of medieval colonists. The failure of the Reformation to win significant support among either the Irish or the Old English meant that rivalries between native and newcomer were also conflicts between Catholic and Protestant. At the same time, political and personal alliances, and the interaction of languages and cultures created relationships across lines of political, ethnic, and religious division. By the end of the period, members of all three groups: New English, Old English, and Gaelic Irish, can be seen reassessing their sense of their own identity and their relationship to other groups, in an Ireland unrecognizable from that of a century earlier.
Orthodoxy and the Courts in Late Antiquity
Authors: Humfress Caroline 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis book approaches the subject of late Roman law from the perspective of legal practice revealed in courtroom processes, as well as more ‘informal’ types of dispute settlement. From at least the early 4th century, leading bishops, ecclesiastics, and Christian polemicists participated in a vibrant culture of forensic argument with far-reaching effects on theological debate, the development of ecclesiastical authority, and the elaboration of early ‘Canon law’. One of the most innovative aspects of late Roman law was the creation and application of new legal categories used in the prosecution of ‘heretics’. Leading Christian polemicists not only used techniques of argument learnt in the late Roman rhetorical schools to help position the Church within the structure of Empire, they also used those techniques in cases involving accusations against ‘heretics’ — thus defining and developing the concept of Christian orthodoxy itself.
Legal Experts and the Late Roman Courts
Authors: Humfress Caroline 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of iurisperitus and legal science. According to the mid-2nd century jurist Pomponius, the origins of juristic science lay in the disputes of the Forum, in the necessary interpretations of (statute) law given orally, on request, by those who were iuris prudentes. Hence the iurisprudens or iurisperitus was also known as the iurisconsultus. Post-classical iurisperiti and private clients, legal education in the late Empire, and whether the advice of post-classical iurisperiti contributed to the creative elaboration of Roman law are discussed.
Late Roman Advocates
Authors: Humfress Caroline 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis chapter explores the question of whether post-classical advocates influenced the development of late Roman law through their forensic pleading. Under the various late Roman civil cognitio procedures, advocates could be involved in every phase of the lawsuit, from the principium litis (including the registering of the case, the summons, the response of the defendant and the prescribing of the necessary cautiones), through the medium litis (formally encompassing the narratio of the plaintiff and the contradictio of the defendant before the judge) to the definitum negotium (the administration of proofs up to the definitive sentence). If appointed, defence advocates would also be at hand throughout a public/‘criminal’ trial.
Defining Heresy and Orthodoxy
Authors: Humfress Caroline 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis chapter argues that late Roman heresiology was not simply a discourse controlled by the ‘orthodox’ at the expense of the ‘heretic’ — all Christians were inscribed within it whether they wanted to be or not. Nor was the late Roman discourse of heresiology a ‘rhetorical construct’; rather it produced its own field. In other words, it created the very objects that previously it had been thought merely to explain or describe. Heresiological categories and classifications were part of late Roman lived experience. What was to be defined as ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ belief, was constructed through argument; moreover, the very processes of theological and legal definition threw up new matters to be defined and categorized. Individuals, however, are not passive subjects of a given structure (such as ‘law’ or ‘orthodoxy’, for example), but rather active participants — constituting and reconstituting the structure itself by their constant negotiation of its rules and expectations.
Ethiopian Famines 1973–1985: A Case‐Study
Authors: Kumar B. G. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines the famines of Ethiopia during the period 1973-85, with its rather bleak and gloomy situation. Though a decline in food availability played a major role in the famines, it is shown that the distributional effects were crucial and were different in nature for various occupation groups. The chapter also explores the demographic and social impacts of famines. On the policy frontier, the chapter underlines the importance of improving infrastructural facilities and providing massive investment in agriculture. While the potential for improvements in warning systems might exist, the delayed response was actually caused by political factors, as was the case in success stories.
The Food Crisis in Africa: A Comparative Structural Analysis
Authors: Platteau Jean-Philippe 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
Policy errors have often been indicted as the major culprits for Africa's plight, while policy reversals have been identified as general tools for salvation. This chapter argues that this dominant ‘price-focused’ view is erroneous and diverts attention from the critical issue for African agriculture: the generation and diffusion of technology at a substantial rate. The chapter's analysis brings forth the structural nature of growth-inhibiting factors. It investigates six ‘constraint areas’ and asserts that policy-design must not be limited to the technological sphere, but should include institutional changes and changes in cultural and political systems. Additionally, agricultural growth-promoting strategies should take into account the equity issues and distributive effects of policies. However, the exposition suggests that the policy prescription has country specificity.
Growth and Poverty: Some Lessons from Brazil
Authors: Sachs Ignacy 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
Brazil provides an ideal example of a country which has seen very rapid and sustained economic growth and spectacular modernization, going hand in hand with persistent poverty, malnutrition, and occasional hunger afflicting a substantial fraction of the population. This chapter examines why economic growth has failed to uplift the living standards of millions. Brazil's social profile is much lower than expected, and the growth pattern has a built-in bias towards social inequality the non-rectification of which will lead only to further polarization. However, Brazil can afford to build a welfare state by employing public support measures with comprehensive coverage which have a high manpower component and a low capital and foreign exchange component.
Malnutrition and Poverty in Latin America
Authors: Kanbur S. M. Ravi 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter reviews the state of malnutrition and poverty in Latin America, and attempts to quantify the magnitudes of the problem and identify the poor and the malnourished. Growth plays a minor role in eradicating malnutrition within a generation, and there remains a significant role for redistribution. With regards to the targeting of redistribution, socio-economic groups with a high incidence of poverty should be given priority, and the identification of the socio-economic groups in terms of vulnerability to deprivation is crucial. The chapter suggests that the analysis of the patterns of poverty and malnutrition should be carried out at country-specific level.
Learning theory and anxiety
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
The chapter reviews two-process theories of learning, and justifies the equation of reward with punishment omission and of punishment with reward omission. Learning is presented as a means of endowing neutral stimuli with the properties of associated innate stimuli and, whether innate or learned, inputs to the behavioural inhibition system are defined as stimuli that elicit conflicting (particularly approach-avoidance) tendencies. As with the innate behaviours of Chapter 2, a key point is that behaviours attributed to the behavioural inhibition system are sensitive to anti-anxiety drugs.
The anxiolytic drugs
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter defines anti-anxiety (anxiolytic) drugs, and reviews their types, clinical use, and behavioural pharmacology. Classical anxiolytic drugs and novel anxiolytic drugs share only anxiolytic action and no side-effects, in the clinic. They also share common actions on behaviours attributable to the behavioural inhibition system by the analysis of Chapter 3. Specific details of the changes produced lead to the conclusion that these drugs do not affect behaviours as such but rather, in other species as well as humans, act fundamentally to reduce anxiety itself.
BEC: Its definition, origin, occurrence, and consequences
Authors: Leggett A.J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis chapter contains a general discussion of the phenomenon of BEC, under conditions much broader than those realized in the equilibrium noninteracting system introduced in Chapter 1. A definition of BEC in a general (nonequilibrium, noninteracting) Bose system is given in terms of the eigenvalues of the single-particle density matrix; alternative definitions are also discussed. The important concepts of order parameter and superfluid velocity are introduced. The question is raised: why should BEC occur, and when does it (not)? For Fermi systems, Cooper pairing is defined in terms of the eigenvalues of the two-particle density matrix; again, alternative definitions are briefly discussed, and possible reasons for the occurrence of the phenomenon reviewed. The chapter concludes with an overview of the consequences of BEC/Cooper pairing, and with a discussion of some unusual cases in which the BEC is “fragmented”. Two appendices review the second-quantization formalism and the properties of number and phase operators.
Classical superconductivity
Authors: Leggett A.J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractAfter a brief review of the normal state of a “textbook” metal, the origin of the effective electron-electron attraction believed to exist in superconducting metals is discussed and the calculation of Cooper leading to the instability of the normal Fermi sea is presented. A derivation of the BCS theory is presented within a particle-number-conserving formalism; results are given for both zero and nonzero temperature, but the properties of the normal component in the superconducting phase are not discussed in any detail. The microscopic basis of the two-fluid model of superconductivity and of the Ginzburg-Landau phenomenology is discussed. Generalizations of the BCS theory are made for the case of both “non-pair-breaking” and “pair-breaking” perturbations. Finally, the microscopic basis of the Josephson effect is presented. Appendices cover inter alia, Landau Fermi-liquid theory, and the phonon-induced inter-electron attraction.
Superfluid 3He
Authors: Leggett A.J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractAfter a brief review of the properties of the normal state of liquid 3He and its description in terms of Landau Fermi-liquid theory, this chapter extends the BCS theory of pairing to the superfluid phase, where in contrast to classical superconductors it is believed that the pairs form with nonzero relative orbital angular momentum (“anisotropic Fermi superfluidity”). The generalization of the Ginzburg-Landau formalism to this case is presented, as is a possible physical mechanism (spin-fluctuation-induced feedback) for the stabilization of more than one anisotropic superfluid phase. The concept of spontaneously broken spin-orbit symmetry is introduced and used to explain the anomalous spin dynamics of this system. Finally, some topological properties unique to the superfluid phases of 3He are reviewed.
Cuprate superconductivity
Authors: Leggett A.J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractStarting with an account of the chemical composition, crystalline structure, and phase diagram of the high-temperature (cuprate) superconductors, this chapter reviews the principal experimental properties of the optimally doped normal phase, the superconducting phase, and the so-called “pseudogap” region of the phase diagram, and some general comments made on the implications of the experimental data. The question is then raised: what do we know for sure about cuprate superconductivity in the absence of a specific microscopic model? And some answers are attempted. Next, various ideas which may be important in understanding these systems are reviewed. Finally, some novel consequences of the type of pairing realized in the cuprates are explored.
The National Physical Laboratory
Authors: Magnello Eileen 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter details the establishment of the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). The NPL is one of the world's great national standards laboratories. In his presidential address to the British Association in 1895, Sir Douglas Galton called for the creation of a NPL supported by government funding. It was decided that a public institution should be established to determine and verify instruments, test materials, determine physical constants, and undertake investigations into the strength and durability of materials. The work of the NPL up to World War II is discussed.
The ACE and the shaping of British computing
Authors: Campbell-Kelly Martin 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the legacy of the ACE to British computing. Design of the ACE began in earnest in 1953, when the pilot machine was complete, although physical construction did not start until 1956. When finally completed, the ACE was a machine of awesome proportions that remained in use until 1967. Commercially, the most important machines were those descending from the Test Assembly and the Pilot ACE.
Computer architecture and the ACE computers
Authors: Doran Robert 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines the architecture of the ACE computers in the light of developments in computer architecture over the fifty years that followed the birth of ACE. The concept of computer architecture is discussed and the history of the RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) movement is reviewed. It is argued that a closer inspection of the Pilot ACE and the earlier proposals for the ACE suggests that the ACE's claim to be the first RISC architecture has merit.
Integrating theArabidopsis thalianaFlower Induction Pathways and Assessing the Extent to Which the Model Is Ubiquitous
Authors: Glover Beverley J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractPrevious chapters discussed the different inhibitory and inductive pathways regulating flowering in Arabidopsis. An average Arabidopsis plant will experience inhibitory and promotive signals from each of these pathways to a greater or lesser extent. The first part of this chapter investigates how the pathways are brought together to result in a single response, through the activities of the flowering time integrator genes. The second section looks at the evidence that the same or similar pathways operate in other species, with particular emphasis on the short day plant rice, and Gregor Mendel's famous genetic model, the garden pea.
Function and Development of Gametophytes
Authors: Glover Beverley J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThe role of flowers is to ensure the transfer of a small but precious package, the pollen grain, from one plant to another. That pollen grain contains the sperm, which fertilizes an egg cell retained within the tissues of another flower, resulting in the formation of a zygote and, in due course, a new generation of plants which will produce flowers in their turn. Within the male and female reproductive organs of the flower meiosis and then haploid mitosis produce an independent generation, the gametophyte, including the gametes. This chapter discusses the development of male and female gametophytes, and briefly considers the events that occur when they are brought together.
Preventing Self-fertilization
Authors: Glover Beverley J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractPerfect (hermaphrodite) flowers can, assuming no other constraints, self-pollinate, and fertilize their own ovules. This guaranteed sexual reproduction gives self-pollinating plants the ability to colonize new habitats, and it is a common trait in weedy species. However, self-fertilization does carry a disadvantage relative to outcrossing, which is that the genetic variability produced, although greater than in an asexual population, is considerably less than that seen in an outbreeding population. The balance between the relative importance of assured reproduction and genetic variability differs in different species, largely as a result of their habitats, lifecycles, and the niches that they occupy. This chapter considers the ways in which self-fertilization can be reduced or prevented through dichogamy, herkogamy, monoecy, dioecy, and biochemical self-incompatibility.