bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cell Surface Glycoconjugates
Authors: Verbert André , Cacan René 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In eukaryotic cells, the interface between the extracellular space and the intracellular matrix is formed of a lipid bilayer in which structural or functional proteins are anchored. Carbohydrates also form components of the cell surface, as glycoconjugates, i.e. glycolipids or glycoproteins. Although the carbohydrate moieties account for a minor part in mass (5–10%), their location at the external face of the membrane confers upon them unique biological functions as ‘recognition signals’.
Xenopus
Embryo: Neural Induction
Authors: Moody Sally A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Neural induction is the process by which the embryonic ectoderm is instructed to become the nervous system rather than the epidermis (skin). It is accomplished in two steps via signalling interactions with the adjacent mesoderm; first, dorsal ectoderm acquires an anterior neural fate by the blockade of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signalling, and second, the neural ectoderm acquires anterior–posterior polarity via graded concentrations of fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), retinoids and Wnts.
Eye Development: Gene Control
Authors: Hill Robert E , Hammond Katherine L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Molecular analysis of developmental control genes is providing novel insights into evolutionary processes. A survey of a range of species examining the Pax6 gene and its expression in the eye suggests a closer evolutionary relationship than expected for eyes as diverse as the planarian eyespot and the complex organ of the mouse. Analysis of other developmental genes, particularly in mouse and Drosophila, raises further questions about evolutionary mechanisms.
Vertebrate Embryo: Neural Patterning
Authors: Itasaki Nobue 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The central nervous system in vertebrate embryos arises from a flat sheet of neural cells. Anteroposterior patterning involves neural induction through the interaction of precursor cells with non‐neural cells, signalling mechanisms after neurulation, and establishment of
Hox
gene expression patterns. Dorsoventral patterning is organized by a balance of Sonic hedgehog (Shh) and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signals that emanate from the ventral and dorsal sides of the neural tube, respectively.
Closteroviridae
Authors: Martelli Giovanni P , Candresse Thierry 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The
Closteroviridae
is a family of plant viruses with very large, positive‐sense, single‐stranded genomes. It comprises at least two genera,
Closterovirus
and
Crinivirus
, members of which are major insect‐transmitted pathogens, causing extensive damage to sugarbeet, citrus, grape and vegetable crops.
Geminiviridae
Authors: Stanley John , Boulton Margaret I , Davies Jeffrey W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The
Geminiviridae
are a group of plant viruses with small, circular, single‐stranded DNA genomes encapsidated in particles that have a twinned quasi‐icosahedral (geminate) shape, from which the family derives its name. They are pathogens of cereals, vegetable and fibre crops, and pose a serious threat to agriculture worldwide.
Potyviridae
Authors: Berger Philip H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Potyviridae are single‐stranded plus‐sense plant‐infecting RNA viruses, transmitted by aphids, whiteflies, fungi, eriophyid mites, and/or via tubers or true seed, depending on the species. Virions are flexous rods of 680–900 nm in length.
Plant Virus Transmission by Insects
Authors: Raccah Benjamin 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Insect vectors of plant viruses are found in 9 of the 32 orders of the class Insecta. Insects transmit plant viruses by four major transmission modes and a number of viral proteins have been found to control virus–vector association. Interference with vector landing and/or with the transmission process is used to control virus epidemics.
Virus Diseases of Grapevine
Authors: Martelli Giovanni P 
Published: September 2006

AbstractVirus diseases of grapevines (Vitisspp.) are many and often have a detrimental effect on the vines and the crop. Prevailing disease agents are viruses transmitted by nematodes (nepoviruses) and mealybugs (closteroviruses, vitiviruses). Control is based on preventive measures such as selection, sanitation, and breeding for resistance.
Invertebrates and Fungi in Plant Virus Diseases
Authors: Eppler Arne , Heinze Cornelia , Adam Günter 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPlant viruses rely on effective modes of spread from one plant to another in order to survive. The commonest means of dissemination in the field is by plant‐feeding invertebrates such as nematodes, mites and insects, but plant pathogenic soil‐borne fungi with mobile stages can also serve as vectors.
Neural Crest: Origin, Migration and Differentiation
Authors: Erickson Carol A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The neural crest is a population of cells that emigrates from the dorsal neural tube during early embryogenesis and migrates extensively to give rise to a myriad of cell types. Patterns of migration are controlled largely by extracellular cues in the environment. Cell fates are determined both by specification events while the cells are still resident in the neural tube and by extracellular cues the cells perceive as they migrate.
Specific Neural Connection Formation in the Developing Nervous System
Authors: Lett Robyn LM , O'Connor Timothy P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In order to construct a properly functioning nervous system, neurons must form precise and specific connections during embryonic development. To establish these connections axons are guided to their correct targets by specific guidance cues. Guidance cues are arranged in such a manner that axons extend to a series of transient intermediate targets before forming a synapse with their final, specific, target.
Axon Growth
Authors: Tannahill David , Nobes Catherine 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In order to construct the nervous system, nerve cells become precisely connected to each other and to peripheral tissues during embryogenesis by a process that involves the growth and extension of long processes, known as axons. Located at the tip of the growing axon is a highly specialized structure called the growth cone that senses information in the embryonic environment to direct axon growth towards appropriate targets.
Molecular Biology: The Central Dogma
Authors: Pukkila Patricia J 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAlthough proteins are essential components of all aspects of cell structure and function, they are not sufficient for their own propagation. Instead, the information necessary to specify each individual protein is stored in nucleic acids. The ‘central dogma’ of molecular biology states that sequence information can be transferred among nucleic acids, and from nucleic acids to proteins, but sequence information cannot be transferred among proteins, or from proteins to nucleic acids.
Nonsense Mutations and Suppression
Authors: Herrington Muriel B 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A nonsense mutation occurs when a codon that codes for an amino acid is changed to a chain‐termination codon. Informational suppression of a nonsense mutation occurs when changes in the translation apparatus enable the cell to insert an amino acid in response to the nonsense codon, resulting in a wild‐type or near wild‐type phenotype.
Neural Development: bHLH Genes
Authors: Vetter Monica , Harris William 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Transcription factors of the basic helix‐loop‐helix (bHLH) class are involved in the determination of precursor cells towards neural (proneural) and other cell fates. The proneural members of this class constitute a particular subset of bHLH proteins that seem to be arranged in a cascade that affects different stages of neuronal commitment.
Somatic Hypermutation in Antibody Evolution
Authors: Storb Ursula 
Published: September 2006

AbstractB lymphocytes activated by antigen and T lymphocytes initiate germinal centres in lymphoid tissues and hypermutate the variable region of their expressed immunoglobulin genes. The mechanism of this somatic hypermutation process depends on transcription. In chicken and rabbits, immunoglobulin gene mutations are created by gene conversion in a process that may have some relationship to cassette switching hypervariation in trypanosomes.
Enzyme Activity: Allosteric Regulation
Authors: Traut Thomas 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cells can respond to changes in their environment by altering the flow through particular metabolic pathways. Such a change in any metabolic step is due to certain key enzymes that have the ability to alter their rate of activity. Such enzymes are defined as allosteric. The extent to which these enzymes adopt either the active conformation or the inactive conformation depends on their response to appropriate positive or negative signals. An easily measured feature of allosteric enzymes is the cooperativity that they show in a kinetic experiment.
Regulation by Covalent Modification
Authors: Martin Bruce L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Covalent modifications are enzyme‐catalysed alterations of synthesized proteins and include the addition or removal of chemical groups. Modifications can target a single type of amino acid or multiple amino acids and will change the chemical properties of the site. Consequences for the structure and functions of the protein modified are manifested, providing a sensitive method for cellular regulation.
Catalytic Antibodies
Authors: Gigant Benoît , Knossow Marcel 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
It is possible to elicit antibodies that catalyse a target reaction by raising them against stable molecules mimicking intermediate species on the chemical pathway from substrate to product. These artificial biocatalysts are closer to enzymes than any other enzyme mimic. Recent progress and new strategies bode well for the practical use of catalytic antibodies.
Regulatory RNA
Authors: Wagner E Gerhart H , Altuvia Shoshy , Nellen Wolfgang 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Beyond their coding capacity, RNA molecules serve structural, catalytic and regulatory functions. The latter are elicited by RNA–RNA interactions (antisense‐target), frequently resulting in complex three‐dimensional structures, and by RNA–protein interactions. The numerous examples known to date probably present only a first glimpse at this expanding field.
Immune System
Authors: Davies D Huw 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The immune system comprises an interacting assemblage of cells and soluble molecules whose primary function is to remove invading microorganisms that cause damage to the body. An innate system, which responds to uniquely microbial structures, underlies an adaptive system mediated by antigen receptors on lymphocytes, which together trigger one or more different killing mechanisms according to whether the microbes live within or outside the cells of the body.
Antigen‐presenting Cells
Authors: Stagg Andrew J , Knight Stella C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Antigen‐presenting cells (APC) are able to acquire microbial and other antigens and display these antigens on their surface in a way that leads to activation of T and B lymphocytes, the major effector cells of the immune system. Different types of APC interact with different lymphocyte populations and stimulate distinct types of immune responses.
Kallikrein–Kinin System
Authors: Regoli Domenico , Calo Girolamo , Gobeil Fernand 
Published: September 2006

AbstractTwo similar proteolytic cascades lead to release of bradykinin and lysbradykinin in tissues; these peptides act as autocoids, the first favouring blood clotting and endothelial protection, the second by initiating and maintaining tissue reactions to noxious stimuli. Kinin biological actions are mediated by two different receptor types, the constitutive B2which promotes initial reactions and the inducible B1which may later maintain mechanisms of defence and repair.
T‐cell Receptors
Authors: Bonneville Marc , Saulquin Xavier 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Antigen recognition by T lymphocytes is achieved via α/β or γ/δ T‐cell receptors, which are both produced through somatic rearrangement of gene segments. Upon their engagement by antigens, T‐cell receptors trigger a complex sequence of events that ultimately lead to T‐cell activation.
Secondary Metabolites: Killing Pathogens
Authors: Walton Jonathan D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Plants produce many antimicrobial secondary metabolites. Two major classes with a demonstrated or proposed role in resistance to plant pathogens are phytoanticipins, or preformed inhibitors, which are present constitutively in plants, and phytoalexins, which are synthesized only in response to pathogen attack. Available evidence is consistent with both phytoanticipins and phytoalexins being important in defence in some disease interactions.
Immunological Adhesion and Homing Molecules
Authors: von Andrian Ulrich H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Leucocytes must interact with other cells and extracellular matrix molecules to migrate from the bloodstream to lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues, to detect and respond to antigen, and to exert immune functions. Adhesion and homing molecules on the surface of leucocytes and interacting cells provide mechanical stability and contribute to the specificity of such interactions.
Immunoglobulin Superfamily
Authors: Natarajan Kannan , Mage Michael G , Margulies David H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) consists of a group of proteins that exploit the structural robustness and fundamental stability of the immunoglobulin fold for a wide assortment of functions across a broad span of evolutionary time, extending from microorganisms to humans. Although the best understood activities of IgSF members are related to immunological recognition, a number of related molecules participate in developmental and homeostatic phenomena. Manipulation of the IgSF by recombinant gene technology offers
in vitro
approaches to increase the available diversity of novel structures for almost limitless functions.
Interleukins
Authors: Mire‐Sluis Anthony R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The interleukins are a group of proteins that have been classified specifically by a designated nomenclature committee of the International Union of Immunological Societies/World Health Organization. These proteins are derived, mainly, from white blood cells and act on white cells, although these criteria are not necessarily exclusive of other cell sources and activities. Interleukins, amongst other proteins, maintain the haematopoietic and immune systems, and control their functions.
Inflammation: Chronic
Authors: Wakefield Denis , Kumar Rakesh K 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Chronic inflammation may result from failure to eliminate an acute inflammatory irritant, from an autoimmune response to a self antigen, or may be caused by an innately chronic irritant of low intensity that persists. It is characterized by simultaneous inflammation and repair, with recruitment and activation of macrophages, lymphocytes and other cells triggered by the coordinated action of cytokines and growth factors.
Gene Expression: Decoding and Accuracy
Authors: Nierhaus Knud H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
During decoding of the genetic message, the ribosome must select the correct substrate, a ternary complex aminoacyl‐tRNA–EF‐Tu–GTP, from a large number of almost identical complexes. The problem is solved by dividing substrate binding into two steps: (1) decoding, which is mainly restricted to codon–anticodon interactions, and (2) interactions between substrate and ribosome, which are mainly responsible for high‐affinity binding rather than for selectivity.
Ligation: Theory and Practice
Authors: Chandrasegaran Srinivasan , Reddy Sekhar PM 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Adenosine triphosphate and NAD
+
‐dependent DNA ligases catalyse the formation of phosphodiester bonds between juxtaposed 3′‐hydroxyl group and 5′ phosphate termini in duplex DNA. Ligase chain reaction, which utilizes a thermostable ligase to both amplify DNA and discriminate a single‐base substitution in target DNA, is a powerful
in vitro
method that complements polymerase chain reaction that has revolutionized DNA diagnostics.
Phage Display Technologies
Authors: Stricker Nicole , Li Min 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Phage display is a method that uses bacterial virus (phage) as a vehicle to express diverse protein or peptide sequences as part of the phage coat protein by cloning deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) fragments in frame with phage coat protein genes. Upon viral infection, the expressed peptides are displayed on the surface of the viral particle. Depending on the DNA fragments cloned,
phage
display allows for expression of either short peptides or large proteins, such as immunoglobulin, on the viral surface.
Northern Blotting and RNA Detection
Authors: Zimmers‐Koniaris Teresa 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Northern blotting is a means of identifying a certain RNA species in a complex mixture of RNA. Commonly used to evaluate qualitatively and quantitatively the expression of a gene, Northern blotting involves isolation of RNA, size fractionation of the denatured RNA through gel electrophoresis, transfer of the separated RNA to a membrane, hybridization with a specific probe, and detection.
Mutagenesis: Site‐specific
Authors: El‐Gewely M Raafat , Fenton Chris , Salomonsen Laila J , Xu Hao 
Published: September 2006

AbstractSite‐specific mutagenesis techniques are aimed at the precise substitution, insertion or deletion of any coding sequencein vitro. These techniques are revolutionizing our understanding of the genetic and molecular mechanisms in several biological systems, which could lead to the development of new therapeutics and also improved agriculture.
Retroviruses in Human Gene Therapy
Authors: Pedersen Finn Skou , Duch Mogens 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

A retrovirus‐based gene transfer system consists of two components: the transfer vector, which harbours a foreign gene linked to elements needed for retroviral replication, and the packaging cell, which supplies the necessary retroviral proteins for transfer of the vector through a single round of viral replication. Most clinical protocols for gene therapy or gene marking using retroviral vectors are based upon gene transfer
ex vivo
followed by reimplantation of the target cells into the body.
Avian Influenza Viruses
Authors: Perdue Michael L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Avian influenza viruses
comprise scores of antigenic subtypes in the type A orthomyxovirus family. They are found most prominently in migratory waterfowl and shorebirds and are sporadically transmitted to other avian and mammalian species. The consequences of such transmissions can range from a subclinical infection, which may result in transfer of avian virus genes into the circulating influenza gene pool, to a highly infectious and lethal respiratory disease.
Orbiviruses and
Bluetongue virus
Authors: Mertens Peter 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Bluetongue virus
(BTV) is the type species of the genus
Orbivirus
within the family
Reoviridae
, a large family of double‐stranded ribonucleic acid (dsRNA) viruses. BTV causes the disease ‘bluetongue’ in sheep, although the virus also infects cattle, deer, camels and goats.
Hantaviruses
Authors: Feldmann Heinz 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Hantaviruses comprise a genus of the
Bunyaviridae
family and naturally infect wild rodents without causing clinical symptoms. When acquired by inhalation of aerosolized rodent excreta, hantaviruses can cause life‐threatening diseases in humans, such as haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in Asia and Europe and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in the Americas.
Nucleases
Authors: Kushner Sidney R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
While the genetic information encoded in DNA and RNA molecules is directly related to the order of the purine and pyrimidine bases, it is the sugar–phosphate backbone that provides the glue that keeps these molecules intact. It is the function of nucleases to break the stable phosphodiester bonds between the sugar moieties when necessary. Nucleases participate in almost all biological reactions involving either RNA or DNA.
Supercoiled DNA: Structure
Authors: Bowater Richard Peter 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Supercoiling is introduced into DNA molecules when the double helix is twisted around its own axis in three‐dimensional space. Generally, DNA molecules are negatively supercoiled inside cells, although the level of supercoiling is not equal throughout the genome and many supercoils may be constrained by bound proteins. Introduction of supercoiling into DNA increases its free energy and influences DNA metabolism by promoting or hindering specific enzymatic processes.
Eukaryotic Replication Protein
A
Authors: Wold Marc S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Replication protein A (RPA) is a single‐stranded DNA‐binding protein that is essential for many processes in eukaryotic cells. It binds to single‐stranded DNA with high affinity and low specificity, and interacts specifically with a number of proteins. Both these activities are required for DNA replication, DNA repair and recombination.
Polymerase Processivity: Measurement and Mechanisms
Authors: Bloom Linda B , Goodman Myron F 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe processivity of DNA synthesis by a DNA polymerase is defined as the number of nucleotides that a polymerase can incorporate into DNA during a single template‐binding event, before dissociating from a DNA template. The overall efficiency of DNA synthesis increases when the processivity of a polymerase increases.
DNA
Polymerase Fidelity Mechanisms
Authors: Fygenson Deborah Kuchnir , Goodman Myron F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
DNA polymerase is a protein that catalyses the polymerization of one strand of DNA, called the primer strand, based on the sequence in another strand, called the template strand. Fidelity in this process refers to the ability of the polymerase to avoid or to correct errors in the newly synthesized strand.
Site‐specific Recombination
Authors: Segall Anca 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Site‐specific recombination is defined as the rearrangement of two DNA partner molecules by specific enzymes performing recombination at their cognate pairs of sequences or target sites. Site‐specific recombination, in contrast to homologous recombination, requires very little DNA homology between partner DNA molecules, is RecA‐independent, and does not involve DNA replication at any stage.
Cleavage and Gastrulation in Mouse Embryos
Authors: Wild Arthur E , Fleming Tom P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cleavage of the fertilized egg is the beginning of a developmental programme that leads to formation of the blastocyst which, after implantation, gives rise to the embryonic and extraembryonic lineages of the conceptus. Gastrulation results in the formation and segregation of the three germ layers and the establishment of the basic body plan of the developing fetus.
Cleavage and Gastrulation in
Drosophila
Embryos
Authors: Tram Uyen , Riggs Blake , Sullivan William 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The cytoskeleton guides early embryogenesis in
Drosophila
, which is characterized by a series of rapid synchronous syncytial nuclear divisions that occur in the absence of cytokinesis. Following these divisions, individual cells are produced in a process called cellularization, and these cells are rearranged during the process of gastrulation to produce an embryo composed of three primordial tissue layers.
Cleavage and Gastrulation in
Xenopus laevis
Embryos
Authors: Elinson Richard P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The
Xenopus laevis
egg contains an asymmetric distribution of molecules, which are parcelled out to cells during cleavage. The different cells interact with each other and rearrange themselves during gastrulation to produce the tissues and organs of the embryo in their proper position.