bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Respiratory Mechanics and Gas Exchange
Authors: Ligas James 
Published: April 2006

AbstractKnowledge of respiratory mechanics and pulmonary gas transport is essential for understanding both pulmonary function testing and mechanical ventilation. Although sophisticated models of solid and fluid mechanics have been applied to respiration, simple physical principles suffice for clinical use. This article addresses those concepts of respiratory system structure, static and dynamic mechanical behavior, and gas transport essential for those who would either work in a pulmonary function laboratory or deal with mechanical ventilators.Briefly, the normal lung consists of subunits which are relatively homogeneous both in mechanical properties and in the relative distribution of the ratio of air flow to blood flow. Diseases can result in inhomogeneity, and this affects both tests measuring respiratory mechanics and the expected gas transport. A knowledge of how and why this occurs is essential for anyone concerned with respiration.
Safety Program, Hospital
Authors: Dyro Joseph F. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis article describes the broad scope of safety issues in the hospital and recommends ways in which hospitals should address these issues. Particular emphasis is placed on medical devices and instrumentation and how they interrelate with the hospital’s environment, facility, patients and device users and other personnel. Medical device safety depends in large part upon a comprehensive medical device technology management program, which includes elements ranging from technology assessment, evaluation, and procurement to device replacement planning and includes such components as user training, medical device incident investigation, and device quality assurance. The clinical engineer by education, training and experience is shown to be ideally suited to implement and execute a technology management program and to lead in the effort to assure hospital‐wide patient safety. Available resources are described including web‐based training, distance learning, standards, publications, and professional organizations.
Screen‐Film Systems
Authors: Lu Zheng Feng 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
In this article, we discuss the screen‐film system as the image receptor in radiography. We outline the physical and photographic properties of intensifying screens and film. The steps for film processing are delineated. Performance evaluation of the screen‐film system is discussed in relation to image quality and patient radiation dose. Finally, quality assurance and quality control testing are described for the applications of screen‐film systems in radiology.
Sleep Studies, Computer Analysis of
Authors: Shucard David Wm. , Parmenter Brett A. , El Solh Ali A. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractUntil a few years ago, the main problems for computerized sleep systems were the need for efficient data reduction and speed of analysis. The computers were too small and inefficient or too expensive for doing either waveform detection on‐line or storage of the entire raw data. Most of the systems built on the basis of general engineering tools were little used because of the poor correlation with standard visual scoring. The advent of powerful and high computing speed processor has bridged that gap. The availability of digital polysomnography has removed the technical restrictions through increased computing power, storage space, and reduced costs. However, the crude division of the sleep processes into few discrete stages and the difficulties with the translation of spatial information into appropriate algorithms remain the major issues in the development of fully automated sleep systems. The use of predetermined, fixed criteria for methods, waveforms, and states is scientifically erroneous and hazardous. Instead standards should describe the minimum requirements for the recording and analysis of the signals in terms of sampling rate, dynamic range, linearity, and documentation of the methods used.The purpose of this article is to discuss the use of computers in sleep disorders medicine and how this technology has enhanced the diagnostic and scientific capabilities of the sleep laboratory.
Thermistors
Authors: Lopes de Melo Pedro 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThermistors are transducers constructed of ceramic materials whose electrical conduction properties are temperature sensitive. These devices have been developed to be very sensitive, having excellent long‐term stability, and small size. Thermistors are also relatively inexpensive, presenting a lower cost than either resistance temperature detectors or thermocouples. These characteristics probably situate this device as the most widely used temperature transducer for medical applications nowadays. It makes them ideal for healthcare products that incorporate sensor probes that can be discarded after using and replaced for new ones with the same specification, without recalibration. In this article, thermistor terminology, electrical and thermal properties, linearization, and the basic electronics used in temperature measurements are discussed. Examples of commercial devices dedicated to temperature measurements are also presented. Beyond their utility in temperature measurements, thermistors have found widespread use in a variety of systems for clinical and research applications, such as the measurement of flow, thermal conductivity and diffusivity of biomaterials, and the detection of the presence of liquids. This article includes a brief discussion about these applications, showing the branches of medicine where technology based on thermistor is used, and how this technology can assist each of them.
Tonometry, Arterial
Authors: Eckerle Joseph S. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractArterial tonometry is a technique that permits the noninvasive monitoring of the pressure within a superficial artery, such as the radial artery at the wrist. The technique is based on an analysis showing that—under the proper conditions—the artery wall does not influence the transmission of arterial pressure to a sensor applied to the skin. Tonometer sensors have been devised that employ various transduction techniques. Perhaps the most advanced sensors include a multiplicity of independent pressure sensors, and are fabricated from silicon. Tonometric measurements have been used to monitor blood pressure during surgery and similar procedures. They have also been used to determine arterial elasticity and pulse wave velocity. Under favorable conditions, the accuracy of tonometric measurements can be described by standard deviations of ∼ 5 mmHg (0.66 kPa).
Ultrasonic Imaging
Authors: Kripfgans Oliver 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Ultrasonic imaging is one technique for collecting anatomical and physiological information from within the human body. It can be used for diagnosis (imaging) and for image‐guided therapy, where therapeutic intervention can be applied with direct image‐based feedback. Other modalities include X ray (roentgen radiation), CT (computed tomography), MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), PET or PET/CT (positron emission tomography), and SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography). In contrast to most other imaging techniques, ultrasonic imaging is very attractive to professionals because it is cheap, real time (with >100 full frame images per second, >100 Hz), and it uses nonionizing radiation. Moreover, current clinical ultrasound machines can be integrated into laptop computers with very little external hardware for maximum portability and versatility. These combined features allow the use of ultrasonic imaging in a wide variety of settings, from private physician practices, to ambulances with on‐site paramedics, to battle field situations, where very robust and lightweight equipment is required.
Ultraviolet Radiation in Medicine
Authors: Lloyd J. J. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
This article gives a review of the uses of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) in medicine. Sunlight has long been associated with health benefits and used for treatment. It is only recently, however, that the beneficial and detrimental effects of UVR on humans has become better understood. Ultraviolet radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum between 100 and 400 nm. Acute effects of UVR include erythema (skin redness) and tanning. Delayed effects include skin cancer induction and skin aging. Most human UVR exposure is from the sun, but there is now a wide range of artificial sources available. Fluorescent sources are the most common used in medicine; these and other sources are described. Measurement of UVR is commonly made with physical detectors such as photodiodes that need to be carefully calibrated using more complex equipment such as spectroradiometers. The use of UVR in medical diagnosis (e.g., investigation of skin rashes caused by sunlight) and therapy (particularly in the treatment of skin diseases) is described. A section on sunbeds is included that discusses their medical and cosmetic use and the associated hazards. Other less common uses of UVR in medicine such as photopheresis are mentioned and the article concludes with information on UVR hazard assessment and protection.
Vascular Graft Prosthesis
Authors: Kottke‐Marchant Kandice , Larsen Coby 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe system of blood vessels in the body is crucial to transport cells, oxygen, and nutrients to the vital organs. When injured by diseases, such as atherosclerosis, the blood vessels may become occluded, leading to decreased blood flow and organ damage, or may be weakened and rupture due to aneurysmal dilatation. One method of treatment is to use surgery to bypass diseased blood vessels by using an artificial blood vessel substitute, or vascular graft prosthesis. Materials currently used in vascular graft prostheses include polyethylene terephthalate (Dacron) and expanded polytetrafluoroethyelene (ePTFE). These devices successfully function as vascular grafts in larger diameter applications, but suitable materials for small diameter prostheses (<5 mm) are still being developed. Current trends in the development of small diameter prostheses include surface modification to prevent thrombosis, incorporation of endothelial cells, and a tissue engineering approach with the development of a biological blood vessel based upon a biodegradable material scaffold.
Ventilatory Monitoring
Authors: Knoper Steven R. , Quan Stuart F. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractMonitoring of ventilation is an important aspect of the care of all patients with known or suspected cardiopulmonary disease, especially those in an intensive care unit. The intensity of monitoring required is dictated by the clinical need and severity of illness. It can range from simple visual observation to complex invasive technology. There are three broad categories of ventilatory monitoring: (1) assessment of lung mechanical function, (2) measurement of oxygenation, and (3) evaluation of the adequacy of ventilation (CO2gas exchange). Lung mechanical function is usually determined by measurements of airway pressure and lung volume. Arterial blood gas analysis is the primary method to assess oxygenation and ventilation. However, there is widespread use of pulse oximeters to continuously monitor oxygenation. Although technologically feasible, continuous intravascular monitoring ofpaO2,paCO2, and pH has not gained wide acceptance because cost‐effectiveness has not yet been demonstrated. Innovative advances in ventilatory monitoring will need not only to show feasibility, but cost‐effectiveness to be adopted for widespread clinical use.
X‐Ray Quality Control Program
Authors: Nickoloff Edward L. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractIn order to improve or maintain an optimal achievable level of healthcare, most medical facilities usually have some type of quality assurance program. The quality assurance programs encompass a variety of functions, such as development of comprehensive safety rules, establishment of infection control guidelines, provisions for the efficient management of critically ill patients, establishment of accurate record‐keeping functions, and the development of adequate educational training for the staff (1). In radiology, a portion of the overall quality assurance program is devoted to a quality control program for the X‐ray equipment. Most X‐ray QC programs have several very specific goals toward which they are directed. The list merely enumerates these items. (1) Image quality, (2) patient radiation doses, (3) safety, (4) consistency, (5) economic factors, (6) Regulatory requirements.
X‐Ray Therapy Equipment, Low and Medium Energy
Authors: Ma C‐M Charlie 
Published: April 2006

Abstract

This article describes low and medium‐energy X‐ray equipment for radiation therapy. The history of X‐rays and their applications in radiation therapy is reviewed. X‐ray devices that are used for radiation therapy are discussed in detail based on their energies and applications. Medium energy X‐rays (also called
orthovoltage
X‐rays) are generated by X‐ray devices at an accelerating potential between 150 and 500 kV. Low energy X‐rays (also called
superficial
X‐rays) are generated by X‐ray devices at an accelerating potential between 50 and 150 kV. Very low energy X‐rays that are generated at an accelerating potential <50 kV have mainly been used in
contact
therapy. Methodologies and measurement equipment for calibrating X‐ray units and determining absorbed dose for radiotherapy treatments are described. In‐air and in‐phantom based formalisms and dosimetric data for absolute and relative dose measurement are provided based on the American Association of Physicists in Medicine Task Group 61 recommendations. Practical guidelines are also given for clinical dosimetry including depth dose measurement, output determination, isodose derivation and quality assurance for radiation therapy using low and medial‐energy X‐rays.
Electrophysiology
Authors: Demir Semahat S. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis article presents the fundamental principles of cellular electrophysiology and focuses on cellular bioelectricity. First, the concepts of resting membrane potential, action potentials, and the underlying ionic mechanisms are introduced. The experimental techniques that are used to quantify ionic mechanisms in cells are described. Mathematical modeling of cardiac cells is introduced. Specifically, computational modeling of the murine ventricular action potentials and dissemination of computational modeels are presented.
Heart, Artificial
Authors: Zapanta Conrad M. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractArtificial hearts are broadly defined as devices that either supplement or replace the native (natural) heart. These devices can be classified into two groups: ventricular assist devices and total artificial hearts. This article will define the clinical need, review the native heart anatomy and function, describe design considerations for ventricular assist devices and total artificial hearts, review selected designs, and recommend areas for future development.
Hip Joints, Artificial
Authors: Jin Z. M. , Tipper J. L. , Stone M. H. , Ingham E. , Fisher J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractA brief introduction to artificial hip joints is followed by a detailed review of both the biotribology of the bearing surfaces and the biological responses to the wear debris for evaluating their performances. Various types of artificial hip joints with different bearing surfaces are considered, including ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene against metal or ceramic; metal‐on‐metal and ceramic‐on‐ceramic. Future developments of artificial hip joints are discussed.
Impedance Spectroscopy
Authors: Freiesleben De Blasio Birgitte , Wegener Joachim 
Published: April 2006

AbstractImpedance spectroscopy (IS), also referred to as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), is a versatile approach to investigate and characterize dielectric and conducting properties of materials or composite samples. The technique is based on measuring the impedance (i.e., the opposition to current flow) of a system that is being excised with weak alternating current or voltage. The impedance spectrum is obtained by scanning the sample impedance over a broad range of frequencies, typically covering several decades.This article starts with providing a general introduction to the theoretical background of IS and the methodology connected to impedance measurement. Then, the focus will be on applications of IS, particularly devises for in vitro monitoring of cultured cell systems that have attracted widespread interest due to demand for noninvasive, marker‐free, and cost‐effective methods.
Medical Gas Analyzers
Authors: Drzewiecki Tadeusz M. , Calkins Jerry M. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to discussing technology and its medical application to gas analysis. Medical gas analysis is becoming an important aspect of patient safety, patient monitoring, diagnosis, and therapy. The application of technology to determine the constituents and quantifying physiologic gases is increasing in importance. For example, being able to identify respiratory gas markers of diseases such as necrotizing enterocolitis and metabolic variables that can assist in the therapeutic management of obesity are becoming recognized and of significant importance. This chapter will review current gas monitoring methods and techniques ranging from colorimetry to solid‐state sensors including state‐of‐the‐art microfluidic devices. Design considerations such as in‐line and out‐of‐line sampling, displays, alarms, calibration, and controls are also discussed.
Microarrays
Authors: Winegarden Neil 
Published: April 2006

AbstractMicroarrays allow for the simultaneous, parallel, interrogation of multiple biological analytes. Originally, microarrays were devised as a method by which gene expression could be measured in a massively parallel manner (all the genes in the genome at once), however, recent advances have demonstrated that microarrays can be used to interrogate epigenetic phenomena, promoter binding, protein expression, and protein binding among other processes. The overall process is reliant upon the manufacture of a highly ordered array of biological molecules, which are typically known entities. The features of this array behave as probes, which react with and bind to the unknown, but complimentary material present in a biological sample. Here we will focus specifically on gene expression (deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA) microarrays, which can be used to assay the activity of thousands of genes at a time.
Microfluidics
Authors: Walker Glenn M. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
This article provides a brief overview of the fluid phenomena that become prominent at the microscale. Microfluidic devices can be created that take advantage of these phenomena to provide novel functionality. The modeling of microfluidic systems, from the microscopic to the macroscopic level is presented. Pumping methods using pressure and electric fields are discussed. Methods of fabricating microfluidic devices are examined. Finally, examples of biomedical devices that use microfluidics are given.
Microscopy, Confocal
Authors: Claxton Nathan S. , Fellers Thomas J. , Davidson Michael W. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractLaser scanning confocal microscopy has become an invaluable tool for a wide range of investigations in the biological and medical sciences for imaging thin optical sections in living and fixed specimens ranging in thickness up to 100 μm. Modern instruments are equipped with three–five laser systems controlled by high speed acoustooptic tunable filters (AOTFs), which allow very precise regulation of wavelength and excitation intensity. Coupled with photomultipliers that have high quantum efficiency in the nearultraviolet, visible, and near infrared spectral regions, these microscopes are capable of examining fluorescence emission ranging from 400 to 750 nm. Instruments equipped with spectral imaging detection systems further refine the technique by enabling the examination and resolution of fluorophores with overlapping spectra, as well as providing the ability to compensate for autofluorescence. Recent advances in fluorophore design have led to improved synthetic and naturally occurring molecular probes, including fluorescent proteins and quantum dots, which exhibit a high level of photostability and target specificity.
Microscopy, Electron
Authors: Dadsetan Mahrokh , Lu Lichun , Yaszemski Michael J. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Electron microscope development occurred as needs for better image magnification and resolution exceeded the capabilities of light microscopy. A light microscope, even with optimal lenses and illumination, cannot distinguish objects that are < 0.2 μ. Electron microscopy as an imaging technique allows direct observation of biological objects, whereas other available techniques are indirect and in some instances nonspecific. Electron microscopy enables resolution of the relationship among objects to occur at the molecular level. Electron microscopy provides the ability to understand structure–function relationships at this level. Compared with other laboratory diagnostic methods, electron microscopy excels with respect to speed and image quality. These characteristics permit detection and identification of both anticipated pathologic agents and those not initially considered by the clinician. Ultrastructural study may be applied to a variety of substances including biological materials. By examination of specially prepared tissue sections, changes not perceived by light microscopy can be identified, leading to improved diagnostic interpretations.
Microscopy, Fluorescence
Authors: Pelet Serge , Previte Michael , So Peter T. C. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractFluorescence microscopes quantify the structure and biochemistry in specimens with submicron spatial resolution based on fluorescence contrast. This article covers the spectroscopic principles underlying fluorescence imaging. The design considerations for several basic forms of fluorescence microscopes will be presented. Fluorescent probes are classified and their optical properties will be discussed in the context of their uses in microscopic imaging. Finally, advanced modalities for functional imaging and their biomedical applications are described.
Microscopy and Spectroscopy, Near‐Field
Authors: Micic Miodrag 
Published: April 2006

Abstract

This article reviews the principles and applications of optical imaging beyond the diffraction limit using near‐field optics. Such a technique allows optical imaging and spectroscopy with lateral resolution up to 20 nm, and is promising to revolutionize research in life science disciplines, with a possible plethora of practical biomedical applications, especially in the field of
in vitro
diagnostics. The article provides an introduction to the near‐field optics as applied in microscopy, and the fundamental concepts behind the two basic types of near‐field scanning optical microscopes: aperture‐based and apertureless, along with examples of life science and biomedical applications.
Prostate Seed Implants
Authors: Zaider Marco , Silvern David A. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
An increasing number of men undergo brachytherapy (low‐ or high‐dose rate) for the treatment of localized prostate cancer. In the past decade, permanent seed implant has witnessed significant progress in implantation techniques, dosimetry, seed localization, image‐guided treatment planning, and post‐treatment evaluation. This article, written for those who wish to keep abreast of progress in this field, presents a pedestrain‐level discussion of these advances and is meant to acquaint the reader with the basic physics of seed implants while offering practical guidelines for their clinical use.