bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fuel Qualities, On-Board Treatment, and Responsive Design of Two-Stroke Low-Speed Diesel Engines
Authors: Grøne O 
Published: December 2008

It has been a basic design criterion that two-stroke low-speed diesel engines should be able to burn the lowest and cheapest qualities of fuel oils that are commercially available. For this reason, extreme fuel qualities, right from their appearance on the market, always have been used in such engines. Developments in the mineral oil industry, well described in numerous articles, have caused an increasing volume of fuel oil to be used in the lower end of the quality scale. Also, a more diversified market pattern has led to the frequent occurrence of such extreme fuels in an increasing number of bunkering ports of the world.
In consequence, it was only natural that a comprehensive test program was initiated a few years ago by the engine industry to meet the challenge raised by this forecasted development. Several samples of fuels were secured from various oil companies. These samples, which came from all over the world for testing, were evaluated by the supplying oil companies as representative of the qualities predicted by the forecasts and, as such, were representative for the fuels on the market in the eighties.
Simultaneously, the engine industry established an increased contact with the manufacturers of equipment for on-board fuel treatment, that is, makers of fuel oil centrifuges, filters, and homogenizers as well as makers of pumps, heat exchangers, etc. Also, the systematic accumulation of service results from these ships in service, which according to experience were originally expected to use larger volumes of such marginal fuel qualities, was intensified. The conclusion of the combustion research was that all these so-called extreme fuel qualities could be used in most larger marine diesel engines as has been the case with the traditional heavy fuels.
The same result was concluded by the plants in service that were especially followed in the fuel research program. However, for the ships in service, it also could be concluded that it was of extreme importance that the on-board fuel treatment was adequate. This paper will describe further the just mentioned tests and service results as well as engine design steps taken dictated by, among other reasons, the fuel quality development. Also, tests with coal derivatives, fuel-water emulsions, as well as fuel oil specification tendencies will be discussed. The practical aspects of using extremely heavy and poor fuel qualities in plants in service will be discussed, especially such issues as fuel oil pretreatment, that is, preheating and cleaning. In particular, installation and service aspects will be enlarged upon, with a look forward to a further decline of fuel qualities.
Shipboard Fuel Handling and Treatment for Diesel Engines
Authors: Winkler MF 
Published: December 2008

It is well accepted that, on the average, marine fuel quality has begun to significantly degrade and is beginning to cause increased problems for the operators. Besides representing the largest single voyage expense, marine fuel oils significantly influence the performance, operation, and maintenance of marine power plants. The impact of the fuels' characteristics upon the marine power plant is largely determined by the effectiveness and efficiency of the shipboard fuel conditioning system.
Future marine fuels will continue to degrade in quality and will become more contaminated. The price of these fuel oils will increase as well, with a premium to be paid for blended, spec controlled, and distillate fuels. As the fuel quality purchased tends toward the heavier and more contaminated, maintenance costs in terms of spare parts and labor increase significantly; therefore, the requirements become more comprehensive for associated support systems such as fuel conditioning systems for all types of diesel systems, lube oil purification, waste heat boilers, turbocharges, and diesel turbocharger washing systems.
This paper is intended to provide practical, real world systems design solutions intended to permit the ship operator to cope with degrading fuel quality. It is important that the ship operator accept the primary responsibility to protect the welfare and operation of his fleet. Years ago, the major suppliers provided a good deal of protection by controlling the quality of the fuel that went to the ship. Times have changed! Generally, the major oil suppliers no longer provide this service. Much of the market is served by independents and brokers today, and this trend likely will continue in the future. The oil company refineries are still the major source of marine fuel oils.
The techniques to handle fuel presented represent refinements to known methodology as opposed to representing breakthroughs and are suitable not only for new design but for retrofit as well.
Effect of Fire Exposure on Structural Response and Fireproofing Requirements of Structural Steel Frame Assemblies
Authors: Bresler B , Iding RH 
Published: December 2008

Fire endurance ratings of structural steel frame assemblies are based on limiting temperature rise and on preventing structural collapse during a specified fire. Currently, a single standard fire, ASTM Method for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials E 119-83, is specified as the fire exposure. Thermal and structural responses can be determined either by a standard test or by calculations using computer programs such as FIRES-T3 and FASBUS II. Use of analytical methods in predicting thermal and structural responses of steel frame assemblies, with or without fireproofing, permits evaluation of the effect of different fire exposures. In this paper, a general approach for the evaluation of structural responses and fireproofing requirements of steel assemblies under different fire exposures is described and the results of three case studies are presented.
Data required for and procedures used in evaluating the response to fire, as well as the response acceptance criteria for the desired level of fire protection, are discussed. Two fire exposures, short duration high intensity (SDHI) and long duration low intensity (LDLI), are described. These fire exposures together with the ASTM E 119 standard fire, are used in the evaluation of fire responses of a typical steel deck floor assembly specimen. Response of this assembly with different thicknesses of fireproofing is determined analytically, and the results are summarized.
Computer Modeling the Fire Endurance of Floor Systems in Steel-Framed Buildings
Authors: Jeanes DC 
Published: December 2008

The rational approach for the design of building structures to resist the effects of fire has advanced significantly over the past decade. Part of this advancement has been the development of a computer model, FASBUS II, which predicts the structural response of steel-framed floor systems exposed to fire. An evaluation of this model using large-scale test data has demonstrated its ability to accurately predict the influence of heating on the overall performance of these floor assemblies. The approach represented by the traditional test method, Method for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials (ASTM E 119-83), contrasts markedly with the engineering-based solution utilized in the FASBUS II model. In order to evaluate this difference, the performance associated with each approach has been characterized and a comparison made. As a result, a relationship between thermal restraint in the test and restraint due to predicted structural interaction has been suggested.
Using the analytical solution represented by FASBUS II, an evaluation of actual details of construction can be made and the interaction between the exposed and unexposed portions of the structure can be examined. Such an analysis provides the designer with information that will contribute to a more accurate and effective means of accessing structural fire endurance.
Changes in Asphalt Concrete Durability Resulting from Exposure to Multiple Cycles of Freezing and Thawing
Authors: Gilmore DW , Darland JB , Girdler LM , Wilson LW , Scherocman JA 
Published: December 2008

Concern over water-induced damage in asphalt concrete pavements has resulted in the development of several new moisture susceptibility detection tests. This report compares two modifications of the water conditioning procedure for asphalt concrete specimens as described in the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Reports 192 and 246. These modifications incorporate longer water exposure conditions for investigating the long-term durability of antistripping additives and paving mixtures.
Significant and progressive changes in tensile strength were found to occur when asphalt concrete specimens were repeatedly exposed to freeze-thaw cycles. Factors, such as aggregate source, additive type, and additive quantity, influence the rate of strength loss during cyclical conditioning, and these rates are valuable in material selection. In particular, the sensitivity of cyclical conditioning to additive effectiveness was utilized to develop and select improved additives.
Fatigue Crack Initiation and Growth in a High-Strength Ductile Steel Subject to In-Plane Biaxial Loading
Authors: Smith EW , Pascoe KJ 
Published: December 2008

Flat cruciform-shaped specimens of HY100 steel were tested in fatigue under biaxial stress states. For Mode I crack growth, a tensile component of stress parallel to the crack decreased crack growth rate; a compressive component had the opposite effect. These changes in growth rate are explained in terms of the material's differing cyclic stress-strain response under shear and equibiaxial loading.
Studies of Mode II growth were found difficult to perform, due to a critical balance between Mode II and Mode I growth. Mode II crack growth rates were much greater than for the equivalent Mode I crack. The growth rate increased with increasing ΔKII but did not follow the Paris relationship due to the occurrence of incipient or undeveloped bifurcation which prevented continued and undisturbed Mode II growth.
Growth of Fatigue Cracks Under Combined Mode I and Mode II Loads
Authors: Hua G , Alagok N , Brown MW , Miller KJ 
Published: December 2008

Although the majority of fatigue crack propagation studies have been concerned with pure Mode I loading situations, in practice many cracks in components may initially extend by fatigue under a combination of all three crack growth modes, and this initial period may predominate during the fatigue lifetime. In this paper, the threshold and growth behavior of cracks under various combinations of Mode I and Mode II crack tip displacements are studied, showing the effect of the T-stress in the biaxial specimen. Four materials (AISI 316 stainless steel, DTD 5120 aluminium alloy, Ti-6A1-4V, and 1Cr-Mo-V steel) have been tested. Two different experimental procedures, four-point bending and biaxial loading of a plate, are employed.
An expression is derived for fatigue crack growth under combined mode load conditions relating growth to crack-tip reversed plastic deformation, which depends on the Mode I and Mode II crack-tip stress-intensity factors and also the T-stress. A secondary but important factor is the fracture ductility of the material around the crack tip, which itself is a function of biaxial stress state.
Crack Initiation Under Low-Cycle Multiaxial Fatigue
Authors: Jacquelin B , Hourlier F , Pineau A 
Published: December 2008

This study is devoted to the determination of a criterion for predicting crack initiation under low-cycle multiaxial fatigue. Here crack initiation, Ni, is defined as the number of cycles needed by the final microcrack to reach one grain size. The tests which were carried out at room temperature on Type 316L stainless steel and Inconel 718 alloy included (a) reversed tension-compression (b) reversed tension-compression with a superimposed steady torque, (c) pulsated tension-compression with a stress ratio Rσ such that −0.5 &lt; Rσ &lt; 0 and (d) reversed torsion. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations were used to determine the number of cycles corresponding to crack initiation and the orientation of the microcracks.
From these observations a criterion combining the plastic shear strain range for the crack initiation plane, Δγp, and the maximum of the shear stress on this plane, τ, is proposed. It is shown that the predictive capability of this criterion is satisfactory for various experimental results featuring both Types A and B crack initiation. Using the proposed criterion and the experimental relation between Ni and the number of cycles at failure, Nf, in conjunction with a double linear damage rule, it is shown that this approach accounts for previously published experimental results involving two level loadings.
Fatigue Behavior of Cyclically Softening and Hardening Steels Under Multiaxial Elastic-Plastic Deformation
Authors: Sonsino CM , Grubisic V 
Published: December 2008

To investigate the fatigue behavior of cyclically softening and hardening steels under multiaxial elastic-plastic strains, axial strain, and shear strain controlled fatigue tests under constant amplitude loading were carried out. S-N curves under axial strain and torsional pure shear as well as under combined axial strain and shear, in and out of phase, were obtained for the cyclically softening high-strength steel 30Cr-Ni-Mo 8 (similar to AISI Type 4340) and the cyclically hardening stainless steel X 10Cr-Ni-Ti 18 9 (AISI Type 321) in the region of low-cycle fatigue.
For both steels, used for vessels, pipings, shafts, etc., the fatigue life to crack initiation (crack depth a &lt; 1 mm) is reduced by an out-of-phase (δ = 90°) loading of the specimens in comparison to in-phase loading.
The decrease of fatigue life under out-of-phase strains is caused by the changing direction of principal strains resulting in an interaction of the deformations in all directions on the surface. This interaction is taken into account by the arithmetic mean value of shear amplitudes acting in all interference planes of the surface. The equivalent strain is then calculated according to the octahedral shear strain hypothesis. Using this equivalent strain and the S-N curve for uniaxial strain, the fatigue life under combined strain is predicted. For the multiaxial strain evaluation it is important to know if the local strains and shears are deformation or load controlled.
Method for Early Life-Stage Toxicity Tests Using Three Atherinid Fishes and Results with Chlorpyrifos
Authors: Goodman LR , Hansen DJ , Middaugh DP , Cripe GM , Moore JC 
Published: December 2008

We have developed methods for obtaining embryos and conducting early life-stage toxicity tests (continuous exposure from the embryonic stage to approximately three weeks or more into the exogenous feeding stage) with three estuarine species of atherinid fishes. Early life-stage tests were conducted for 28 days with Menidia beryllina, M. menidia, and M. peninsulae and the insecticide chlorpyrifos. Responses of the three species were similar: upper chronic values (“effect” concentrations) ranged from 0.48 to 1.8 µg chlorpyrifos/L and lower chronic values (“no effect” concentrations) ranged from 0.28 to 0.75 µg/L. Chlorpyrifos exposure did not affect survival of embryos to hatching which averaged 91 to 93% for each species. In treatments in which no adverse effects were observed, combined survival of M. menidia embryos and hatched fish averaged 51% and fish weights averaged 23 mg; for M. peninsulae, 69% and 13.6 mg; and for M. beryllina, 81% and 8.7 mg. Chlorpyrifos bioconcentration factors (concentration in whole fish ÷ average measured concentration in water) averaged 220 for M. beryllina, 460 for M. peninsulae, and probably &lt; 420 for M. menidia.
From these three species, toxicologists may select an Atlantic or Gulf Coast species that occurs in either high or low salinity.
Implications of Waste Disposal in Coastal Waters on Fish Populations
Authors: Cross FA , Peters DS , Schaaf WE 
Published: December 2008

Assessment and prediction of the impact of pollution on animal populations are required to improve waste management strategies. This information is not easy to obtain in the marine environment because of the large natural fluctuations in abundance of organisms. Use of information on commercial fishery populations in impact assessment is advised for three reasons: (1) pollution-related effects on marine fishery populations will have direct economic consequences, (2) many major fish stocks that already are overfished should be more vulnerable to additional stresses than nonexploited populations, and (3) long-term data bases that reflect population changes are available.
The Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, an economically and ecologically important fish, inhabits coastal and estuarine waters along the mid-Atlantic coast of the United States. Within its range, we have identified a number of man-related activities that could potentially affect its population size. Adverse impacts in coastal waters could result from an increase in the ocean dumping of sewage sludge and industrial wastes and oil spilled during the development of offshore oil reserves. In estuaries, adverse impacts could result from a slow but steady decline in water quality associated with human population growth and industrialization of coastal areas.
Scenarios were developed using a density-independent Leslie matrix model and data from the Atlantic menhaden fishery to simulate population responses to both catastrophic and chronic mortalities. These simulations demonstrate that a fish population which is heavily fished may have limited compensatory reserve and thus may be particularly sensitive to pollution.
Improvement in our capacity to predict the effects of pollution on fisheries requires an understanding of the environmental factors that control variability in fish populations and the effect of multiple stresses on these stocks over their entire geographical range. Increased predictive capability can be gained most cost-effectively through closer integration of the disciplines of population dynamics and toxicology.
Evaluation of Tensile Tests for Adhesive Bonds
Authors: Anderson GP , DeVries KL , Sharon G 
Published: December 2008

Tensile adhesion tests have been used for many years as a quality control tool and to quantify the strength of a bond. The quantity generally reported as the tensile strength is the breaking force per unit bond area (average axial stress at the maximum load). The stress distribution in tensile adhesion tests, as discussed in this report, depends upon many factors such as material properties of the adherend and adhesive and the ratio of bond area to adhesive thickness. Test data are presented which demonstrate that the debond initiation point changes from the bond edge to the center of the bond area as the adhesive thickness is decreased. These test data confirm a prior prediction by the authors.
The stress distribution and debond load were shown to be very sensitive to test specimen alignment during the tensile test. A test grip has been designed and used to alleviate effects of specimen misalignment. The effect of the modified test grip on tensile adhesion tests is discussed. A very large decrease in data variability as well as a 76% gain in apparent load carrying capability were observed when the modified test grip was used with brittle epoxy tensile adhesion test specimens.
Characterization of Mode I and Mixed-Mode Delamination Growth in T300/5208 Graphite/Epoxy
Authors: Ramkumar RL , Whitcomb JD 
Published: December 2008

This paper investigates the roles Mode I (opening mode) and Mode II (inplane shear) strain-energy release rates (GI and GII, respectively), play in inducing delamination growth under static and fatigue loading. Double cantilever beam (DCB) specimens were used for pure Mode I tests. Cracked lap shear (CLS) specimens were used for mixed-mode tests. All specimens were fabricated using T300/5208 graphite/epoxy. Delaminations were introduced during fabrication by inserting folded Kapton films between selected plies. Delaminations were located between two 0° plies in an attempt to inhibit delamination growth across plies into adjacent interfaces. The critical Mode I strain-energy release rate, GIc, was obtained from static DCB tests. Static tests on mixed-mode CLS specimens measured the total strain-energy release rate, which was broken into GI and GII components using a geometrically nonlinear finite-element analysis. By incorporating these values of GI and GII, and GIc from static DCB test results, into an assumed failure criterion, the critical Mode II strain energy release rate (GIIc) was computed.
Fatigue-induced delamination growth was characterized by conducting constant-amplitude fatigue tests at a minimum to maximum cyclic load ratio (R) of 0.05 and a frequency (ω) of 10 Hz. During the tests, the maximum and minimum strain-energy release rates (Gmax, Gmin) and the delamination growth rate (da/dN) were monitored. Fatigue test results on DCB specimens yielded a power-law relationship between da/dN and GImax. Similar results from CLS tests provided da/dN versus Gmax relationships. The contributions of GI and GII components to mixed-mode delamination growth were assumed to be additive. Hence, the power law for a pure Mode II delamination growth was derived from CLS test results by subtracting the contribution due to GI determined from DCB tests.
A Lightweight 12-m Cone Penetrometer
Authors: Johnson BA , Beard RM 
Published: December 2008

This paper describes a remotely operated, bottom resting cone penetrometer for testing to soil depths of 12 m (40 ft) in un-cemented sands, silts, and soft to medium stiff clays. It is lightweight (less than 4.5 kN [10 000 lb]) and can achieve 12-m penetration with a 4.5 kN (10 000 lb). The force necessary to push the cone rod into the seafloor was reduced by jetting.
The device is called the XSP for experimental static penetrometer. It is capable of performing electric friction-cone penetration tests to 12-m depths in soils at water depths of 60 m. The XSP is 15 m (50 ft) tall, weighs about 4.5 kN (10 000 lb), and uses an electric friction cone conforming to ASTM Method for Deep, Quasi-Static, Cone and Friction-Cone Penetration Tests of Soil (D 3441). Friction on the push rod has been sharply reduced by using a water-jet to flush sediment away from it.
Test results from four different soil types are presented. Comparison is made between side by side tests conducted with and without the water jet. Core data are also presented for comparison with the cone data.
An Overview of Selected EPA RCRA Test Method Development and Evaluation Activities
Authors: Friedman D 
Published: December 2008

This paper will present an overview of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's current and near-term future test method development and evaluation activities in light of the agency's regulatory activities under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. The paper will discuss the work in terms of the regulatory purpose to be served, the approach to be taken in conducting the studies, progress made to date, the responsible research organization, and the anticipated schedule.
Among the specific areas discussed are evaluation of current and proposed SW-846 (Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste) methods, development and evaluation of less costly methods for determining the presence and concentration of the Appendix VIII (40 CFR 261) hazardous constituents in groundwater, development and evaluation of sampling methods to determine the concentration of organic compounds in ambient air and stack emissions, and some aspects of the agency's activities in developing procedures to determine the leaching potential of waste materials placed in various environmental settings.