bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
1 A Scientific Perspective on Labeling Genetically Modified Food
Authors: Pariza Michael W. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter begins by considering how lawyers, chemists and biologists might define “food,” and how each perspective relates to the development of a rational food regulation program. The adjectives “novel,” “biotechnology‐derived” and “genetically‐modified,” are discussed in light of a food biotechnology continuum that began when humans first farmed crops and domesticated animals. The scientific basis for evaluating the safety of GM foods is discussed, and ecological considerations are addressed. The experience regarding the introduction of a GM tomato product in the United Kingdom by J. Sainsbury and Safeway stores is recounted. It is evident that science can help sort out the environmental and human health safety issues, but cannot settle philosophical and legal disputes that deal with matters beyond those that can be tested using the scientific method.
2 Genetically Modified Organisms for Agricultural Food Production
Authors: Roberts R. Michael 
Published: January 2008

AbstractGenetically modified (GM) crops are now part of mainstream agriculture, and the trend towards increased use of GM organisms in plant and animal agriculture will undoubtedly continue. This chapter provides a brief outline of the technologies used to produce GM crop plants and livestock, the means whereby GM products can be detected as minor contaminants in food, and some of the difficulties and paradoxes that must be faced in attempts to label products derived from GM organisms.
5 Genetically Engineered Animals and the Ethics of Food Labeling
Authors: Streiffer Robert , Rubel Alan 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThe current debate about labeling genetically engineered (GE) food focuses on food derived from GE crops, neglecting food derived from GE animals. This is not surprising: GE animal products have not reached the market and participants in the debate may be assuming that conclusions about GE crops automatically extend to GE animals. But two GE animals‐the Enviropig and the AquAdvantage Bred salmon‐are approaching the market, animals raise more ethical issues than plants, and U.S. regulations treat animal products differently from crops. This chapter therefore addresses the question of whether there should be mandatory labeling on food products derived from GE animals, examining the likely regulatory pathways, salient differences between GE animals and GE crops, and relevant social science research on consumers' attitudes. It concludes in favor of mandatory labeling.
7 Consumer Response to Mandated Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods
Authors: Kalaitzandonakes Nicholas , Marks Leonie A. , Vickner Steven S. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis chapter presents market data showing that consumers are not willing to pay a premium for non-GM food when given a choice between GM and non-GM food. Its data come from the Netherlands and China, where GM and non-GM foods are labeled. In the Netherlands, consumers do not respond to labels on processed food with information about GM ingredients. In China, consumers do not respond to labels on soy oil that say it comes from GM soybeans. The authors believe that preferences consumers reveal in the marketplace are more significant than preferences consumers state in opinion surveys. They conclude that mandatory labeling does not bring benefits that justify its cost. Voluntary labeling can accommodate the minority who care about the difference between GM and non-GM foods.
8 Frankenfood Free
Authors: McGarity Thomas O. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter explores the legal issues raised by the ongoing debates over whether foods containing genetically modified materials should, or even may, contain labels informing consumers of that fact. Two broad legal issues predominate: (1) whether the law should require companies marketing foods to provide information concerning the presence of GM materials in those foods on the labels; and (2) whether the information that companies voluntarily include on food labels concerning the presence or absence of GM materials is misleading. An overarching legal issue is the constitutionality of any legal requirements imposed by Congress, a state legislature or a regulatory agency.
While governmental authorities in Europe have required labeling, the Congress and the Food and Drug Administration in the United States have so far declined to do so. Furthermore, the FDA has suggested that it would be unlawful for manufacturers to label foods not containing genetically modified materials “GMO free,” because that would misleadingly suggest that they are somehow safer or more desirable. One court has even overturned a state requirement that milk containing a particular genetically modified hormone be so labeled as an unconstitutional violation of the free speech rights of manufacturers.
This chapter explores the policy and legal issues arising from labeling foods containing genetically modified organisms and critiques the current U.S. approach. It then briefly explores four models for a labeling regime that could be enacted if Congress elects to do so in the future.
9 Regulatory Barriers to Consumer Information about Genetically Modified Foods
Authors: Peters Philip G. , Lambert Thomas A. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
Participants in the debate over the labeling of genetically modified foods have generally advocated either a liberal American approach, under which positive labeling is not required and negative labeling is regulated, or the more protective European approach, under which positive labeling is mandated. We argue that the optimal approach may occupy a middle ground under which positive labeling is not required (as it is under the European model) but negative voluntary labeling is not discouraged (as it is under the American model). Removing the barriers to consumer information that inhere in the American approach would permit markets to accommodate heterogeneous consumer preferences regarding genetic modification.
11 Different Conceptions of Food Labels and Acceptable Risks
Authors: Cranor Carl 
Published: January 2008

AbstractAs a result of governmental actions consumers are prevented from knowing about genetically modified (GM) foods—there is no mandatory labeling, and it is practically impossible to provide voluntary labeling. However, there is an easy case for the voluntary labeling of GM-created foods based on several different institutional considerations. This conclusion is supported by a) different functions provided by labeling—some inform us of risks, others disclose information pertinent to decisions—b) the nature of the scientific studies that inform risk assessment, c) notions of acceptable risks from the risk perception literature supplemented by philosophic analysis, and d) some analysis of the U.S. Department of Agriculture as a trustee for protecting the public's interests.
The Scholastic Context
Authors: schmaltz Tad M. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis chapter considers the medieval and scholastic context of Descartes's theory of causation. It starts with a brief account of the origins of occasionalism in medieval Islamic theology, and then turns to two different alternatives to occasionalism in the later medieval period, namely, the “concurrentism” of Thomas Aquinas, according to which God “concurs” in the action of secondary causes, and the “mere conservationism” of Durandus of Saint-Pourçain, according to which God merely creates and conserves secondary causes that act on their own. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the metaphysical framework for efficient causality in the work of the early modern scholastic Francisco Suárez that prepares the way for a transition from a more traditional Aristotelian view of causality to what we find in Descartes.
1 The Amount of Criminal Law
Authors: Husak Douglas 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
The size and scope of the criminal law have undergone a remarkable expansion in the past few decades. This expansion has led to unprecedented levels of punishment, much of it unjust. This chapter is largely descriptive, showing how too many crimes erode the principle of legality and produce too much punishment—punishment that should not have been imposed at all, or that violates proportionality by being too severe in light of the seriousness of the offense. It offers a novel categorization of the new kinds of crime that have been enacted: ancillary offenses, overlapping statutes, and crimes designed to prevent risk. In many cases, the enforcement of these laws brings about results that any reasonable person will recognize to be unjust. The final section of this chapter describes a specific example in detail—a strict‐liability drug homicide offense—that illustrates my general thesis that too many crimes produce too much punishment.
4 Alternative Theories of Criminalization
Authors: Husak Douglas 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
The seven constraints defended in chapters two and three combine to form a minimalist theory of criminalization. This chapter argues that minimalism is better than any of the alternatives defended by legal philosophers. Three competitive theories are surveyed, and judged to be inferior to a minimalist account: economic analysis as favored by Richard Posner; utilitarianism as explicated most famously by Jeremy Bentham; and legal moralism as defended by Michael Moore. The similarities and differences between my theory and each of these three alternatives are identified and examined. The chapter describes the remaining work that must be done if a minimalist theory is to succeed in reducing the injustice caused by overcriminalization. Even though criminal law minimalism is problematic, it represents major progress in our thinking about the moral limits of the penal sanction.
Introduction
Authors: Wall Wendy L. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter gives a brief overview of the book’s argument, beginning with the premise that America’s mid-century consensus can best be understood, not as a “natural” development, but as a political project. From the mid-1930s through the early 1960s, efforts to define a unifying “American Way” often reflected struggles over three key issues: the shape and place of capitalism in American life; the place of ethnic, religious and racial outsiders in a nation long defined as white and Protestant; and the precise nature of America’s external foe. Moreover, while some Americans used the language of consensus to promote civility across class, racial, ethnic and religious lines, others put equality at the center of their consensual visions. This book also suggests that the politics of consensus helps explain two other key shifts in U.S. political culture during the mid-20th century: the movement from class-based concerns to a preoccupation with pluralism and individual rights, and the emergence of the notion that the U.S. was a Judeo-Christian or broadly “God-fearing” nation.
CHAPTER 2 Industrial Democracy versus Free Enterprise
Authors: Wall Wendy L. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
In the late 1930s, New Dealers, industrial unionists, and business groups led by the National Association of Manufacturers seized on the language of Americanism and launched public efforts to define the nation in ways that furthered their own political and social agendas. All addressed Americans’ desire to be free of want, and all attempted to connect economic and political concerns. Beyond that, however, they framed issues in profoundly different ways. President Roosevelt, CIO leaders, and others in the New Deal coalition stressed the majoritarian overtones of the word “democracy,” and called for an activist government to ensure Americans’ economic security. Industrialists and their allies, by contrast, emphasized individual rights and the libertarian dimensions of American “freedom.” The ensuing battle—pitting “democracy” against “freedom,” mutualism against individualism, and a progressive ethos against interclass unity—presaged contests that would continue into the postwar era.
CHAPTER 3 In Search of Common Ground
Authors: Wall Wendy L. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
In the late 1930s, many individuals and organizations argued that a defining feature of American life was the ability of people of diverse origins to live together harmoniously. Such assessments were both descriptive and prescriptive. Despite the nation’s long history of intolerance, when compared to the rest of the world the U.S. looked to many observers like a cosmopolitan haven. At the same time, many of those who hailed American pluralism did so to shore up tolerance and prevent the U.S. from succumbing to the hatreds ravaging other lands. Thus, nearly all of those who lauded America’s pluralist makeup also emphasized an ideological consensus that made other forms of pluralism possible. The bulk of this chapter explores the different versions of pluralism and consensus offered by Louis Adamic and the Common Council for American Unity, the interfaith movement spearheaded by the National Conference of Christians and Jews, Margaret Mead and other intellectuals concerned with cementing national morale, and Gunnar and Alva Myrdal.
CHAPTER 5 “The House I Live In”
Authors: Wall Wendy L. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
During the war, federal agencies, Hollywood, and private groups appealed for tolerance in the name of national unity, thus making pluralism a corollary of consensus. This chapter explores the implications of that formulation, highlighting the emergence to prominence during the war of the “interfaith idea.” Many federal officials and private groups worried about shoring up ethnic identities that tied Americans to foreign homelands. One way to address this problem was to recast ethnic differences in religious terms—to portray the U.S. as a Protestant-Catholic-Jewish nation. In fact, since U.S. propaganda portrayed all three Axis powers as hostile to anything other than the religion of the state, faith could actually provide a basis for American unity. Religious prejudice by no means disappeared, during the war, but the notion that the U.S. was a “tri-faith” or “Judeo-Christian” nation emerged as a powerful symbol of both American pluralism and consensus. The formulation that accelerated acceptance of religious “outsiders” proved more problematic for racial minorities since it stressed social harmony and teamwork above all else. The war gave hope and occasional triumphs to those Americans arguing for a more racially egalitarian society, but more often than not it favored civility over true equality.
CHAPTER 7 The Freedom Train
Authors: Wall Wendy L. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter explores the politics behind the most ambitious postwar effort to promote a consensual vision of the nation: the Freedom Train of the late 1940s. Conceived in office of Attorney General Tom Clark, orchestrated by advertising and movie executives, and financed by America’s largest corporations, the Freedom Train and accompanying media blitz portrayed a nation at once unified, inclusive and consensual. But this veneer of unity concealed an ongoing contest over America’s core values—a contest symbolized by the decision to downplay the controversial word “democracy” in the campaign. Under the banner of “freedom,” the train's organizers promoted interfaith cooperation and business-labor harmony, even as they arranged to have leftists who protested the train arrested. But as the train entered the South, those who had hoped to portray a nation devoid of social strife found themselves drawn into a head-on conflict with blacks and southern civic leaders over the issue of segregation. (151)
Conclusion: The Limits of Consensus
Authors: Wall Wendy L. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
Most of those who invoked a unifying set of American values between the mid-1930s and the mid-1960s shared some common ground: they emphasized individual freedoms not majoritarian democracy and believed America had a message for the globe. At the same time, they were split by a chasmal divide: some used the language of consensus to preach civility and shore up the social, economic and political status quo; others deployed that language to promote equality and social change. The competition between these two visions—as well as the ground they shared—structured national debates in powerful ways. Corporate America and the interfaith movement reaped particular benefits, and even civil rights activists were able to use the language of consensus to make limited gains. At the same time, consensus politics helped to take economic inequality off the table as a political issue and proved inadequate to addressing the long-term effects of white supremacy. The politics of consensus finally fractured in the mid-1960s for a variety of reasons, including the Vietnam War. Its legacy survives, however, in institutions, political rhetoric and assumptions about the past that continue to inform political debates.
Introduction
Authors: Collins David J. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
An analysis of a controversy in Saxony over the 1523 canonization of the eleventh‐century bishop, Benno of Meissen, introduces the reader to the engagement of early German humanists in hagiographical projects, the interest in and critique of such humanist works by fifteenth‐ and sixteenth‐century contemporaries, and the causes of this literature's preterition and misapprehension by historians since the nineteenth century. The Introduction argues that the amount and qualities of the literature belie conventional generalizations, drawn from simplistic and inaccurate interpretations of Erasmus or Luther and his circle, about a negative humanist stance towards traditional Christian devotions like the cult of the saints. The Introduction instead proposes that the humanist engagement in the cult of the saints was coherent and outlines the strategic ways that these authors transformed writings about the saints into a literature for religious and cultural reforms that German humanists promoted through much else of their activity.
Legends Pleasing and Brightly Polished
Authors: Collins David J. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
A second large group of vitae had as subjects holy men and women who had led lives of reclusion as hermits and anchoresses. Their veneration was, in contrast to the holy bishops', geographically limited to single churches and small regions. Even at this local level, however, new ambitions to have official legends written in the latest style were emerging, and custodians of these local cults sought out humanist authors. Local attraction to the humanist style, however, did not obviate the need to respect local traditions about the saints. An examination of two pairs of lives, each including an original life by a humanist and his own later revision, exposes a fundamental tension between the appeal of a new style and a respect for traditional narratives that was intrinsic to the cult of the saints. The results of revisions in different, nearly opposite directions, Albert von Bonstetten's second vita of Saint Ida of Toggenburg and Sigmund Meisterlin's second vita of Saint Sebald, demonstrate how complicated the creative interactions between authors and patrons could be.
Situating the Saints
Authors: Collins David J. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
A common kind of revision humanists made to older narratives, regardless of the type of saint being portrayed, was to the geographical and cultural setting. Often they inserted excurses of descriptive geography and historical chronicle not before associated with the given saints. Chapter three investigates how and why humanist authors amended the lives in these novel and sometimes tendentious ways. The chapter associates such chorographical changes with the Germania illustrata project, a wider movement among German humanists to investigate, construct, and glorify an ancient and medieval past that was truly German.
Seeking the Kingdom
Authors: Barsam Ara Paul 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
Schweitzer's preoccupation with Jesus' eschatology is his overarching concern with the triumph of reverence over both the loss of ethics in human society (what he normally calls the “decay of civilization”) and the “ghastly drama” of life divided against itself encountered in the natural world. Naturalism, particularly in the form of predation, is a dead moral trail. Ethics, therefore, requires a supranaturalistic, or more precisely eschatological, framework in order to flourish. Schweitzer's recently uncovered Lambaréné sermons, explored in Chapter Four, demonstrate how vital he regarded the discovery of eschatology to the rediscovery of ethics itself. In other words, it is difficult to discern the ethical motivation in this world without hope for another, better, world.
Enjoining Good and Forbidding Wrong
Authors: Baer Marc David 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines why people attempt to bring others of the same religion to their understanding of that religion (the motivation of the Kadızadelis), the link between piety and proselytization, and the central role played by those who mediate conversion. It charts the rise to prominence of the Kadızadelis religious movement in the 1650s, explaining the movement's origins in the 1620s and 1630s with Kadızade Mehmed Efendi, who propagated the interpretations of Islam of the 16th-century pietist Birgili Mehmed Efendi. It discusses their main conversionary method of preaching reform to other Muslims from the pulpits of Istanbul's imperial mosques. Charismatic preachers convinced the public to change their ways through didactic interpretations of the Qur'an and Hadith; interpersonal bonds also enabled the movement to spread at the Ottoman court. The relations between Kadızadelis and sultans, the larger societal response to their incitations to abolish many common religious practices as well as forms of entertainment, and debates among Muslims about the proper way to be Muslim are described. The chapter concludes with a discussion of conversion of religious geography and sacred space during the grand vizierate of Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (1656-61), who conventional wisdom claims ended the movement. A discussion of his policies also points to the ever waxing strength of the grand vizierate and waning of the sultanate's power, crucial for understanding Mehmed IV's interest in conversion and conquest once he obtained his majority.
Islamizing Istanbul
Authors: Baer Marc David 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines how conversion affects religious geography and sacred space. It discusses the great fire of the summer of 1660 and the meaning given to it by contemporary writers, Hatice Turhan's converting of Jewish places in the wake of the fire, the construction and dedication of the Valide Sultan Mosque in the heart of the former main Jewish neighborhood, Fazıl Ahmed Pasha's Islamization of Christian places, and how Muslim commoners followed the rulers' example in articulating the call to enjoin good and forbid wrong by removing perceived obstacles to Muslim piety. These processes transformed the religious geography of the imperial capital, shaping a more Islamic landscape.
Conversion and Conquest
Authors: Baer Marc David 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of Mehmed IV's path of jihad in the early 1670s when he journeyed to the heart of Europe to conquer a citadel which is referred to today as “the Turkish fortress”. It then discusses Mehmed IV' second campaign to ensure the Treaty of Buczacz that guaranteed Polish tribute, death of Fazıl Ahmed Pasha, Mehmed IV's campaign against the Russian Empire, and conquest and conversion in Central Europe.