bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
2 How do Papyrologists Read Ancient Texts?
Authors: Terras Melissa M. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter provides an overview of research that questions how papyrologists may read ancient documents, and presents the knowledge elicitation methodology used with the experts who read the Vindolanda texts to ascertain their thought processes when approaching a text. The process of reading and making sense of an ancient text is resolved into defined units, with characteristics about each being documented. General procedural information about the ‘papyrology process’ is also presented. Particular issues regarding problems in reading the Vindolanda stylus texts are highlighted, indicating areas in which computational tools may be able to aid the papyrologists in reading such texts. This results in a proposed model of how experts read ancient documents, which is used in subsequent chapters as a basis for the development of a computer system.
Kantian Apperception and the Non‐Cartesian Subject
Authors: Ameriks Karl 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter offers an apologetic interpretation of the most basic features of Kant's central doctrine of apperception, and argues that this doctrine reveals that Kant's view of the self is in fact largely the opposite of the so-called Cartesian subjectivism that has been so often ascribed to him. For Kant, the subject of apperception is ‘non-Cartesian’ in key epistemological as well as ontological senses: its determinate knowledge of itself, as of all other things, depends basically on spatial intuition, and it has no theoretically demonstrable existence as a pure spirit. The project of clarifying Kant's position in this way has much more than a merely exegetical significance, for it also reveals that his ultimate Critical doctrine of the self remains in many ways as worthy of consideration as the best contemporary theories.
The future of agriculture and humanity
Authors: Murphy Denis J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis final chapter looks back at the impact of agriculture on human populations, and looks forward to a highly uncertain future for both farming and humanity. The relatively stable Holocene climate enabled the development of farming and a forty-fold increase in human numbers by 2,000 BP. The recent dramatic increases in crop yields due to science-based agriculture have led to a further ten-fold population rise over the past two centuries. The world is now overwhelmingly dominated by complex techno-urban civilizations sustained by high-input farming regimes that rely on cheap and plentiful energy sources and a relatively stable climate. As energy becomes more expensive and the current period of climatic stability draws to a close, it will be increasingly difficult to maintain present levels of population and complex urban societies. As in previous eras, human populations may fall and undergo cultural simplification in response to such climatic uncertainties.
The Coevolution of Technologies and Institutions: Silicon Valley as the Iconic High-Technology Cluster
Authors: Kenney Martin , Patton Donald 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter considers the world's most iconic cluster: Silicon Valley. The emergence of Silicon Valley shares some features with the motion picture industry; both places experienced an inflow of entrepreneurs from other parts of the country and also saw a novel business model emerge. The environment that existed in the late 1950s, later known as Silicon Valley, was not unique; similar conditions existed in Boston and New York, for example. Both places were also influenced by policies — institutions in the motion picture case and governmental spending on defence in the Silicon Valley case. The partially random nature of the process is evidenced by the fact that William Shockley, one of the co-inventors of the transistor at Bell Labs in New Jersey and the founder of the first semiconductor firm, wanted to be near his mother.
3 ‘A Widowed Land’
Authors: Ryder Alan 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the growing resentment in Catalonia towards the ruling Trastámar dynasty. The tone of Alfonso's relations with the Catalans was set in his first encounter with their Corts at the outset of his reign. Fired by visions of glory in the Mediterranean, the young monarch hoped to enlist support in a campaign to wrest Corsica and Sardinia definitively from the Genoese, secular opponents of Catalan mercantile and territorial expansion. Instead he found an assembly determined to put domestic affairs at the top of its agenda. Frustrated and furious, Alfonso turned instead to the Corts of the Valencian kingdom which, by contrast, proved amenable and financially forthcoming in backing active preparations for an expedition to Sardinia and Corsica. This forced the Catalans, fearing they would be outflanked by their burgeoning southern neighbour, to offer grudging aid, but they failed again to make any progress towards their goal of tight control over the crown and its agents.
12 Catalonia at Bay: Enter Castile
Authors: Ryder Alan 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter discusses the struggle for an independent Catalonia. Having rejected all compromise with its erstwhile monarch, Catalonia struggled with the question of how to seek its salvation. A large majority saw the opportunity to replace a hostile sovereign with one ready to defend Catalonia and its newfound liberties, but also one able and willing to counter-balance the formidable weight of France in the opposing camp. A committee of five appointed by the Council was charged with the task of finding such a saviour. The obvious candidate was Enrique IV the king of Castile, even though such a choice fitted ill with the anti-Castilian rhetoric which had hitherto marked Catalonia's propaganda against its current Castilian monarch.
13 Diplomacy, or War by Other Means
Authors: Ryder Alan 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter details Enrique's acceptance of the Catalans as his subjects. He received their oath of fealty through his representatives on November 13, 1462 in the cathedral of Barcelona. Juan attempted to thwart the Catalans' approaches by approaching Enrique with offers of negotiation and offering his illegitimate daughter Juana as a hostage in a pledge of good faith; a move that failed. French sovereign, Louis XI was also surprised by Enrique's behaviour. The prize he counted upon plucking from the Catalan embroilment, Cerdagne and Roussillon, would be put at risk should Catalonia become subject to Castile.
18 The Lost Lands
Authors: Ryder Alan 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter focuses on Juan's readiness to forgive and forget his enemies, fueled by his desire to unite all Catalans against the detested king of France, usurper of Roussillon and Cerdagne. Never one to relinquish a title or territory, Juan would not rest until he had won back lost provinces. It was a cause equally dear to his Catalan subjects; none could accept an outcome that left their principality dismembered.
8 Gilbert Murray and A. E. Housman
Authors: Davies Malcolm 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter explores Murray's relationship with men who were in many ways very different from him, but who, like him combined academic distinction with a wider public reputation. Housman can be compared to Murray, who like him was a professional classical scholar who engaged with a wider public through poetry; but was unlike him both in his austere textual criticism and in his often savage reviewing of other scholars. Similarly Russell, who moved in social and intellectual circles which overlapped Murray's, and like Murray he was a liberal in politics, but had a very different mindset. In both cases, the maintenance of the relationship involved a continuing tension between distinct emotional patterns and world-views.
Gilbert Murray and International Politics
Authors: Ceadel Martin 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter explores Murray's activity and thinking in international relations. It traces the development of what was always an aristocratic Liberalism, one which included a disdain for ‘small dark races’. It shows how Murray, the apologist for British foreign policy in World War I, slowly transmuted into Murray the internationalist in the late 1910s and 1920s, and how his liberalism turned to conservatism in his later years.
Asset allocation
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
Institutional portfolios with long-term investment horizons, such as endowments, are best invested in assets capable of generating equity-like returns, including those with private equity and absolute return strategies. To mitigate equity risks, portfolios also include fixed income, real estate, and other assets such as commodities or natural resources. Compared to larger US educational endowments, institutions in Oxford and Cambridge had less exposure to alternative assets and strategies. They have invested significantly more in direct property assets, and for the colleges it often appeared that their real estate was a counterpart to US holdings of fixed interest securities.
Investing in property
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
Like absolute return strategies, property or real estate assets serve not only as a powerful diversifier, but they also protect the portfolio by generating returns that are not typically correlated with other traditional assets such as publicly traded equities. Colleges in Oxford and Cambridge historically owned significant property assets in their endowment portfolios. Their decision to maintain a relatively high proportion of property assets today is driven by the desire to diversify risk as well as to secure a steady source of income.
Issues in portfolio management
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
Colleges in Oxford and Cambridge have invested in property, bonds, and equity-like assets including private equity; they also own original works of art, rare books, vintage wine, and other such assets that would typically have been bequeathed to them. The range of assets may not have been significantly enlarged recently, but financial innovation has created more options whereby traditional assets can be accessed in a more efficient manner. This chapter examines issues that relate to overall asset allocation, primarily because it is this that shapes the individual portfolio.
Portfolio risk
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
Experienced investors recognize that understanding the risk profile of the overall portfolio lies at the heart of any assessment of investment alternatives. Attempting to identify the risks to college endowment portfolios (on a scale of 1 to 5 with 1 being not very important and 5 very important), with reference to various aspects of portfolio risk (such as market risk, risk relative to benchmark, liquidity risk, fiduciary risk, and ‘other’ risk factors), provides clues to the risk framework within which colleges in Oxford and Cambridge invest. A majority (85%) of colleges consider their investment committees as being responsible for risk management of endowment assets, with about half reporting that the job is done internally without the assistance of any expert external guidance. The involvement of investment consultants in managing portfolio risk, is minimal. Even in Oxford, where more institutions reported using the services of investment consultants, only 15% of Colleges used a consultant in risk management.
Performance measurement
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
An integral aspect of asset management is measuring the overall investment performance of the endowment portfolio. The efficient management of relationships between the sponsoring institution and their appointed asset managers is critical. Once managers are appointed, monitoring their performance assists in ensuring that the endowment's investment objectives are met. As institutions in Oxford and Cambridge do not rely on external, independent evaluation of their performance or of their managers, the overall question of performance measurement in the context of total return investing remains a major concern. Given the orientation towards property, lack of consultants in the investment process, institutional fragmentation and lack of a common model, the whole issue of performance measurement remains controversial.
Endowment management cost
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy 
Published: September 2007

AbstractOne important area for periodic review for all investors is the overall cost incurred in investment management. At first glance, costs associated with endowment management for Oxford and Cambridge institutions appear to be broadly aligned with that of industry globally, with Oxford reporting greater efficiency in managing such expenditures. Average costs, however, do not reflect asset allocation decisions, the nature of strategies implemented, the level of risk, Sharpe (i.e., reward-to-risk) ratios achieved, or other services delivered to the client. Taking into account the more traditional approaches to investing within Oxford and Cambridge institutions, a higher level of pooling and/or indexing could reduce costs further; or a higher level of investment service could be secured at the same expense.
Concluding observations
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
Oxford and Cambridge endowments comprise funds generally regarded as for the long term, and which fundamentally underpin and sustain the operation of the institutions at their desired level of activity. Oxbridge institutions have collectively embraced major change over the last few years by implementing total return investment strategies. They have simultaneously made the shift from spending policies that encouraged income generating investments towards establishing sensible spending rules that freed up asset allocation decisions. Such changes in investment approaches have consequences in terms of determining appropriate governance, choice of assets, identifying skilled managers, monitoring their performance, understanding the sources of value-addition and cost analysis, and setting many other aspects of endowment policy. As such transitions take a long time to implement, many of the institutions are in the process of managing that change.
LINEAR CAUCHY PROBLEM WITH VARIABLE COEFFICIENTS
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter emphasizes energy estimates, that is, a priori estimates without loss of derivatives in Sobolev spaces. The appropriate tools are functional symmetrizers, obtained merely as Fourier multipliers for Friedrichs symmetrizable operators, and constructed by means of symbolic symmetrizers for more general operators. In particular, symbolic symmetrizers are shown to exist for constantly hyperbolic operators. Subsequently, well-posedness is proved in Sobolev spaces Hs, for any s in the case of infinitely smooth coefficients, and also for s large enough in the case of Hs coefficients. The existence of solutions relies on the Hahn-Banach and Riesz theorems, using energy estimates for the adjoint backward Cauchy problem. Uniqueness follows from energy estimates for the direct Cauchy problem. Regularity is shown by means of the weak equals strong argument, which is shown as the weak solutions obtained by the duality method are necessarily strong solutions, that is, suitable limits of infinitely smooth solutions of regularized problems.
FRIEDRICHS-SYMMETRIC DISSIPATIVE IBVPs
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter provides an elementary introduction to Initial Boundary Value Problems (IBVP). It introduces the notion of dissipative boundary condition, here in a classical sense. Such IBVPs can be treated with the Hille-Yosida Theorem. Maximal estimates are obtained that will be considered in subsequent chapters. Strict dissipativeness is crucial for obtaining boundary estimates.
THE CHARACTERISTIC IBVP
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
When the boundary is characteristic, maximal estimates must be understood in a restricted sense. The regularity theory is thus difficult, as is the construction of a dissipative symmetrizer. This is carried out under additional though natural assumptions. In particular, the chapter describes higher-order estimates under Ohkubo's assumptions.
VARIABLE-COEFFICIENTS INITIAL BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter turns to linear IBVPs with variable coefficients. The techniques mix those of Chapters 2 and 4. Dissipative boundary symmetrizers have now variable coefficients, and are viewed as symbolic symmetrizers, from which the chapter builds functional dissipative symmetrizers. The latter are used to establish a priori estimates. The duality method is then employed for proving well-posedness.
THE EULER EQUATIONS FOR REAL FLUIDS
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter discusses models for inviscid compressible fluids. It recalls the Euler equations for the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy; the equation of state, the entropy, and the symmetrizability. The latter allows us to prove the local well-posedness of the Cauchy problem. The chapter investigates the Rankine-Hugoniot relations for shock waves and the admissibility criteria: entropy inequality, Lax and Liu conditions, and internal structure (viscous profiles).
A Prospective Introduction
Authors: Matthews Robert J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter discusses the emergence of a Received View, which holds that common-sense psychology has it right when it takes beliefs, desires, and other propositional attitudes to be the causes of behaviour. It identifies propositional attitudes with certain representational states of their possessor, holding that having a propositional attitude (e.g., believing that it's sunny outside today) is a matter of standing in a functional-computational relation to a mental representation. Specifically this is a mental sentence that expresses the propositional content of the attitude (in the example, a mental representation that expresses the proposition that it's sunny outside today). The chapter also offers an account of the nature of the molar cognitive capacities (e.g., language comprehension, spatial orientation, face recognition) that scientific cognitive psychology takes to be its task to explain. An overview of the chapters included in this volume is presented.
The Received View
Authors: Matthews Robert J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of the eight basic tenets of the Received View, which taken together firstly present reductive metaphysical claims about the nature of propositional attitudes, cognitive capacities, and cognition itself; and secondly a normative epistemological claim about the proper form of cognitive psychological explanations. What is distinctive and essential to the Received View, and serves to distinguish it from superficially similar views about how cognition is to be understood and explained, is the representational-computational construal of propositional attitudes and their role in cognition presented in tenets (v)-(vii) of the view. The three important entailments of the received view and the historical origins and development of the Received View are considered.
Troubles with the Received View
Authors: Matthews Robert J. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
There are two general arguments in support of the Received View. First, it is argued that if propositional attitudes, cognitive capacities, and cognition were the sort of things (and processes) that the Received View claims they are, then that fact would explain their having the salient properties that they do. Second, it is argued that the Received View enjoys indirect but nevertheless strong empirical support from cognitive science. Such science, it is claimed, presupposes the Received View, and hence the former's successes provide support for the presupposed view. This chapter examines critically these two arguments in support of the Received View's account of the metaphysical nature of propositional attitudes. With respect to the first sort of argument, dubbed ‘abductive argument’, it is argued that the case made by these arguments is actually quite weak. With respect to the second sort of argument, dubbed the ‘indirect empirical support argument’, it is argued that the alleged empirical support is largely non-existent: either the computational theories that are claimed to provide indirect empirical support do not presume the Received View, or to the extent that they do, there is little or no empirical rationale.
Are Propositional Attitudes Relations?
Authors: Matthews Robert J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter challenges the presumption that the relational nature of propositional attitudes can simply be read off the logical form of the sentences by which we report propositional attitudes. It argues that while recent work in formal semantics provides good reason to think that the logical form of these sentences is indeed relational, that fact in itself is no reason to suppose that propositional attitudes are themselves relations. The relational logical form of belief sentences, problems with the relational conception of belief, semantic vs. psychological objects of belief, the problem for relationalists, and logical form are discussed.
The Basic Measurement‐Theoretic Account
Authors: Matthews Robert J. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter develops a characterization of the empirical structure of the attitudes, using the conceptual resources developed in the previous chapter. It begins by developing a characterization of the ‘representing structure’ that is presumed to embed an image of the empirical structure of the attitudes. It then turns to the more difficult task of developing a characterization of this empirical structure itself. This is accomplished by bringing to bear both empirical considerations about the everyday use of attitude attributions and formal considerations about the sorts of mapping relations between representing and represented structures that would be necessary to support such use.
Atomic-Scale Imaging
Authors: Chen C. Julian 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter discusses the imaging mechanism of STM and AFM at the atomic scale. Experimental facts show that at atomic resolution, tip electronic states play a key role. Analytic theoretical treatments provide quantitative explanation of the effect of the tip electronic states. On transition-metal tips, first-principle studies unanimously show that d-type tip electronic states dominate the Fermi-level DOS. First-principle studies of the combined tip-sample systems show that for both STM and AFM, the p- and d-type tip electronic states are the keys to understanding the atomic-scale images. The case of spin-polarized STM and the chemical identification of surface atoms are also discussed in terms of tip electronic structure. The chapter concludes with discussions of experimental verifications of the reciprocity principle: at atomic resolution, the role of tip electronic states and the sample electronic states are interchangeable.