bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Chemical Cleaning of Historic Structures—A Practical Approach
Authors: Rudder TH 
Published: December 2008

The aesthetic appeal of a building's facade is the visual vanguard of the entire building. Chemical cleaning of a building's exterior, if approached intelligently, can result in the building's substrate being returned to its original condition.
This paper outlines a step-by-step procedure that should be followed by the five key parties who share the responsibility for the cleaning of an historic structure. The duties and obligations of the building owner, the architect, the local preservation officer, the manufacturer of cleaning products, and the contractor are explored and some of the common pitfalls are explained.
The appendix includes a sample set of exterior building cleaning specifications.
The Role of Occupancy Analysis in Diagnosing Total Building Performance
Authors: Pleasantine D , Polly W , John Z 
Published: December 2008

There is a crisis of premature building deterioration due, at least in part, to inadequate performance. This crisis has been particularly notable in office buildings. In addition, there are apparently conflicting demands in office environments: to reduce the energy consumption of buildings, to maintain or improve the productivity of employees accommodated, to satisfy their demands for a degree of environmental choice and control, and to respond to increased consumer awareness about the quality of such environmental attributes as air and lighting levels.
The approach taken in building diagnostics is highly innovative. In order to solve the complex problems being encountered, investigators have to diagnose buildings in transdisciplinary ways. This approach to problem solving requires that each disciplinary subgroup keep in mind a larger shared picture of the team's joint goals, that data are gathered concurrently and analyzed so as to test the findings and implications of decisions in each area, and that recommendations be examined that minimize negative side effects.
Occupancy analysis is one aspect of a transdisciplinary approach. It focuses on issues of environmental effectiveness, user well-being and control, and change (incremental and major) by probing patterns of, and attitudes towards, occupancy and use. This paper presents a case study in which this approach was applied. Occupancy analysis data, gathered with concurrent base technical testing of ambient environmental conditions, was used to focus more detailed technical testing in specific areas as necessary, thus reducing the enormous costs of blanket technical testing. Occupancy analysis provided critical data on perceived environmental comfort and effectiveness to be compared with the actual measurement of environmental conditions. The objective of this diagnostic project was to improve energy performance without diminishing environmental quality within office areas.
Increasingly it is being realized that unless all participants in building design, operation, and maintenance have an improved collective understanding of how to design and control the technical systems and layouts in buildings over time, new problems or negative side effects may be unintentionally created by unidisciplinary action. Diagnostic studies explore the possibility that improvement can be achieved by nurturing a sense of collective competence and well-being of occupants rather than the current sense of environmental deprivation, while minimizing operating and maintenance costs as well as building deterioration.
Developmental History of Institutions—Life History of Their Buildings
Authors: Peter J 
Published: December 2008

This paper attempts to discuss mutual influences of the organizational development of institutions and their buildings. This is done in a dynamic approach in that the process of birth, growth, maturity, aging, and decay of institutions is described in its mutual impact on the life history of buildings from the briefing and design through realization, utilization, alteration, and rehabilitation to the physical decay and demolition or rebirth.
Building performance is not only a characteristic of the building itself but is highly determined by the dynamic process of development and transition which an institution undergoes during its existence.
So, even flexible and adaptable buildings show a deterministic, static character, and their total building performance must be permanently readjusted during the history of their use.
Building rehabilitation and preservation is seen as a means to support the organizational development of institutions in certain critical phases of their existence. The appreciation or condemnation of old buildings—as seen from institutional expectations and needs, from policy and value concepts, and from strategic and economic aspects—stems by no means only from functional or technological reasons.
A Method for Determining the Allowable Strength of In-Place Wood Structural Members
Authors: Jedrzejewski MJ 
Published: December 2008

There are numerous older wood-structured buildings in the United States which have great potential for reuse; however, their allowable load capacity is unknown or is not readily calculable due to the lack of grade marks on the wood members which would identify their strength properties.
This paper describes a method by which the allowable strength properties of in-place wood structural members can be determined. The method consists of a series of procedures which utilize current ASTM standards and specific inspection techniques to render the allowable strength properties of the wood members. With the allowable strength properties of the wood members determined, the load capacity of the total structure, of specific members, or of areas of the structure can be determined by the use of common engineering calculations.
Evaluation of Building Deterioration by Water Runoff
Authors: Livingston RA 
Published: December 2008

A significant cause of building deterioration is the erosion of surfaces through rainwater runoff, a process which can be accelerated by attack by air pollution, including acid rain. In order to make an accurate diagnosis of the problem, it is necessary to identify which agents of deterioration are present and to estimate the rate at which the material is being lost. This can be done rapidly and directly by measuring the amount of dissolved and suspended material removed in the water runoff and then calculating mass balances.
This paper proposes procedures for performing this type of measurement, including the apparatus required, the major variables and ions to be analyzed, and the interpretation of results. The general approach is to isolate a test area of the building surface so that the water flowing over it can be collected. The water can be either rainfall or distilled water sprayed on the building. If rainfall is the source of the runoff, samples of the incident runoff also must be collected to complete the mass balance. The collected sample is analyzed for concentrations of ions characteristic of the building materials under examination, such as aluminum, calcium, iron, and silicon. In addition, ions related to air pollution—such as sulfates and nitrates—are measured.
Overview of Studies in the United Kingdom on Neutron Irradiation Embrittlement of Pressure Vessel Steels
Authors: Davies LM , Ingham T 
Published: December 2008

The paper describes work on irradiation embrittlement that has been undertaken in the United Kingdom since preparation of the Second Marshall Report on the Integrity of pressure water reactor (PWR) pressure vessels. Results from research programs concentrate specifically on work on steels for Magnox and PWR pressure vessel (PV) applications.
Models have been developed that describe the influence of copper precipitation on the yield stress changes in Magnox PV steels. Results from strength and microscopic examination confirm the significance of copper precipitation after long-term aging. The results provide support to the expression in the model to describe the time dependence of the copper precipitate contribution to the increase in yield strength.
Accelerated irradiation and surveillance data are present for both the Magnox and PWR PV steels. Modeling of data includes variations on neutron energy spectrum, neutron fluence, flux intensity, and irradiation temperature. The data for PWR PV materials have been used to examine the applicability of a recent draft revision of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission's Regulatory Guide 1.99 for estimating irradiation shifts on modern materials.
A study of mechanisms of embrittlement is reported including developments in positron annihilation studies and small-angle neutron scattering (both with and without the application of magnetic fields).
Irradiation Behavior of Reactor Pressure Vessel Steels from the Research Program on the Integrity of Components
Authors: Ahlf J , Bellmann D , Föhl J , Hebenbrock HD , Schmitt FJ , Spalthoff W 
Published: December 2008

Within the research program “Integrity of Components,” reactor pressure vessel steels are irradiated in capsules in the swimming-pool-type research reactor FRG-2 at 290°C to different fluences of fast neutrons. Steel heats both conforming and not conforming to specifications with respect to chemical composition as well as to tensile and deformation properties are included.
So far, the results show that for the materials investigated the 41 J transition temperature shift from impact testing is always larger than the nil ductility transition (NDT) shift from drop-weight testing. This means that the mode of procedure of the regulatory rules leads to conservative values for the adjusted reference temperature even for material states near and beyond the specification limits.
From instrumentated Charpy tests, the arrest load was determined. It was found that the irradiation-induced shift of the arrest load versus temperature curve corresponds closely to the NDT shift. By evaluating Charpy surveillance specimens along this line, one has a supplementary criterion for assessing irradiation embrittlement at hand.
At low fluences, the 41 J transition temperature shifts are conservatively predicted by the trend curves of Regulatory Guide 1.99, whereas at high fluences—though a little beyond the validity limits—these shifts lie above the extrapolated trend curves.
Effect of Irradiation on the Elasto-Plastic Toughness of Pressure Vessel Steels
Authors: Petrequin P , Mundheri MA , Soulat P 
Published: December 2008

A study on the effect of irradiation on the toughness of pressure vessel materials in the ductile regime has been undertaken. Compact tension (CT) specimens of two pressure vessel steels (A533 B and A508 Class 3) and a weld material of fitting chemical composition were irradiated and received neutron fluences of 3 and 8 × 1019 n/cm2. The J-R curves of these materials were determined between 100 and 290°C. Only a very small influence of irradiation was observed for tests at 290°C. In irradiated condition, the effect of the test temperature is not noticeable. At lower temperature, but in the ductile regime, the weld material appears to be more sensitive to neutron irradiation than the two steels. The forged material exhibited a surprisingly high shift of transition temperature since cleavage rupture occurred up to 100°C.
A method using tension tests on round notched specimens with different root radii was employed to obtain an alternative value of Jc. This method relates the Jc value to a critical growth of cavities that is determined from the tension test on notched specimens. A good agreement between this method and the conventional one was obtained for the A533 B steel. For the forged material, the results were more questionable and this was attributed to inhomogeneities in the distribution on nonmetallic inclusions for this material. This method is expected to be very useful for the determination of Jc for irradiated materials.
Investigations and Measures to Guarantee the Safety of a Pressurized Water Reactor's Pressure Vessel Against Brittle Fracture
Authors: Kaun UE , Koehring FKA 
Published: December 2008

This paper presents the investigations and procedures being taken to guarantee the integrity of reactor pressure vessels (RPV) as a result of radiation embrittlement of the weld seam in the core region (22 NiMoCr 3 7 corresponding to ASTM A508, Class 2).
First, changes in the core map substantially reduced radiation exposure rates for the vessel wall. Second, experimental radiation programs on specimens and measured fracture toughness, Kk, of the welding material, as a function of neutron flux, are discussed together with the theoretical and experimental determination of neutron flux. As the high-pressure injection system is modified to hot leg injection, a depressurized thermal shock produces the critical pressure and temperature transients, which covers all other thermo-hydraulic plant transients with respect to brittle fracture loads.
Additionally, analytical results for the initiation and arrest of circumferential cracks, warm prestress effects for the end-of-life (EOL) state of the RPV, and limited crack size investigations are discussed. Finally, plant inspection plans with respect to vessel wall radiation exposure and nondestructive testing are illustrated.
Reactor Pressure Vessel Structural Implications of Embrittlement to the Pressurized-Thermal-Shock Scenario
Authors: Iskander SK , Sauter AW , Föhl J 
Published: December 2008

A deterministic fracture-mechanics parametric-type analysis of a generic pressurized-water reactor pressure vessel has been conducted for loading conditions imposed by a specific category of hypothetical pressurized-thermal-shock transients. The time in the life of the vessel for which the calculations were made corresponds to attainment of the limiting nil-ductility transition reference temperature specified by the U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission's pressurized thermal-shock-issue-related screening criteria.
The transients considered were characterized by a constant pressure and an exponential decay of the downcomer coolant temperature. The decay constant, the final temperature of the coolant, and the fluid-film heat-transfer coefficient were the variable parameters. A search was performed to determine the critical pressure corresponding to incipient crack initiation for a range of crack depths up to 20% of the wall thickness. Results indicate that the critical pressure is greater than the normal operating pressure, if the coolant final temperature is greater than 150°C.
The fracture mechanics model used in the study tends to be conservative in the sense that it ignores possible beneficial effects of warm prestressing and cladding.
A Comparison of Mixed Flask Culture and Standardized Laboratory Model Ecosystems for Toxicity Testing
Authors: Shannon LJ , Harrass MC , Yount JD , Walbridge CT 
Published: December 2008

Two microecosystem protocols, the standardized aquatic microcosm (SAM) method developed by Dr. Frieda Taub and associates (1982) and the mixed flask culture (MFC) method of Dr. John Leffler (1981), were compared on the basis of their responses to copper sulfate. These protocols differed in microcosm structure, age, and the variables monitored.
Two complete experiments were conducted with each method so that repeatability, as well as sensitivity and variability, could be evaluated. Copper caused significant reductions in pH, oxygen gain, and oxygen loss at concentrations down to 500 μg/L (the lowest test concentration) in the SAM tests and 320 μg/L in the MFC tests. Lower copper concentrations (36 and 70 μg/L) in the MFC tests caused significant increases over control levels for several system-level variables.
Although responses were similar with both systems, the SAM procedure provided considerably more insight into the changes in population densities and nutrient cycling responsible for the observed ecosystem level changes. This additional information was not obtained without cost, however. The SAM protocol was much more labor intensive and required about six times more laboratory effort than did the MFC protocol.
The SAM systems, on the basis of their higher coefficients of variation (CV) and higher minimum detectable differences (MDD), appeared to be theoretically less able to demonstrate significant toxic effects. This higher variability was at least partially offset by scheduling toxicant addition during the more sensitive early stages of microcosm development, since the frequency with which statistically significant effects were observed at comparable treatment levels suggested no inherent difference in sensitivity between the two systems.
The SAM results were more consistent, with microcosms developing and responding to copper in a similar manner in both runs. In contrast, the microcosms in the MFC experiments showed major differences in both development and sensitivity between runs.
Both methods were found to have strengths and weaknesses. The SAM protocol was more repeatable and provided a much more complete picture of toxicant effects, but was extremely labor intensive. The MFC protocol lacked repeatability and provided no information to aid in interpreting ecosystem-level effects, but was capable of displaying sensitivity equal to that of the SAM procedure and required a comparatively small time investment. We believe a useful new microcosm protocol could be developed by incorporating some of the strengths of the SAM system into a mixed flask type system.
A Simple In-Stream Test of Laboratory Findings that NTA Protects Fish and Invertebrates Against Copper and Zinc
Authors: Sprague JB 
Published: December 2008

The chelating agent NTA (nitrilotriacetic acid) eliminated acute lethality of zinc and copper during 4 days of experimental dosing in a small creek. Caged salmon died in 4 h in the “polluted” zone, where added metals were 4 to 7 times the lethal threshold, and dead wild eels were also found. Downstream, with equi-molar NTA added, caged fish survived without marked signs of stress, and normal behavior of a wild eel was noted.
Benthic invertebrates were much more tolerant of metals than anticipated, and subtle changes in the community could not be documented by the deliberately minimal design of the experiment (pairs of Surber samples before and after treatment). The only demonstrated change in numbers was the virtual disappearance of blackfly larvae in the polluted zone, with no change in the control and anti-polluted zones. Cluster analysis of benthic samples also suggested effectiveness of NTA; the two polluted samples were distinct from a grouping which contained all other samples (“clean,” “before,” and “anti-polluted”). No effects were demonstrated for diversity index, genera, or total numbers.
As a side-issue, the experiment demonstrated that immature stoneflies and caddisflies, but not blackflies, can survive for 4 days in concentrations of zinc and copper that are at least 4 times the lethal level for salmonid fish. The relative tolerances of other taxa were uncertain because of small sample size, high variance, and few replicates.
Structural and Functional Response of Natural Phytoplankton and Periphyton Communities to a Cationic Surfactant with Considerations on Environmental Fate
Authors: Lewis MA , Taylor MJ , Larson RJ 
Published: December 2008

The effects of a cationic surfactant were evaluated in field experiments with natural algal assemblages to validate the laboratory toxicity data base. Response parameters monitored in studies of 3 h to 21 days duration included structural and functional community characteristics in addition to more standard growth measurements. Photosynthesis and community similarity were typically the more sensitive parameters and a diversity index the least sensitive. The median effective concentration (EC50) values based on photosynthetic activity ranged from 0.4 to 6.1 mg/L. Phytoplankton were first affected in situ between 0.03 and 1.99 mg/L, relative to an effect level between 0.21 and 0.96 mg/L for periphyton. Periphyton colonized and exposed in river water containing 25% effluent were first affected at 6.9 mg/L. A mean in-stream concentration of 0.25 mg/L had no adverse effect on the indigenous periphyton of a small Indiana stream based on comparison of three-week pre- and post-exposure community analysis. Rapid biodegradation was observed in the field experiments.
The field-derived effect concentrations were compared with those determined in standard laboratory toxicity tests for four cultured algal species. The laboratory first-effect and EC50 levels for these single species were typically lower. Overall, the multispecies tests proved valuable in providing perspective on the potential for an environmental impact from this surfactant that could not be demonstrated in the laboratory using current standard testing methodologies.
Comparison of Leachate Quality in Foundry Waste Landfills to Leach Test Abstracts
Authors: Ham RK , Boyle WC , Blaha FJ 
Published: December 2008

The landfills for six ferrous foundries in Wisconsin were instrumented with suction lysimeters to sample leachate directly from the waste above the zone of saturation. All landfills disposed of only foundry process solid wastes had minimal known changes in processes and waste over the period of landfilling in the areas tested and were not located in ground water. The quality of leachate from the lysimeters was compared to the quality of leachate obtained by laboratory leach testing of the auger cuttings obtained during lysimeter installation and to leach tests performed on composite raw waste samples obtained directly from the foundries.
It is concluded that, even though the (EP) (acid) test was able to predict the presence or absence of a contaminant in landfill leachates over half of the time, the test was inaccurate, in some cases grossly inaccurate, in predicting the actual field concentrations. It is also concluded that the EP (water) test was basically equal to the EP (acid) test in being able to predict the presence of absence of a contaminant in landfill leachates.
Soil Moisture Monitoring and Sampling Probe for Underground Storage Tanks and Surface Impoundments
Authors: Morrison R , Mioduszewski D 
Published: December 2008

A review of available technologies for monitoring leaks from underground storage tanks and surface impoundments was performed to identify equipment that was most suited for this purpose. A single probe that combines the functions of a tensiometer and lysimeter was selected for additional research based upon this review. The unit detects changes in matric potential when functioning as a tensiometer and can also collect soil pore-water samples as a lysimeter. The probe developed from this effort was instrumented for both manual or remote monitoring, recording, and sampling. Instrumentation for automated maintenance allowed the unit to operate for extended periods of time without refilling the tensiometer mode of the probe with liquid.
Probe density depends upon soil texture and moisture content, geometry of the containment structure, and depth of installation. Calculations for determining the optimum probe placement based upon the diameter of the porous ceramic portion along with soil dispersion characteristics determine the primary variables for determining the optimum number of probes for a given containment structure. Probe sensitivity is controlled by the porous surface to vessel liquid volume, the radius of the porous section, and type of surface instrumentation.