bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Plant Chloroplasts and Other Plastids
Authors: Flügge Ulf‐Ingo 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Plastids are a group of organelles that are characteristic of plant cells. They are able to perform many specialized functions that are essential for plant growth and development, such as photosynthesis, nitrogen assimilation, the synthesis of amino acids and of fatty acids, storage of carbohydrates and lipids or the formation of colours in some fruits and flowers.
Plant Cell Walls: Economic Significance
Authors: BeMiller James N 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Plant cell walls are composed of polysaccharides and, in the case of higher plants, lignin. The economic significance of plant cell walls arises largely from three types of uses: (1) use of whole tissues or slightly processed tissues whose constituents are primarily cell‐wall components (wood and other plant fibres); (2) use of delignified and extracted tissues (pulp); (3) use of extracted, and in some cases chemically modified, water‐soluble cell‐wall polysaccharides (pectins, seaweed polysaccharides, hemicelluloses). Other substances that can be extracted from plant tissues are generally extraneous to the cell wall.
Plant Cell Growth and Elongation
Authors: McCann Maureen C , Roberts Keith , Carpita Nicholas C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The plant cell wall is a strong material that resists expansion
when water is taken up by the protoplast; for cells to expand
irreversibly, the existing wall architecture must be loosened to permit the
insertion of newly synthesized wall polymers. Biochemical approaches have
identified changes in wall composition that occur during growth and some of
the enzymes involved in wall loosening, whilst the study of mutants is
beginning to identify genes involved in plant cell growth and elongation.
Variation, Within Species: Introduction
Authors: Harrison Richard M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Individuals within a species will have similar genes but will differ in phenotypic characteristics and behaviour because of slight differences in the genotype and response to environmental conditions. This was first reported by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace in the paper ‘On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means’ read to the Linnean Society in London on 1 July 1858.
Sexual Selection
Authors: Shykoff Jacqui A 
Published: September 2006

AbstractSexual selection was proposed by Darwin to explain the evolution of traits that do not contribute to survival or fecundity, such as the elaborate train of the peacock, the horn of the rhinoceros beetle, and the bright red belly of the stickleback. The development of such characteristics gives some individuals higher reproductive success because they achieve more matings or successful fertilizations. Sexual selection operates between individuals of the same sex as they compete for mates, and between the sexes as individual choices are made of mating partner.
Evolution: Tempo and Mode
Authors: Damuth John D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
‘Tempo’ refers to the rate of evolution, the rate of phenotypic change either within lineages or expressed as averages within major taxonomic groups. ‘Mode’ refers to the pattern of evolution – whether it is continuous or episodic; whether it is primarily phyletic (within‐lineage) or proceeds mostly by lineage‐splitting; whether it shows directional trends or not; and whether it proceeds by small steps or sudden jumps.
Coevolution: Host–Parasite
Authors: Penn Dustin J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Hosts and their parasites have an intimate and antagonistic relationship; therefore, they are expected to play important roles in influencing each other's evolution. When a host evolves a defence against a parasite, then the parasite may evolve counter‐adaptations to its host's defence. Host–parasite coevolution may have several possible outcomes, and, contrary to popular belief, does not necessarily lead to mutualism.
Mutation–Selection Balance
Authors: Spencer Hamish G 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAn organism's genome is continually being altered by mutations, the vast majority of which are harmful to the organism or its descendants, because they reduce the bearer's viability or fertility. Consequently, every generation, natural selection acts to weed out these deleterious mutations. The opposing processes of mutation and selection balance each other so that the frequency in a population of a deleterious mutation remains at an equilibrium value determined by the strength of selection and the frequency of mutation.
DNA Sequence Analysis
Authors: Gojobori Takashi , Wyndham Allison 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Analysis of DNA sequence data can reveal biologically useful information and with the immense quantity of data now available, sequence analysis provides a valuable complement to empirical studies and is an essential part of the characterization of new proteins. Useful methodologies include searching databases, conducting sequence alignments, estimating the evolutionary or genetic distance and constructing molecular phylogenetic trees.
Vertebrate Functional Morphology and Physiology
Authors: Westneat Mark W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Functional morphology is the study of the design of tissues and organ systems, the principles of physics affecting animals, and the mechanisms of the body. Physiology is the study of how living organisms adjust to their environments and regulate critical functions at the tissue, system, cellular and molecular levels. Together the two related fields include a broad range of topics such as feeding mechanics, digestion, locomotion, muscle contraction, circulatory design, oxygen exchange and other topics focused on animal function.
Thermoregulation in Vertebrates: Acclimation, Acclimatization and Adaptation
Authors: Speakman John R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Environments vary enormously in the thermal challenge they impose on the organisms that live in them. Some of these changes occur over very small temporal and spatial scales, and animals respond to these changes by acute modulations of their behaviour and physiology. More chronic changes in thermal environments, such as seasonal changes and latitudinal changes across the globe, require different responses. Three types of response have been recognized in both exothermic and endothermic vertebrates. These are termed acclimation, acclimatization and adaptive responses.
Ingestion in Fish
Authors: Westneat Mark W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Fishes are the largest group of vertebrates on Earth and this
diversity of species number is reflected in the wide range of ways that fishes
acquire food and the types of food that are ingested. Major topics in fish
feeding include the range of dietary habits of fishes, the diverse strategies
of capturing or ingesting food, the functional morphology of the jaws of
fishes, ecological patterns of prey acquisition, and evolutionary trends in
fish feeding biology.
Ingestion in Birds
Authors: Zweers Gart , Berkhoudt Herman 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Ingestion of food and water in birds is mediated by an extremely
diverse trophic system which traces back upon only two modifications of one
single anatomical design, i.e. a kinetic, beaked skull. The mechanics of
ingestion are characterized by lower jaw depression linked to a movable upper
jaw which is highly integrated with tongue and larynx motion – though
often compromised by functional demands from drinking and vocalization –
controlled primarily by touch and taste.
Digestive System of Amphibians, Reptiles and Birds
Authors: Stevens C Edward 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The digestive systems of amphibians, reptiles, and birds share
many characteristics with those of fish. However, the transition of amphibians
from an aquatic to a terrestrial environment, the development of endothermy in
birds, and the adoption of a wider range of diets required a number of
adaptations.
Osmoregulation by Vertebrates in Aquatic Environments
Authors: Evans David H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Because the salt concentration of the body fluids of aquatic
vertebrates differs from that of their freshwater or marine environment, they
face net movements of water and salt across their permeable membranes, most
notably the gill. Various organs and transport processes are involved in
maintaining internal consistency in the face of these potential osmotic and
salt problems.
Comparative Vertebrate Muscle Physiology
Authors: Rome Lawrence C 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAlthough all vertebrate skeletal twitch fibres share the same basic structure and operate by the same contractile mechanism, they are called upon to perform a host of different functions ranging from slow speed locomotion to high speed sound production. There are a number of important qualitative modifications (protein isoforms with different kinetic rates) as well as quantitative modifications (different densities of important structures) which permit this wide range of activities and form the comparative aspects of muscle physiology.
Dominant Traits and Diseases
Authors: Jorde Lynn B 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The principles of genetic dominance and recessiveness established by Gregor Mendel in his experiments with garden peas equally apply to human genetic diseases. For dominant diseases, the inheritance of one copy of the disease allele is sufficient to produce disease. Other factors, such as incomplete penetrance, variable expression, and delayed age of onset, further influence the expression of such diseases.
Allergy
Authors: Hanson Lars Å 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Allergic diseases are defined as hypersensitivity reactions caused by the immune system reacting erroneously to external material to which it normally should not react. There are two types of allergic disease. Most common and complex, both clinically and pathogenetically, are the atopic allergies such as asthma, hay fever and anaphylaxis caused by immediate hypersensitivity reactions in which special immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies play a major role. A smaller group of patients have contact dermatitis caused by delayed hypersensitivity reactions.
Prostate Cancer
Authors: Evans Christopher P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The prostate is a walnut‐sized gland located between the bladder and external urinary sphincter through which the urethra passes. The primary function of the prostate is to produce the fluid that accompanies the ejaculate; hence, it is important in reproduction. Adenocarcinoma of the prostate is the fourth most commonly diagnosed cancer in men worldwide.
Brain Cancers
Authors: Maidment Stephen L , Pilkington GJ 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The cells of the brain give rise to a variety of tumour types, foremost among them being the gliomas, a group of invasive and life‐threatening tumours whose incidence has increased since the 1960s. Despite this, the causes of brain tumours remain largely unknown and current cancer therapies serve mainly as a control rather than as a cure for this group of lesions.
Leukaemias and Lymphomas
Authors: Wiernik Peter H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The leukaemias and lymphomas are neoplastic diseases of the blood and blood‐forming organs that are highly treatable and often curable. They cause bone marrow and immune system dysfunction, which renders the host highly susceptible to infection and bleeding. Often organ dysfunction secondary to tumour cell infiltration or tumour compression of vital structures may be apparent clinically. Tumour formation and organomegaly are more common with the lymphomas than with leukaemias.
Bioinformatics
Authors: Adler David A , Conklin Darrell 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Bioinformatics is a discipline at the intersection of computer science, information technology, mathematics and biology, and includes the study and practice of archiving, searching, displaying, manipulating and modelling biological data. Bioinformatics is applied, for example, in the construction of genetic and physical maps of genomes; nucleotide and amino acid sequence analysis; gene discovery and the prediction of protein structures.
Cardiovascular Disease and Congenital Heart Defects
Authors: Wang Qing , Chen Qiuyun 
Published: September 2006

AbstractHeart disease (cardiovascular disease) is the leading cause of death in developed countries. Genetic factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of heart disease. The revolutionary advances in molecular genetics have provided new insights into the responsible genes and pathogenic mechanisms of heart disease, including congenital heart defects, arrhythmias, cardiomyopathies, heart failure, and coronary artery disease.
Vegetable Tannins
Authors: Haslam Edwin 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Vegetable tannins are phenolic plant secondary metabolites of moderate molecular size
M
r
∼ 500–3000 that have the propensity to interact with a wide range of other molecules. Interactions of vegetable tannins with proteins are of importance in nutrition, taste, astringency and bitterness, plant defence and ecology, phytotoxicity, and the conversion of animal skins to leather.
Terpenoids: Higher
Authors: Nes W David , Zhou Wenxu 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Terpenoids (synonymous with isoprenoids or isopentenoids) are a diverse class of natural products that are derived biosynthetically from an intermediate with a simple five‐carbon skeleton (isopentane); higher terpenoids are complex structures that possess minimally between 20 and 40 carbon atoms. Higher terpenoids evolved coincidentally with the evolution of life and play multiple functions in nature.
Protozoan Evolution and Phylogeny
Authors: Corliss John O 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The study of the evolution and phylogeny of the groups comprising the Protozoa, the so‐called lower eukaryotes, serves to elucidate the interrelationships between these, mostly unicellular, forms. They occupy an important ‘gap‐bridging’ position on the overall ‘tree of life’ between the more primitive unicellular bacteria (all prokaryotes) and the higher eukaryotes (multicellular plants, fungi, and animals).
Protozoan Sexuality
Authors: Dini Fernando , Corliss John O 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Sexuality in the mostly unicellular Protozoa (lower eukaryotes), as in the higher eukaryotes (animals, fungi, plants), basically involves an activity, obligate or facultative in the life cycle, in which differentiated haploid gametes (or gametic nuclei) fuse to form a diploid zygote (or zygotic nucleus) which, in turn, develops – via a series of asexual cell divisions, the first of which sometimes includes secondary reduction to nuclear haploidy – into a new population or generation of the organism.
Alveolates
Authors: Sleigh Michael A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Three groups of Protozoa, the ciliates, dinoflagellates and sporozoans have been grouped together as ‘alveolates’ because typical cells in all three groups have a pair of subsurface membranes, forming inflated or flattened alveoli (fluid‐filled cushions), beneath the surface membrane. The close relationship between the groups has been confirmed by molecular sequence analysis.
Amoeba
Authors: Anderson O Roger , Rogerson Andrew 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Amoebae are single‐celled eukaryotic microorganisms that move by characteristic surface projections of the cell known as pseudopodia. Taxonomically, they belong among the heterotrophic protozoa and are grouped with photosynthetic protozoa in the Protista. They are important as members of microbial communities and only a few are known to be human pathogens.
Euplotes
(Dorsoventrally‐Flattened Ciliates)
Authors: Heckmann Klaus , Kuhlmann Hans‐Werner 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Euplotes
is a dorsoventrally flattened ciliate with an extreme difference in the ciliature of the dorsal and ventral surfaces. Over 50 species of this genus are known. They live in freshwater and marine habitats and have frequently been used in genetic and experimental work.
Paramecium
Authors: Aufderheide Karl J , Janetopoulos Christopher 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Paramecia (from the Greek, meaning elongated or boat‐shaped) are the members of a genus of ciliated protozoa with a characteristic elongated shape (length approximately three to four times the width), a uniform distribution of cilia over the cell surface, and a ciliated oral groove leading from the anterior of the cell to the mid‐ventral deep oral cavity. The oral apparatus is shaped like a funnel, with 12 rows of oral cilia in a helical array inside.
Vorticella
Authors: Buhse Howard E , Clamp John C 
Published: September 2006

AbstractVorticellais a widespread, common genus of ciliates that live as suspension feeders in many aquatic habitats. The unicellular body is anchored to the substrate by a distinctive, helically twisted, contractile stalk and one of the current research interests centres on determining the molecular basis of stalk contraction that does not require ATP but is solely dependent on the level of available calcium.
Dinoflagellates
Authors: Taylor FJR 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Dinoflagellates are marine or freshwater, photosynthetic or nonphotosynthetic protists that swim by two dissimilar flagella, usually present on the side; one is ribbon‐like, winding around to the cell's left, and the other trails behind. Most dinoflagellates have an unusual nucleus, the dinokaryon, throughout their life cycle. Cells are naked or have a theca consisting of cellulose plates lying under the cell membrane; resting cysts have a tough dinosporin wall, which can fossilize readily.
Radiolaria
Authors: Febvre‐Chevalier Colette , Febvre Jean 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Radiolaria are marine unicellular microorganisms characterized by skeletons of silica and the presence of cytoplasmic processes radiating from the cell body. Both the fine structure and architectural diversity of the skeletons are used as taxonomic criteria. They have been joined with Acantharia in the phylum Radiozoa Cavalier‐Smith, 1987. Radiolaria are used as stratigraphy markers.
Antimicrobials: Susceptibility Testing
Authors: Williams John D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The ability of bacteria to resist the damaging effects of antimicrobials may be a normal characteristic of a particular species or may be acquired by a variety of genetic changes. Testing of bacteria to determine whether or not resistance is present is called susceptibility testing because the most frequent reasons for carrying out such tests is to monitor antibiotics to confirm that they are suitable for treatment of bacteria isolated from individual patients.
Antimicrobials against Streptococci, Pneumococci and Enterococci
Authors: Woodford Neil , Palepou Marie‐France I , Johnson Alan P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Streptococci, pneumococci and enterococci are important bacterial pathogens of humans and can cause a range of disease. Although effective antibiotic treatments exist, threats to public health are posed by antibiotic‐resistant strains of these bacteria.
Cystic Fibrosis
Authors: Davies Jane C , Griesenbach Uta , Geddes Duncan M , Alton Eric WFW 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This article has sections titled

Introduction

The CF Gene

The
CFTR
Protein and Its Function

Pathophysiology

Mutations in the
CFTR
Gene

Genotype/Phenotype Correlation

Presentation

Abundance of
CF
Heterozygotes in Non‐CF Disease Populations

Diagnostic Tests

Conventional Clinical Management

The Development of New
CF
Therapies

Conclusions
Plant Breeding and Crop Improvement
Authors: Caligari Peter DS 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
To respond to the increasing need to feed the world's population as well as an ever greater demand for a balanced and healthy diet there is a continuing need to produce improved new cultivars or varieties of plants, particularly crop plants. The strategies used to produce these are increasingly based on our knowledge of relevant science, particularly genetics, but involves a multidisciplinary understanding that optimizes the approaches taken.
Evolution of Photosynthesis
Authors: Vermaas Wim FJ 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPhotosynthesis is an ancient process. Photosynthetic reaction centres, which use light energy to drive chemical reactions, from different groups of photosynthetic organisms are compared. Commonalities are highlighted between membrane‐spanning regions of different types of photosynthetic reaction centre proteins, suggestions are made that current photosynthetic reaction centre complexes all evolved from a common ancestor, and new insights into how the rather complex and diverse photosynthetic structures may have evolved are provided. These structures may have originated by several rounds of duplication, divergence, and fusion of genes for small pigment‐binding polypeptides. The model proposed presents a rather simple and straightforward way in which two different types of photosynthetic systems are likely to have evolved from a common ancestor.
Apomixis
Authors: Chaudhury Abed , Koltunow Anna , Dennis ES , Peacock WJ 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Apomixis is the formation of seeds by asexual processes. Apomixis comprises an ensemble of developmental processes that together alter the reproductive functions in the ovule of flowering plants, converting the sexual programme to an asexual one. The result of these alterations is that the apomictically derived embryo is not a product of male and female gamete fusion as occurs in sexual reproduction but is derived solely from cells in maternal ovule tissues.
Plant Embryogenesis (Zygotic and Somatic)
Authors: Harada John J , Kwong Raymond W 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIn higher plants, embryogenesis describes the developmental period in which a cell, usually the zygote, undergoes a sequential series of partitioning events that lead to the formation of a mature embryo possessing cotyledons, shoot apical meristem, hypocotyl, root, root apical meristem and three embryonic tissue systems.
Plant Organ Primordia
Authors: Torii Keiko U 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPlant organ primordia are generated in a reiterative manner during the entire life of the plants. Complex patterning events, including boundary and polarity establishment and acquisition of cell fates, take place at the organ primordia initials. The phytohormone auxin plays an important role in initiation, outgrowth and positioning of the organ primordia.
Archaeal Chromosome
Authors: Thomas Nikhil A , Faguy David M , Jarrell Ken F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The archaeal chromosome consists of a single circular molecule within the size range reported for bacterial chromosomes. However, within the archaeal genome are both bacterial‐like genes and eukaryotic‐like genes, as well as archaeal‐specific genes, all transcribed from promoters very different from those of bacteria.
Pulmonary Embolic Disease
Authors: Alpert Joseph S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Pulmonary embolism is a serious medical condition in which blood clots (thrombi) are released into the venous circulation and eventually find their way to the pulmonary vascular bed. Most of these clots originate in the leg veins as the result of an episode of phlebitis. The larger the volume of blood clot in the pulmonary circulation, the greater is the obstruction to normal blood flow through the lungs and the greater the circulatory compromise. Massive pulmonary embolism is often fatal.
Renal Failure
Authors: Gokal Ram 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Renal failure is the state resulting from a reduction in the capacity to fulfil the essential functions of the kidney (excretory, acid–base and fluid electrolyte control). It may be acute and potentially reversible, or chronic and irreversible. It may require artificial blood purification techniques (dialysis and transplantation), but in its extreme form can be fatal.