bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Staphylococcus AureusRectal Carriage and its Association with Infections in Patients in a Surgical Intensive Care Unit and a Liver Transplant Unit
Authors: Squier Cheryl , Rihs John D. , Risa Kathleen J. , Sagnimeni Asia , Wagener Marilyn M. , Stout Janet , Muder Robert R. , Singh Nina 
Published: February 2006

Background:The role of rectal carriage ofStaphylococcus aureusas a risk factor for nosocomialS. aureusinfections in critically ill patients has not been fully discerned.Methods:Nasal and rectal swabs forS. aureuswere obtained on admission and weekly thereafter until discharge or death from 204 consecutive patients admitted to the surgical intensive care unit and liver transplant unit.Results:Overall, 49.5% (101 of 204) of the patients never harboredS. aureus, 21.6% (44 of 204) were nasal carriers only, 3.4% (7 of 204) were rectal carriers only, and 25.5% (52 of 204) were both nasal and rectal carriers. Infections due toS. aureusdeveloped in 15.7% (32 of 204) of the patients; these included 3% (3 of 101) of the non-carriers, 18.2% (8 of 44) of the nasal carriers only, 0% (0 of 7) of the rectal carriers only, and 40.4% (21 of 52) of the patients who were both nasal and rectal carriers (P= .001). Patients with both rectal and nasal carriage were significantly more likely to developS. aureusinfection than were those with nasal carriage only (odds ratio, 3.9; 95% confidence interval, 1.18 to 7.85;P= .025). By pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, the infecting rectal and nasal isolates were clonally identical in 82% (14 of 17) of the patients withS. aureusinfections.Conclusions:Rectal carriage represents an underappreciated reservoir forS. aureusin patients in the intensive care unit and liver transplant recipients. Rectal plus nasal carriage may portend a greater risk forS. aureusinfections in these patients than currently realized.
Profound Offense
Authors: Feinberg Joel 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Profound offenses are misleadingly characterized as simply “offensive nuisances” because of their perceived qualitative difference from mere nuisances, and because of their independence of actual perception. The nub of the offensiveness in the “profound” cases is not personal resentment over a disagreeable experience, but outrage at the offending conduct on grounds quite independent of its effect on oneself. Examples of profound offenses include voyeurism, Nazis and Klansmen, execrated but “harmless” deviant religious moral practices, desecration of venerated symbols, and abortion and mistreatment of corpses. The offense principle does not warrant legal interference in a person’s private conduct on the grounds that those who know that the conduct is (or may be) taking place need protection from the profound offensiveness of their own bare knowledge.
Obscenity as Pornography
Authors: Feinberg Joel 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
The term “pornographic” is a purely descriptive word referring to sexually explicit writing and pictures designed to induce sexual excitement in the reader or observer. To use the terms “obscene” and “pornographic” interchangeably, as if they referred to the same thing, is to beg the question of whether any or all pornographic materials are obscene. Whether any given acknowledged form of pornography is really obscene is an open question to be settled by argument and not by definitional fiat. The following subjects are discussed: the contrast between pornographic writing and literature and drama; artful pornography; pornographic pictorial art, poetry, and program music; how sex can be obscene; the feminist case against pornography; and violent pornography.
Wittgenstein on Mind and Language
Authors: Stern David G. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Drawing on 10 years of research on the unpublished Wittgenstein papers, this book investigates Wittgenstein’s early conception of the nature of representation, and how his later revision and criticism of that work led to a radically different way of looking at mind and language. The book casts new light on the Tractatus and Philosophical Investigations, and traces the development of a number of central themes in Wittgenstein’s philosophy. These include his conception of philosophical method, logical atomism and the picture theory of meaning, the nature of representation and the limits of language, the application of language to experience, his treatment of practice and private language, and what he called the “flow of life”. It also explains how the unpublished manuscripts and typescripts were put together, and why they often provide better evidence of the development of his ideas than can be found in his published writing. The book argues that Wittgenstein’s views are often much more simple (and more radical) than we have been led to believe. It provides an overview of the development of Wittgenstein’s thought and brings to light aspects of his philosophy that have been almost universally neglected.
Subject and Object
Authors: Stern David G. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter argues that the ontology of the Tractatus is best understood as the consequence of Wittgenstein’s conception of logic and representation in general, and the postulate of the determinacy of sense in particular. Once it is recognized that Wittgenstein arrived at the idea of simple objects based on an abstract argument about the nature of complexes and analysis without providing any specific examples of such analyses, it is easy to see the need for caution in attributing any characteristics to the objects over and above those demanded by Wittgenstein’s logicolinguistic commitments. Commentators have taken the Tractatus to be setting out a bewildering variety of highly specific views about the nature of objects. But the truth is that the book is so programmatic that its ontology can be elaborated in any number of ways. The final section of this chapter analyzes Wittgenstein’s treatment of the self in the Tractatus and his writing from the 1930s as a central example of the extreme tensions between the positivisistic doctrines stated in the Tractatus and the antipositivistic subtext it aims to convey or “show”: if the exoteric doctrine of the Tractatus is that there is no such thing as the subject of experience, the esoteric doctrine is that there is. This leads to a close reading of his proposal in the early 1930s that is considered a “subjectless” language as a way of clarifying the nature of experience, and his subsequent critique of the notions of the “metaphysical self” and the “visual world”. He had transmuted the difference between the first person and third person modes of speech into differences between two worlds and then had tried to put them back together again.
Introduction: Realism and Naturalism in the Philosophy of Science
Authors: Trout J. D. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This introductory chapter leads the reader through the major positions, issues, and disputes in 20th century philosophy of science, and describes the evidential conditions that authorize an argument for realism about the social and behavioral sciences. Realist interpretations of the entities, laws, and theories of the natural sciences have become familiar fare for contemporary philosophers of science. Along with their empiricist and various antirealist opponents, realists draw their evidence exclusively from the mature sciences of physics, chemistry, and biology. However, the cumulative effect has been the nearly universal neglect of the social sciences and psychology in this dispute. It is argued that despite the empiricism taught from textbooks in psychology and the social sciences, only a realist understanding of scientific theories can account for the success of quantitative methods in the social sciences and psychology.
Measurement as Population‐Guided Estimation
Authors: Trout J. D. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractMeasurement is a central epistemic category in science, one crucial way to test and improve theories. This chapter offers a general account of measurement, covering cases in the social, psychological, and physical sciences. According to the account of population-guided estimation (PGE), measurement values depend on real values of the population dimensions, and measurement procedures are refined with respect to these unobservable phenomena. Parameter values are real, stable features of the world that sustain conditional dependencies and whose magnitudes can be measured.
Realism: Minimal and Robust
Authors: Trout J. D. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
The sort of realism supported by statistical principles and experimental design is a thin one. Populations or their members have a real value independent of attempts to measure them, and independent of observations concerning them. As a result, the realist can invoke these unobserved, real values in their explanations of observed behavior or correlations. That there could be a general argument for realism required to account for the reliability of specific statistical principles is a novel contention. Although it is a familiar idea that the theoretical considerations raised in good experimental design require a realist interpretation, no such presumption in favor of realism has accompanied the treatment of general statistical principles. Robust realism, by contrast, holds that the approximate truth of mature scientific theories is the best explanation for their success. This strong version of realism has only mature sciences as its subject matter, and the evidence for it in the social and behavioral sciences is uneven.
Conclusion
Authors: Trout J. D. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the virtues of measured realism about the social and behavioral sciences, and reviews its comparative advantages over antirealism as well as minimal (local) and robust (global) variants of scientific realism. It also makes a projection about the fate of the naturalistic research begun here. This projection is based on track record of inference to the best explanation, and the current state of understanding of natural laws and causation.
What the Social Text Affair Does and Does Not Prove Alan D. Sokal
Authors: Sokal Alan D. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This essay analyzes what Social Text’s publication of a parody of the author’s article does and does not prove about the prevailing intellectual standards in the cultural studies of science. It discusses and criticizes two types of writing: one characterized by meaningless or absurd statements, name-dropping, and the display of false erudition; the other by sloppy thinking and poor philosophy, which come together notably in the form of glib relativism. It concludes with some critical comments on the misnamed “Science Wars”.
A Plea for Science Studies Philip Kitcher
Authors: Kitcher Philip 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This essay contrasts two views of science that are popular in Science Studies: the realist-rationalist approach, and the socio-historical perspective, and calls for an integration of the best features of each. It discusses appeals to the theory-ladenness of observation and the undertermination of theories by evidence. It analyzes the historiographic program of relying on actor’s categories.
In Defense of Bacon
Authors: Soble Alan 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Feminist critics, particularly, Sandra Harding, Carolyn Merchant, and Evelyn Fox Keller, claim that misogynous sexual metaphors played an important role in the rise of modern science. The writings of Francis Bacon have been singled out as an especially egregious instance of the use of misogynous (“rape”) metaphors in scientific philosophy to promote the scientific method and to justify technological innovation. This chapter presents a defense of Bacon, arguing that the feminist reading of Bacon is based on misquotations, passages taken out of context, projection, and scholarly uncharitability.
What Is Wrong with the Strong Programme's Case Study of the “Hobbes–Boyle Dispute”?Cassandra L. Pinnick
Authors: Pinnick Cassandra L. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis essay argues that Shapin and Schaffer’s reasoning in their book, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life, begins from the faulty premise that Hobbes and Boyle represent as clearly defined, and unquestionably different, methodological stances. If Shapin and Schaffer’s history of science is incorrect, then their desired conclusions about the epistemology of science are not motivated.
The Epistemic Charity of the Social Constructivist Critics of Science and Why the Third World Should Refuse the Offer Meera Nanda
Authors: Nanda Meera 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Recent claims that all science is parochial and that ethnosciences are more appropriate for developing countries have been eagerly taken up intellectuals in these countries to repudiate the heritage of colonialism. This essay uses case studies from India, Pakistan, and China to argue that an appreciation of the scientific attitude is the only way to ensure political progress.
The Chosen People
Authors: Graziano Frank 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter analyzes how symbolic inversion operates in millennial communities to alter the meanings and interrelations of above and below, center and periphery, good and evil, pure and impure, and other opposites. Also treated are the reduction of complexities into simplified dualities that are polarized in diametrical opposition; the emergence of a New Humanity in religious and political thought; the belief that God is fighting for one’s cause; and the ways millennial movements provide new moral and religious options.
Return of the Cultural Hero
Authors: Graziano Frank 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter studies how the death of heroes is undone in myths through resurrection, reconstitution, reawakening, mistaken or assumed identity, exile or hiding, ascension into heaven, mysterious disappearance-reappearance, and other representations that acknowledge absence but deny death. Following a general discussion, the case studies include the Aztec deity Quetzalcóatl in his relation to Saint Thomas, the Andean myth of Inkarrí, and colonial and modern versions of the hero as Son of the Sun.
Causation in Spinoza
Authors: Koistinen Olli 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis essay argues that Spinoza’s theory of causation provides another way to reconcile God’s causation with causation between finite individuals. It analyzes and identifies problems in Descartes’s theory of causation and Malebranche’s occasionalism. It is argued that Spinoza was aware of the problems that causation posed for ontologies which allowed substance-pluralism. In Spinoza’s monism, the view that God is the cause of everything is reconcilable with the determinism of the new physics. It is shown that Leibniz’s account of intrasubstantial causation closely resembles Spinoza’s view.
What Counts as an Individual for Spinoza?
Authors: Barbone Steven 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This essay explores Spinoza’s concept of an individual. It focuses on the ontological status of the political state, and rejects Matheron’s view that political states are individuals. For Spinoza, the individual is first and foremost, and it follows that political institutions take second place in importance to the individuals who live in them. The state exists for the benefit of each individual, and it cannot be the case that an individual exists for the benefit of the state.
Spinoza's Conatus Argument
Authors: Garrett Don 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis essay contends that Spinoza’s argument for the conatus doctrine does not commit any of the five fallacies of equivocation. The key to a better understanding of his argument lies in a Spinoza’s “theory of inherence” — that is, his theory of what it is to be “in” something. Spinoza’s conatus argument is a valid demonstration from Spinozistic premises about inherence, conception, causation, and related matters. These premises reflect his deep commitment to a rigorous Principle of Sufficient Reason, to a conception of things as causing their own properties through their essences, and to a closely-related conception of causation as identical with or parallel to logical consequence.
Spinoza on the Relativity of Good and Evil
Authors: Jarrett Charles 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This essay argues that Spinoza sees good and evil as relative in at least three ways. It distinguishes between speaker-relativity, correlativity, and model-relativity. It considers the conceptual and interpretative problems arising in two arguments of the Ethics: one argument attempts to show that rationality is a maximizing principle, that is, that a rational individual will choose the best option available, even among distasteful or bad ones; the other attempts to show that anyone who always had adequate ideas would be incapable of conceiving of goodness. It is shown that both arguments appear to have a confusion of one type of relativity with another.
Spinoza, Thoughtful Teleology, and the Causal Significance of Content
Authors: Manning Richard N. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis essay contends that Jonathan Bennett gave a passive reading of conatus, and that he misunderstood Spinoza’s conception of mental representation, mistakenly attributing to Spinoza the common, contemporary view that representational content does not supervene on the intrinsic features of representations. A reading of the conatus as an active, motive principle of opposition is presented. It is argued that Spinoza’s notion of representation is best understood as grounded in a conception of causation on which effects bear intrinsic, distinctive structural marks of their causes.
Aesthetics I. The Nature of Art
Authors: Berger Karol 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThe cultural media allow us to objectify and store away our immediate experiences, with the fundamental structure of each medium consisting of the work, the real object produced in the process of encoding an experience in a medium, and the imaginary world so encoded. Media can be either visual (as in sculpture or painting), allowing us to grasp, represent, and explore an outer, spatial, world of experience; or aural (as in music), making it possible to grasp, represent, and explore an inner, temporal world of experiencing. It can be both, as in language, a medium that possesses not only representational but also logical powers, allowing us not only to represent the objects of our desire as well as the desire itself, but also to represent thinking about our aims and means, deliberating on the questions whether our desire is justified, and if so, how can it be realized. A work can be an enduring object or an ephemeral event; a world can be a representation or an argument. Representations subdivide into those of actual and those of fictional objects, while arguments subdivide into those about the world as it is and those about the world as it should be. A place for art results from the superimposition of these classifications: art involves representations of fictional objects. While works in all media, language included, can evoke worlds that are representations, only a linguistic work can also evoke a world that is an argument that consists of general intellectual concepts and logical relations among them.
Aesthetics III. The Genealogy of Modern European Art Music
Authors: Berger Karol 
Published: February 2006

AbstractModern European art music is a social practice with internal aims on which its claim to relative autonomy rests (relative, because the contrast between autonomous and functional music, as well as the parallel contrast between art and popular music, is the contrast between ideal types). A profound transformation of these aims marks a revolution or a paradigm shift in the history of this practice. With each successive paradigm shift, the specific relation and proportion between its artistic-autonomous and popular-functional components, specifically between the idea of music as the abstract embodiment of harmony and the idea of music as the representation or mimesis of passions, changed. The formalism and abstraction that characterize the musical and artistic modernity celebrates the modern absolute freedom of a subjectivity that intends everything, but is committed to nothing. At its most radical, it faces the same loss of significance and sterility that is faced by the subjectivity it celebrates.
Poetics I: Diegesis and Mimesis. The Poetic Modes and the Matter of Artistic Presentation
Authors: Berger Karol 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter explores the nature of the diegetic and mimetic modes in literature, the question of their applicability to painting and music, and the relationship between the author and the voices he employs in his work. The categories of elements that constitute the world presented in the literary work are the setting, the personage, and the narrator. While we may easily find analogues for the setting and the personage in painting and music, a true narrative voice is more difficult to locate and may be something of a rarity in these two arts, although it may appear under specific circumstances. The real author is the creator of the immediately speaking voices he employs to present the world of his work, but himself does not belong to this world. As for the implied author, the arguments for postulating the existence of this entity are examined, and the conclusion reached is that the concept is a theoretical fiction with no useful task to perform.
Introduction
Authors: Sorensen Roy A. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis introductory chapter begins with a brief description of the purpose of this book, which is to present a general theory of thought experiments. The discussion includes thought experiments from many disparate fields, ranging from aesthetics to zoology. The primary goal is to establish true and interesting generalizations about them. Success here will radiate to the secondary goal of understanding philosophical thought experiments. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Our Most Curious Device
Authors: Sorensen Roy A. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter illustrates the power of thought experiments by assembling influential thought experiments from the history of science. It lays out the book's plan to understand philosophical thought experiments by concentrating on their resemblance to scientific relatives. Points of difference between philosophical and scientific thought experiments give a preview of obstacles that must be overcome in the course of the campaign. Naive and sophisticated reservations about the philosophical cases are registered for the same purpose.
Scepticism About Thought Experiments
Authors: Sorensen Roy A. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter presents and motivates the issues surrounding thought experiments by assembling the case against their use. It begins by exploring the more specific charge that thought experiment is just introspection, then concentrates on the charge that it is merely an atavistic appeal to ordinary language. Even if thought experiment is distinct from either of these methods, it strongly resembles them. Hence, details of both introspection and the appeal to ordinary language will be discussed in the hope of illuminating thought experiment at least by analogy. Finally, a more general problem about the informativeness of thought experiment is developed.