bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Problem of Political Order in Early Republican Spanish America
Authors: Safford Frank 
Published: February 2009

The persistent instability and disorder of Spanish American polities in the post-Independence period was undoubtedly one of the most perplexing concerns of Spanish American elites in the nineteenth century. It has remained a subject of interpretive debate by twentieth-century students of the area. The following article sketches several general approaches to the problem among twentieth-century interpreters, compares contemporary nineteenth-century analyses with the salient twentieth-century interpretations, and offers a critical commentary on the various sorts of twentieth-century analytical frameworks.The three salient twentieth-century interpretations of political disorder in the nineteenth century are: (1) those that emphasise deeply embedded characteristics of Spanish American culture as underlying causes of political instability; (2) those that attribute political disorder to structural problems, particularly to weaknesses in the economic structure or shifts in the social structure; (3) those that see political instability as a reflection of conflicting ideologies, economic interests, and/or the aspirations or fears of identifiable social groups.The distinctive feature of cultural interpretations of Latin American politics is their common belief that cultural characteristics are indelible and more-or-less unchangeable. And, since such cultural interpretations emphasise what might be considered ‘negative’ aspects of Spanish or Spanish American culture in order to explain defects in Spanish American politics, their assumption that cultures do not change over time tends to imbue such interpretations with a certain pessimism about the future of Spanish American politics.An early twentieth-century exponent of cultural approaches to understanding Spanish-American political disorder was Francisco García Calderón, who, thinking particularly of the phenomenon of caudillismo, emphasised Spanish authoritarian individualism.
TheQuilomboof Palmares: A New Overview of a Maroon State in Seventeenth-Century Brazil
Authors: Anderson Robert Nelson 
Published: February 2009

AbstractThis article offers a new perspective on the history of the maroon state of Palmares in Northeastern Brazil. It adds information and interpretation to R. K. Kent's ground-breaking article ‘Palmares: An African State in Brazil’ published in 1965. The present essay gives an historical narrative summary with commentary on the historiography, describing Afro—razilian aspects of the history of Palmares. The purpose is to review and expand upon the historical, linguistic, and cultural context of Palmares and on the sources for the emerging epic material of Zumbi of Palmares.
Brazilian Inflation from 1980 to 1993: Causes, Consequences and Dynamics
Authors: Tullio G. , Ronci M. 
Published: February 2009

AbstractThis article focuses on Brazilian inflation: its causes, consequences and dynamics from 1980 to 1993. We argue that the main economic cause of the Brazilian inflation was the excessive growth of money, in turn caused by too high budget deficits. Oil and exchange rate shocks also played a role, together with the greater dependence of the Central Bank of Brazil on the government. We measure the degree of Central Bank independence by the variable ‘turnover’ of Central Bank governors defined as the number of months in office. The effect of this variable on inflation is found to be highly significant and positive.
Autos over Rails: How US Business Supplanted the British in Brazil, 1910–28
Authors: Downes Richard 
Published: February 2009

The dynamics of Brazil's transportation sector early in this century reveal much about how and why US industries conquered the Brazilian market and established a sound basis for investment. Especially during the 1920s, US companies responded to the transportation needs of Brazil's rapidly growing economy and won the major share of its automobile and truck markets. This was crucial because of the automobile's central role as a leading sector of the world's economy during this period. Sales and then direct investment by US firms in automobile assembly plants placed US business on a more secure foundation than British investment, prominent in a sector losing the vitality exhibited in the nineteenth century: railroads. Rail systems slowed their extension into the immense Brazilian interior while the automobile flourished, promoted by a powerful Brazilian lobby forautomobilismoreinforced by efforts of US business and government. This process illustrates how the Brazilians' interpretation of their economic needs coincided with pressures exerted by US industry to create a permanent US presence within Brazil's economy. How Henry Ford replaced Herbert Spencer as the foremost symbol of industrialism in early twentieth century Brazil sheds light on the personal and political dynamics of international business competition.1Rapid economic growth in the early twentieth century thrust a host of new local and regional demands upon Brazil's woefully inadequate transportation sector. Capital formation rose without interruption from 1901 onwards and reached very high levels immediately prior to World War I; more than 11,000 industrial firms producing over 67% of the economy's 1920 industrial output came into being between 1900 and 1920.
Another note on RP notation
Authors: Walsh Gordon 
Published: February 2009

Windsor Lewis's recent article (1972b) admirably summarizes the case for a Gimson-type transcription as a reference tool for EFL students. As he states, his own ‘CPD’ (Windsor Lewis, 1972a) transcription clearly—and sensibly—derives from the system established by Gimson (1962, 1970) in ‘the standard up-to-date description of Received Pronunciation’. On general principles, there is little that could usefully be added to Windsor Lewis's (1972b) comments on three other transcription types that are increasingly coming to be regarded as inappropriate for EFL purposes:(i) that used by Abercrombie (1964), which, as Windsor Lewis (1972b: 60–63) shows, has disadvantages in its choice of detail symbols (though in underlying philosophy this system is perhaps closer to ‘CPD’ than is the latter's acknowledged parent);(ii) the long-established ‘EPD’ (Jones, 1917) system, with its inconsistent treatment of the monophthong phonemes;(iii) the ‘simplified’ (Jones, 1956: 346 ff.) types of transcription first used in books by Scott (1942) and MacCarthy (1944, 1945) and taken up by Kingdon (West, 1965) and others, which although useful for the Ll speaker are grossly misleading for the EFL student in implying a solely quantitative distinction between such pairs as the vowels of seat and sit.This article will largely take for granted Windsor Lewis's comments on those types, and will concentrate on some aspects of the system discussed by Windsor Lewis (1972b) and applied in his CPD and the new third edition (1974) of the Advanced Learner's Dictionary.
A note on the devoicing of nasals
Authors: Barry W. J. , Künzel H. J. 
Published: February 2009

The susceptibility of nasals to devoicing in certain contexts did not escape the notice of the auditorally oriented early phoneticians and is included in many of the rigorous descriptions in the classic phonetics handbooks:Sievers (1901: 169) remarks generally of sonorants: ‘Ist der Sonorlaut aber unsilbisch, so wird er durch den stimmlosen Nachbarlaut häufig ebenfalls stimmlos gemacht, wenigstens setzt bei Verbindungen wie sla, sna die Stimme oft erst nach der Einstellung des Mundes für l, n etc. ein, so daß der Eingang des l, n noch stimmlos gebildet wird’.
Soil trampling in an Antarctic Specially Protected Area: tools to assess levels of human impact
Authors: Tejedo P. , Justel A. , Benayas J. , Rico E. , Convey P. , Quesada A. 
Published: February 2009

AbstractResearch in extremely delicate environments must be sensitive to the need to minimize impacts caused simply through the presence of research personnel. This study investigates the effectiveness of current advice relating to travel on foot over Antarctic vegetation-free soils. These are based on the concentration of impacts through the creation of properly signed and identified paths. In order to address these impacts, we quantified three factors - resistance to compression, bulk density and free-living terrestrial arthropod abundance - in areas of human activity over five summer field seasons at the Byers Peninsula (Livingston Island, South Shetland Islands). Studies included instances of both experimentally controlled use and natural non-controlled situations. The data demonstrate that a minimum human presence is sufficient to alter both physical and biological characteristics of Byers Peninsula soils, although at the lowest levels of human activity this difference was not significant in comparison with adjacent undisturbed control areas. On the other hand, a limited resilience of physical properties was observed in Antarctic soils, thus it is crucial not to exceed the soil's natural recovery capability.
The socio-economic and demographic characteristics of port cities: a typology for comparative analysis?
Authors: Lee Robert 
Published: February 2009

ABSTRACTThis article addresses a range of conceptual issues relating to the history of European port cities in order to construct a framework for comparative research. Port cities played a key role in European urban development and their growth was often determined by common factors. Particular attention is paid to the demography of port cities, their specific labour markets and the dominant ideology of merchant capital. The article establishes a basis for analysing case studies of individual port cities and for exploring their location within the overall process of European urbanization.
Councillors and commerce in Liverpool, 1650–1750
Authors: Power Michael 
Published: February 2009

ABSTRACTLiverpool grew remarkably in the century after 1650 outpacing long-established ports like Bristol and Hull. In part this was due to advantages of location, in part to the ambitions of its merchants. The council opened a wet dock in 1715, a pioneering project which gave the port an unusual trading advantage. This paper explains that event by tracing the emergence of merchants on the council in the late seventeenth century and, by analysing port book evidence, argues that they assumed a trading dominance in the town which was especially strong about 1700. Their powerful position on the council was, in part, the result of a new town charter of 1695. Political and economic factors worked together to propel the town towards its spectacular eighteenth-century economic development.
Putting order into the cities: the evolution of ‘policy science’ in eighteenth-century Spain
Authors: Fraile Pedro 
Published: February 2009

ABSTRACTUrban growth revealed problems associated with the administration of mid-sixteenth-century cities. In the Mediterranean area, and especially in Spain and France, a discrete discourse emerged in the late seventeenth century as to how towns and cities should be organized and administered. Contained in numerous tracts and manuals were ‘policy science’ recommendations to deal with environmental health and related matters. This article examines the evolution of ‘policy science’ in Spain which achieved its greatest prominence during Carlos III's reign (1759–88). It is a field of study which offers insights into urban customs, behaviour and beliefs, and had important implications for the subsequent morphology of the Spanish city.
Representing Cape Town on the eve of apartheid
Authors: Bickford-Smith Vivian 
Published: February 2009

ABSTRACTThis article attempts a detailed social portrait of Cape Town on the eve of apartheid. In the process it provides a rare cross-racial study of a twentieth-century South African city. The first section reveals a complex place already distinguished by considerable segregation and predictable social inequalities, both between and within racial and ethnic categories. Yet such findings are at odds with popular memories of a golden age – marked by tolerance, greater cohesion and security. So the second section explores and explains the differences. It finds that memories cannot simply be dismissed as myths.
Mutual aid and civil society: friendly societies in nineteenth-century Bristol
Authors: Gorsky Martin 
Published: February 2009

ABSTRACTRecent work on ‘civil society’ has made claims for the past capacity of mutual aid associations to generate ‘social capital’: self-help, trust, solidarity. Friendly societies in nineteenth-century Bristol are examined to test these claims. Their origins and growth are explored, as well as their membership and social, convivial and medical roles. Solidarities of class and neighbourhood are set against evidence of exclusion and division. Trust and close personal ties proved insufficient to avert the actuarial risks that threatened financial security.
Glasgow's public parks and the community, 1850–1914: a case study in Scottish civic interventionism
Authors: Maver Irene 
Published: February 2009

ABSTRACTFrom the mid-nineteenth century Glasgow's civic leaders recognized the effect that the rapidly deteriorating urban fabric was having on perceptions of the city, and began to construct a more positive identity, intended to inspire faith in municipal government. The landscape played a crucial part in selling this ideal. Parks were used as visible evidence of civic beneficence, and (deriving much influence from evangelical Presbyterianism) also served as a potent symbol of regeneration. However, while this paper considers the success of public parks in boosting Glasgow's image between 1850 and 1914, it also examines the complex material motivations originally underlying civic involvement, the impact of the environment in determining parks' policy and the influence of other British and European cities in shaping ideas.
First Report of the Mistletoe Tristerix verticillatus on Schinus fasciculatus from the Sierra de San Luis, Argentina
Authors: Amico G. C. , Nickrent D. L. 
Published: February 2009

There are 11 species of mistletoes in the genus Tristerix (Loranthaceae) endemic to the Andes in South America (1,2). Tristerix verticillatus (Ruiz & Pav.) Barlow & Wiens is distributed on the east side of the Andes from Bolivia to Argentina at high elevations (>1,500 m). On the west side of the Andes, it is only found in Chile where it occurs at low to high elevations (50 to 3,000 m). Along its range, the mistletoe parasitizes more than 25 species, mainly Anarcadiaceae and Rhamnaceae. In February of 2007, it was observed to be parasitizing Schinus fasciculatus (Griseb.) I.M. Johnst. (Anacardiaceae) at two locations in the Sierra de San Luis, Argentina. One location was 6 km south of Las Chacras on Route 31 (32°35′56″S, 65°47′6″W, elevation 1,185 m) and the other was 12 km north of El Trapiche on Route 9 (33°1′21″S, 66°4′11″W, elevation 1,260 m). At these localities, the mistletoe was in full flower and parasitized only one host species, S. fasciculatus. No mortality associated with infection by this mistletoe was observed at either location. Specimens of the mistletoe were collected from both locations and deposited at the Centro Regional Universitario Bariloche Herbarium (BCRU), Río Negro, Argentina. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a Tristerix sp. outside the Andes and extends the eastern distribution of the genus by ≈270 km and also of S. fasciculatus serving as a host for T. verticillatus since previous collections were from other species of Schinus. References: (1) G. C. Amico et al. Am. J. Bot. 94:558, 2007. (2) J. Kuijt, Syst. Bot. Monogr. 19, 1988.
First Report of Powdery Mildew Caused by Erysiphe pulchra on Cornus florida in Italy
Authors: Garibaldi A. , Bertetti D. , Gullino M. L. 
Published: February 2009

Cornus florida L. (Cornaceae), flowering dogwood, is a small deciduous tree whose showy inflorescences, clusters of bright red fruits and red and purple leaves in autumn, make it a much appreciated ornamental. During the summer of 2008, severe outbreaks of a previously unknown powdery mildew were observed in several gardens and nurseries in Piedmont (northern Italy). Young leaves were covered with dense, white mycelia and conidia, especially on the adaxial surface. As the disease progressed, infected leaves turned red. Conidia were hyaline, elliptical, borne singly, and measured 32 to 46 × 15 to 20 (average 38 × 17) μm. Conidiophores measured 68 to 77 × 8 to 9 (average 73 × 8) μm, with a cylindrical foot cell measuring 26 to 37 × 8 to 10 (average 31 × 9) μm, followed by two shorter cells. Fibrosin bodies were absent. No chasmothecia were observed. The ITS region (internal transcribed spacer) of rDNA was amplified using primers ITS4/ITS6 and sequenced. The 627-bp sequence (Accession No. EU FJ436989 in GenBank) has 99% identity with Erysiphe pulchra. As proof of pathogenicity, diseased leaves were pressed against leaves of three healthy 3-year-old plants. Three noninoculated plants served as controls. Inoculated and noninoculated plants were maintained outdoors at 13 to 21°C. After 15 days, typical powdery mildew colonies developed on inoculated plants. Noninoculated plants did not show symptoms. The pathogenicity test was carried out twice. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the presence of powdery mildew on C. florida caused by E. pulchra in Italy. Powdery mildew of dogwood, caused by Microsphaera (Erysiphe) pulchra, has been reported in the United States (3) and Japan (1). In Italy, a powdery mildew caused by an Oidium sp. has been reported on C. sanguinea (2). Herbarium specimens of this disease are available at AGROINNOVA Collection, University of Torino, Italy. References: (1) T. Kobayashi. Index of Fungi Inhabiting Woody Plants in Japan. Host, Distribution, and Literature. Zenkoku-Noson-Kyoikai Publishing Co., Ltd., Tokyo, 2007. (2) G. Sicoli et al. Inf. Agrario 56/48:84, 2000. (3) V. L. Smith. Plant Dis. 83:782, 1999.
Apoptosis of macrophages during pulmonary Mycobacterium bovis infection: correlation with intracellular bacillary load and cytokine levels
Authors: Rodrigues Michele F. , Barsante Michele M. , Alves Caio C. S. , Souza Maria A. , Ferreira Ana P. , Amarante‐Mendes Gustavo P. , Teixeira Henrique C. 
Published: February 2009

SummaryApoptosis of macrophages infected with pathogenic mycobacteria is an alternative host defence capable of removing the environment supporting bacterial growth. In this work the influence of virulence and bacterial load on apoptosis of alveolar macrophages during the initial phase of infection by Mycobacterium bovis was investigated. BALB/c mice were infected intratracheally with high or low doses of the virulent (ATCC19274) or attenuated (bacillus Calmette–Guérin Moreau) strains of M. bovis. The frequency of macrophage apoptosis, the growth of mycobacteria in macrophages, and the in situ levels of the cytokines tumour necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α), interleukin‐10 (IL‐10) and IL‐12 and of the anti‐apoptotic protein Bcl‐2 were measured at day 3 and day 7 post‐infection. An increase of macrophage apoptosis was observed after infection with both strains but the virulent strain induced less apoptosis than the attenuated strain. On the 3rd day after infection with the virulent strain macrophage apoptosis was reduced in the high‐dose group, while on the 7th day post‐infection macrophage apoptosis was reduced in the low‐dose group. Inhibition of apoptosis was correlated with increased production of IL‐10, reduced production of TNF‐α and increased production of Bcl‐2. In addition, the production of IL‐12 was reduced at points where the lowest levels of macrophage apoptosis were observed. Our results indicate that virulent mycobacteria are able to modulate macrophage apoptosis to an extent dependent on the intracellular bacterial burden, which benefits its intracellular growth and dissemination to adjacent cells.
Switch from perforin‐expressing to perforin‐deficient CD8+ T cells accounts for two distinct types of effector cytotoxic T lymphocytes in vivo
Authors: Meiraz Avihai , Garber Orit Gal , Harari Shaul , Hassin David , Berke Gideon 
Published: February 2009

SummaryAlthough CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) exhibit both Fas ligand (FasL) ‐based and perforin‐based lytic activities, the accepted hallmark of a fully active CTL remains its perforin killing machinery. Yet the origin, rationale for possessing both a slow‐acting (FasL) and a fast‐acting (perforin) killing mechanism has remained enigmatic. Here we have investigated perforin expression in CTL directly involved in acute tumour (i.e. leukaemias EL4 and L1210) allograft rejection occurring within the peritoneal cavity. We show that at the height of the immune response, the majority of conjugate‐forming CD8+ CTL express high levels of perforin messenger RNA and protein, and kill essentially via perforin. Later however, coinciding with complete rejection, fully cytocidal CTL emerge which exhibit a stark decrease in perforin and now kill preferentially via constitutively expressed FasL. Although late in emergence, and persistent, these powerful CTL are neither effector‐memory nor memory CTL. This finding has implications for the monitoring of anti‐transplant responses in clinical settings, based on assessing perforin expression in graft infiltrating CD8+ T cells. The results show that as the immune response progresses in vivo, targeted cellular suicide mainly prunes high perforin‐expressing CD8+ cells, resulting in the gradual switch in effector CTL, from mostly perforin‐based to largely Fas/FasL‐based killers. Hence, two kinds of CD8+ CTL have two killing strategies.
Co‐regulation of Xanthomonas campestris virulence by quorum sensing and a novel two‐component regulatory system RavS/RavR
Authors: He Ya‐Wen , Boon Calvin , Zhou Lian , Zhang Lian‐Hui 
Published: February 2009

Summary Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) is known to regulate virulence through a quorum‐sensing mechanism. Detection of the quorum‐sensing signal DSF by sensor RpfC leads to activation of the response regulator RpfG, which influences virulence by degrading cyclic‐di‐GMP and by subsequent increasing expression of the global regulator Clp. In this study, we show that mutation of a response regulator RavR containing the GGDEF–EAL domains decreases Xcc virulence factor production. The functionality of RavR is dependent on its EAL domain‐associated cyclic‐di‐GMP phosphodiesterase activity. Deletion of a multidomain sensor gene ravS, which shares the same operon with ravR, results in similar phenotype changes as the ravR mutant. In addition, the sensor mutant phenotypes can be rescued by in trans expression of the response regulator, supporting the notion that RavS and RavR constitute a two‐component regulatory system. Significantly, mutation of either the PAS domain or key residues of RavS implicated in sensing low‐oxygen tension abrogates the sensor activity in virulence regulation. Moreover, similar to the DSF signalling system, RavS/RavR regulates virulence gene expression through the global regulator Clp. These results outline a co‐regulation mechanism that allows Xcc to integrate population density and environmental cues to modulate virulence factor production and adaptation.