bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Metropolitan Area Networks
Authors: Maxemchuk N. F. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractA metropolitan area network (MAN) is a shared network that covers the distances in most cities. The applications of MANs and the techniques that are used for communications is rapidly changing. MANs were originally used to interconnect the users in a single organization, and several specialized networks were developed. However, the Internet has increased the demand for high‐speed communications to individual consumers. In consumer applications, cost is particularly important. The networks use existing infrastructure or infrastructure that can be deployed with minimal investment and use access devices that are popular in other applications and therefore cost less than new devices.The first generation of MANs used protocols and network topologies that are similar to local area networks but are specifically designed to span the greater distances and operate at the higher transmission rates that occur in a MAN. We describe three of these protocols: the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) X3T9 standard, fiber distributed data interface, (FDDI), the IEEE 802.6 standard, dual bus distributed queue protocol, (DQDB), and an experimental network, the Manhattan Street Network, (MSN).Currently, the most widely used MANs use the existing cable TV (CATV) network and easily deployed wireless networks. The CATV standards are not keeping pace with the applications. We describe the common characteristics of the applications and describe in detail an application that is based on Ethernet technology and that can be extended to carry packet voice communications. The IEEE 802.11 standard, wireless fidelity (WiFi), is the most widely used wireless access technology. This standard is described in detail, along with a competing access technique, Bluetooth, and the IEEE 802.16 standard that can be used to extend the range of wireless access techniques to the metropolitan area.In the conclusion we predict future changes. These changes are fueled by the need for improved reliability, the emergence of IP‐voice, the increased use of wireless technologies, the overuse of the cellular bands, the eventual deployment of fiber to the home, and a resurgence of ATM‐like, cell‐based transmission.
Electrochemical Interfaces: At the Border Line
Authors: Kornyshev Alexei A. , Spohr Eckhard , Vorotyntsev Michael A. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionBasic ConceptsThermodynamics of Electrified InterfacesClassical Models of Electrified InterfacesHelmholtz ModelGouy–Chapman–Stern–Grahame ModelDiffuse and Compact Layer PropertiesGrahame Model in Comparison with Capacitance Data for Liquid ElectrodesCompact Layer PropertiesManifestations of the Diffuse Layer in Kinetics of Electrode ReactionsElectrokinetic PhenomenaSolid Electrodes: Effects of Polycrystallinity and Surface Roughness“Uniform” Model of Solid Electrodes. Surface RoughnessCrystallographic Inhomogeneity Effects for Solid Electrode SurfacesEDLStructure for NonUniform Electrode SurfacesSurface Roughness Effect on the Diffuse‐Layer CapacitanceSemi‐phenomenological Nonlocal Theory of the Double LayerBasic Equations“Dipolar” Models of the Compact LayerTwo‐State ModelMultistate ModelsThe Role of Metal ElectronsSurface Electronic Profile and its Response to ChargingResponse to Charging of the Electrochemical Interface and the Compact‐Layer Capacitance: Main Qualitative EffectsOptical Response and the Interfacial StructureEffects of the Molecular Nature of Electrolyte SolutionsIonic AdsorptionQualitative AspectsIon Adsorption ModelsImage Potential for Ions in the Diffuse or Compact LayerInteraction Between Adsorbed IonsStatistical Mechanics of Adsorbed Ion EnsembleIon Adsorption IsothermElectric Field‐Induced Modifications of the Surface StructureElectrochemical Missing Row Reconstruction: Facts and SpeculationsDriving Force for ReconstructionIsing Model. Order–Disorder TransitionsRoughening TransitionsSoft Electrochemical InterfacesCapillary Waves atITIES. Field Effect on Capillary Waves and Capillary Waves Effect on CapacitanceIon Penetration into an “Unfriendly Medium”From Basic Concepts to Surface Electrochemistry
Quantum Theory of Electrochemical Electron‐Transfer Reactions
Authors: Schmickler Wolfgang , Frank Stefan 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

A Simple Introduction to Marcus Theory

Energy of Reorganization

Quantum‐mechanical Theory

A Model for Electron Exchange Between a Metal and a Solvated Reactant

The Model Hamiltonian

First‐order Perturbation Theory

Semiclassical Systems

Quantum Modes

Adiabatic Reactions

Solvent Dynamics

Computer Simulations

Bond Breaking Reactions

Conclusion

Acknowledgment
The Digital Simulation of Voltammetry under Stagnant and Hydrodynamic Conditions
Authors: Gooch Kerry A. , Qiu Fulian L. , Fisher Adrian C. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Digital Simulations

Simulation Methods. The Fundamentals

The Methods. An Overview

Finite Difference Methods

Introduction

The Explicit Finite Difference (
EFD
) Method

The Crank & Nicolson (
CN
) Method

The Alternating Direction Implicit (
ADI
) Method

The Hopscotch (
HS
) Method

The Backwards Implicit (
BI
) Method

The Fast Implicit Finite Difference (
FIFD
) Method

The Strongly Implicit Procedure (
SIP
)

Finite Element Methods

Introduction

Formulation

Applications

Boundary Element Method

Introduction

Formulation

Applications

Alternative Simulation Strategies

Acknowledgments
NMR
Spectroscopy in Electrochemistry
Authors: Tong YuYe , Oldfield Eric , Wieckowski Andrzej 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Principles of Solid‐State Surface
EC
‐
NMR
Spectroscopy

Metal
NMR
Basics

EC
‐
NMR
Instrumentation

Applications of Solid‐state Surface
EC
‐
NMR
Spectroscopy

195
Pt
NMR
of Carbon‐supported Electrocatalysts and a Potential‐scan‐ generated Sintering Effect

Correlation between the Knight Shift of a Platinum Surface and the Electronegativity of the Adsorbate

Correlation between the Clean‐surface

E
F

‐
LDOS
of Metals and the Knight Shift of Adsorbates

Coupling
EC
‐
NMR
with In Situ Infrared Spectroelectrochemistry

Surface Diffusion

Isotopic Labeling for Site Selectivity

Potential‐dependent
EC
‐
NMR

Future Perspectives

Acknowledgments
EPR
Spectroscopy in Electrochemistry
Authors: Wadhawan Jay D. , Compton Richard G. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Principles of
EPR
Spectroscopy

EPR
Theory

The

g

‐value

Linewidths

Spin‐lattice Relaxation

Spin–spin Relaxation

Hyperfine Structure

EPR
Instrumentation

In Situ Electrochemical
EPR
: Cell Design

The Bard–Goldberg Cell

Cell Design

Typical Applications

The Allendoerfer Cells

Cell Design

The Coaxial Cell

Application

The Loop‐gap Resonator Cell

Application

The Channel Electrode Cell

Cell Design

Application

The Albery In Situ Tube Electrode Cell

Cell Design

Application

The In Situ Coaxial Flow Cell

Cell Design

Application

The Bond In Situ Microelectrode Cell

Cell Design

Application

The In Situ Wall‐jet Electrode Cell

Cell Design

Application

The Dunsch–Petr–Neudeck Cell for In Situ
UV
‐
VIS EPR
Spectroelectro‐ chemistry

Cell Design

Application

The Dryfe–Webster Cell for Charge Transfer Across a Liquid|Liquid Phase Boundary

Cell Design

Typical Applications

Illustrative Examples of
EPR
in Electrochemistry

Radical and Radical Ion Identification

The Anodic Oxidation of
para
‐Aminodiphenylamine (
PAD
)

The Reduction of Dicyanobenzene

The Reduction of
C
60

Spin Trapping

Electrode Reaction Kinetics and Mechanism

EC
Versus
ECE

ECE
Versus
DISP
1

EC
′

Comproportionation Reactions

Photoelectrochemical
EPR

Modified Electrodes

Electrochemical
EPR
in Ionic Liquids

Conclusion

Acknowledgments
The Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance
Authors: Hillman A. Robert 
Published: December 2007

Abstract

This chapter reviews the development and use of the electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) as an in situ probe of interfacial processes involving the formation, properties, and redox switching of multilayer films. For films that are sufficiently rigid and/or thin (termed
acoustically thin
), the EQCM functions as a quantitative gravimetric probe of surface population changes. This well‐established methodology is now being used to explore both thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of film compositional changes, for example, in response to electrochemical stimuli. Correlation of mobile species (ion and solvent) population changes—within the effectively static film matrix—with electrochemical control and response functions (potential, current, and charge) now provides mechanistic information. Combination with other in situ (e.g. optical or spectroscopic) techniques is a developing area and can facilitate separation of individual ion and solvent transfers. For films that are softer and/or thicker (termed
acoustically thick
), the acoustic wave is attenuated during passage across the film, which in turn undergoes acoustic deformation. The EQCM now responds primarily to film viscoelastic properties, that is, film (rather than mobile species) dynamics. This is a developing area, but it is now possible to extract film shear modulus components (storage and loss moduli); these are found to respond significantly to the film redox state (controlled via potential or charge), temperature, timescale (frequency), and environment (both solvent and electrolyte ions). These effects are reviewed with selected examples from a diverse range of materials, encompassing metals, metal oxides, semiconductors, metal coordination complexes, and redox, conducting, and insulating polymers.
ElectrochemicalSTM
Authors: Moffat Thomas Polk 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionSTMand Modes of OperationAtomically Resolved ImagingDouble‐layer Overlap and Tip‐screening EffectsExperimental ConsiderationsElectrochemical CellTip Selection and PreparationSubstrate PreparationApplicationsImaging Two‐dimensional StructuresImaging Surface DynamicsMorphological Evolution during Phase TransitionsSurface Modification
Conversion Coatings
Authors: Ogle Kevin , Buchheit Rudolph G. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe sections in this article arePhosphate Conversion CoatingsOverviewHistorical PerspectivesOverview of Process and Reaction MechanismsDegreasingActivationPhosphatingPosttreatmentThe Nature of the Phosphate LayerMorphologyChemical and Surface CompositionThermal and Chemical PropertiesElectrochemical Properties and Characterization MethodsPorosity and Coverage MeasurementsIn Situ Monitoring of the Phosphating ReactionCorrosion Resistance MeasurementsChromate Conversion CoatingsOverviewChromate Conversion Coatings: Definition and ApplicationsHistorical PerspectivesSubstratesAluminumZincMagnesiumCadmiumSteelStainless SteelsChromate Conversion Coating TypesAlkaline Chromate and Dichromate FormulationsAcidic Chromium–phosphateAcidic Chromium–chromateAccelerated Chromium–chromateChromate Conversion Coating FormationChromium–chromate CoatingsChromium–phosphate CoatingsCr(VI) andCr(VI) SpeciationActivators and AcceleratorsCoating Formation on Metallurgical and Structural DefectsCCCMorphology, Structure, and CompositionCorrosion ProtectionCorrosion Protection MechanismsAging and HeatingMacroscopic Characteristics of Chromate Conversion CoatingsCCCWeight, Thickness, and ColorChemical and Corrosion ResistanceMechanical and Thermal StabilityPaint AdhesionElectrical Contact ResistanceChromate‐free CoatingsSol–gel CoatingsHydrothermal Coatings from Alkaline SolutionsRare Earth Metal Coatings
Electrochemistry Applied to Organic Synthesis: Principles and Main Achievements
Authors: Simonet Jacques 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionGeneral Feature of Electroorganic SynthesisSpecificity and ProspectsChoice of a CellChoice of Electrode MaterialMaterials for CathodesMaterials for AnodesMain Reactions Achievable Electrochemically: A Survey of Experimental ConditionsSome Specific Electrochemical Reactions Involving Carbon AtomsBuilding of CarbonCarbon Bonds at the Anode and the CathodeKolbe Reaction: Anodic Oxidation of Carboxylates: Coupling of Aliphatic Free RadicalsAnodic Oxidation of Carbanions and Symmetrical CouplingAnodic Oxidation of Aromatic Systems via Cation Radicals (Dimerizations, Trimerizations, Oligo, and Polymerizations)Cathodic Coupling of Aryl Groups via Transition Metals CatalysisOther Activation Reactions Involving Aromatic Halides in the Presence of Metal CatalystsAromatic CarboxylationsElectrosynthesis as a Tool to Afford CyclizationsAnodic Substitution of Organic Derivatives Possessing a Mobile HydrogenFunctionalizations of Nitrogen‐containing CompoundsOxidation ofCHFunctionsAnodic Functionalization of EthersAnodic Oxidation of ThioethersElectrochemical Conversion of Main Organic Functions in Aqueous and Protic Organic MediaReduction of Unsaturated CompoundsNitro GroupReduction of Functions Possessing at Least One Nitrogen AtomReduction of the Carbonyl GroupOrganic Acids and DerivativesScission of Chemical Bonds by Means of Cathodic or Anodic Electron TransfersMain Cathodic Scission Reactions of CarbonHeteroatom BondsOther Types of Bond ScissionsApplication of the Electrochemical Scission of Bonds to the Chemical DeprotectionAnodic Deprotection of the Carbonyl Group: Cleavage ofCSBondsAmine Function Deprotection: Cathodic Cleavages ofCSandNSBondsProtection and Deprotection of Alcohols and ThiolsElectrosynthesis as a Tool for a New Solid‐Phase MethodologyWhat is the State of the Art for Organic Silicon Derivatives?ElectroreductionElectrooxidationSome Words about the Use of Selenium in Organic SynthesisElectroreductionElectrooxidationElectrochemical Activation of Small Inorganic Molecules Usable in Organic SynthesisCathodic Intermediates from Dioxygen and Principal Types of ReactionsReduction of Carbon DioxideCathodic Behavior of Sulfur, Tellurium, and Selenium: an Easy Way of Forming Specifically Reactive NucleophilesAnodic Activation of Molecular Sulfur and ofSSBondsOxidation of HalidesAnodic FluorinationZero‐current ElectrolysesElements of Electrochemical Chiral SynthesisSome Models of Electrolysis Cells: From Laboratory Cells to Scaling upLaboratory CellsIndustrial CellsPossible Industrial Applications of Organic Electrosynthesis
Photoelectrochemical Systems Characterization
Authors: Kelly John J. , Hens Zeger , Vanmaekelbergh Daniel , Hensalso Zeger 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Scope of the Chapter

Special Features of Photoelectrochemical Systems

Photoelectrochemical Characterization Methods

Steady State and Time‐resolved Methods

Current Density Versus Potential Techniques

PC
versus Light Intensity Techniques

Luminescence‐based Techniques

Bulk Systems

In Situ Energetics of Semiconductor/Electrolyte Interfaces

Electron‐hole Recombination Dynamics at the s/e Interface

Introduction

Current Density Versus Potential Measurements

The Electrochemical Impedance of Surface Recombination

The Optoelectrical Transfer Function of Surface Recombination

Recombination Studied by Luminescence

Complex Charge‐transfer Processes

PC
‐doubling Reactions

Dissolution of Semiconductors

Sensitizer‐based Photoelectrochemical Systems

Porous Photoelectrochemical Systems

Introduction

Special Properties of Porous Photoelectrochemical Systems

Penetration of the Interfacial Layer in a Porous Semiconductor Electrode

Charge Storage in a Porous Semiconductor Electrode

Charge Storage in a Quantum Dot System

Light Scattering in Macroporous Semiconductors

Electron‐hole Photoexcitation by Sub‐band Gap Light

Effective Electron‐hole Separation

Luminescence from Porous Electrodes

Electron Transport

Electron Diffusion, Collection, and Recombination

Characterization of Electron Diffusion and Back‐transfer by Light Intensity Modulated Techniques

Experimental Results on Electron Transport
Deposition of (Multiple Junction) Semiconductor Surfaces
Authors: Soga Tetsuo 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

MOCVD

Deposition of Gallium Phosphide on Silicon Substrate

Nucleation of
Ga
P
on
Si
Substrate

Generation of Dislocation

Annihilation of
APD
Structure

Deposition of Gallium Arsenide on Silicon Substrate

Nucleation

Effect of
TCA

Effect of Hydrogenation

Application to Photovoltaic Device

Summary
Preparation of Nanocrystalline Semiconductor Materials
Authors: Hodes Gary , Mastai Yitzhak 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Electrochemical/Chemical Hybrid Deposition

Electrodeposition of Nanocrystals from Nonaqueous Solution

Size Control Using Semiconductor‐substrate Lattice Mismatch

Electrodeposition of Layered Nanostructures

Template‐directed Electrodeposition

Occlusion Electrodeposition of Composites

Sonoelectrochemical Formation of Nanocrystalline Semiconductors
Dyes for Semiconductor Sensitization
Authors: Nazeeruddin Md. Khaja , Grätzel Michael 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

General Background

Operating Principles of the Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cell

Incident Photon to Current Efficiency and Open‐Circuit Photovoltage

Molecular Sensitizers

Formation of Complexes

Photophysical Properties

Ground and Excited State Redox Potentials

Requirements of the Sensitizers

Absorption Spectral Properties of Metal Complexes

Tuning of
MLCT
Transitions

Spectral Tuning in “Push‐Pull” Type of Complexes

Spectral Tuning in Complexes Containing Hybrid Donor Ligands

Influence of Nonchromophoric Ligands on
MLCT
Transitions

Influence of the Position of Carboxyl Groups on
MLCT
Transitions

MLCT
Transitions in Geometric Isomers

Spectral Tuning in Heteroleptic Sensitizers

Hydrophobic Sensitizers

Near
IR
Sensitizers

Phthalocyanines

Ruthenium Phthalocyanines

Phthalocyanines Containing 3
d
Metals

Mononuclear and Polynuclear Metal Complexes of Group
VIII

Iron Complexes

Osmium Complexes

Polynuclear Complexes

Surface Chelation of Polypyridyl Complexes onto the TiO
2
Surface

Anchoring Groups

Acid‐Base Equilibria of the Anchoring Groups

Acid‐Base Equilibria of the 4,4‐Dicarboxy‐2,2′‐Bipyridine and its Complexes

Acid‐Base Equilibria of the Phosphonato Group

Stability and Performance of the Dyes

Stability of the Inorganic Dyes

Effect of Protons Carried by the Sensitizer on the Performance

Comparison of
IPCE
Obtained with Various Sensitizers

Synthesis and Characterization

Synthetic Strategies for Ruthenium Complexes

Purification

Characterization

Conclusion

Acknowledgment
Silverless Photography—Optical Image Recordings by Means of Photoelectrochemical Processes
Authors: Yoneyama Hiroshi 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Area‐selective Photoinduced Deposition on Semiconductor Electrodes

Deposition on Semiconductor Electrodes with External Bias

Deposition on Semiconductor Surfaces with no External Bias

Image Formations Using Photoinduced Electrochromism

Electrochromic Materials

Photoinduced Electrochromism of Semiconductive Oxides

Combined Systems of Electrochromic Materials and Semiconductor Electrodes

Composites Made of Electrochromic Materials and Semiconductor Powders

Image Formation with the Use of a Dye as the Photosensitizer

Summary
Nitrogen Oxides and Oxyanions
Authors: Inzelt György , Horányi György 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe sections in this article areFundamentalsPractical and Theoretical Importance of the FieldElectrochemical Transformations ofNO2−,NO3−(HNO2,HNO3)Electrochemistry and Electrochemical Detection ofNOReactions ofN2OAcknowledgment
Practical Aspects of Preparative Scale Electrolysis
Authors: Jörissen Jakob 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Target and Scale of the Investigations

Principles of Electrochemical Cell Operation

Essential Definitions for Electroorganic Reactions

Controlling of the Electrochemical Reaction Rate by Electrode Potential and Cell Current

General Correlations between Electrode Potential and Current Density

Operation with Constant Cell Current (Galvanostatic Operation)

Operation with Constant Electrode Potential (Potentiostatic Operation)

Undivided or Divided Cells

Batch Operation or Flow‐through Cells

Components of Electroorganic Reaction Systems

Electrodes

Examples of Electrode Materials

Examples of Electrode Types and their Special Properties

Electrolytes

Solvents

Supporting Electrolytes

Examples of Electrolytes

Cell Separators

Porous Materials

Ion‐exchange Membranes

Electrochemical Cells

Requirements in Electrochemical Cells

Uniform Current Density

Uniform Mixing and Mass Transfer

Temperature Control

Construction Materials

Mass and Charge Balancing

Electrode Potential Measurement

Examples of Electrochemical Cells

“
H
‐cell”

Beaker Glass Cells

Flow‐through Cells

Industrial Scale Cells
Quartz Crystal Microbalance (
QCM
)
Authors: Shimazu Katsuaki 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Self‐assembled Monolayer (
SAM
)

Construction of Well‐ordered
SAMs

Self‐assembly

Postassembly Derivation of
SAM
Surfaces

Layer‐by‐layer Growth of Multilayers

Reductive Desorption

Evaluation of End‐group Functions

Redox Properties

Acid/Base Properties and Reactions

Molecular Recognition on
SAM

Application for Sensors

Polymeric Film Electrodes

Conducting Polymers

Electrosynthesis

Redox (Doping/Undoping)

Redox Polymers

Break‐in Process

Redox

Inorganic Films

Clay‐modified Electrodes

Oxide Films

Prussian Blue and its Analogs
Analysis and detection of incipient faults in post‐fault systems subject to adaptive fault‐tolerant control
Authors: Chen Wen , Chowdhury Fahmida N. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThis paper presents an effective scheme for detecting incipient faults in post‐fault systems (PFSs) subject to adaptive fault‐tolerant control (AFTC). Through a survey of existing techniques, it is shown that the adaptivity of the AFTC counteracts the effect of an incipient fault in the PFS. This makes some of the conventional fault‐detection strategies, such as Beard–Jones detection filters and adaptive observers, ineffective in this situation. It is shown that the unknown input observer (UIO) is an effective tool; hence, the UIO is designed to decouple the incipient fault from the AFTC such that the fault‐detection residual is sensitive only to the incipient fault. Extensive simulation study is presented using an aircraft example to test three fault‐detection approaches; it is demonstrated that the UIO is the most effective tool in detecting the incipient fault in a PFS subject to AFTC. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Models of moisture diffusion through vinyl ester/clay nanocomposites
Authors: Liu Q. , De Kee D. , Gupta R. K. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThree different theories dealing with mass transport through polymer‐clay nanocomposites are discussed. The first one is a Langmuir type model; the second one is a Drozdov type model and the third one is a mesoscopic model. The Langmuir and Drozdov type models address adsorption of the solvent on the clay particles, while the mesoscopic model relates the viscoelastic properties of the polymer chains to the diffusion process. Experimental results of water moisture through vinyl ester nanocomposites made with two different clay particles are modeled and discussed. © 2007 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2008