bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Climate change and speciation in neotropical seasonally dry forest plants
Authors: Pennington R. Toby , Lavin Matt , Prado Darién E. , Pendry Colin A. , Pell Susan K. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractHistorical climate changes have had a major effect on the distribution and evolution of plant species in the neotropics. What is more controversial is whether relatively recent and rapid Pleistocene climatic changes have driven speciation, or whether neotropical species diversity is more ancient. This question is addressed using evolutionary rates analysis of nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacers (ITS) sequence data on diverse taxa occupying neotropical seasonally dry forests: Ruprechtia (Polygonaceae), robinioid legumes (Leguminosae), Chaetocalyx and Nissolia (Leguminosae), and Loxopterygium (Anacardiaceae). Species diversifications in these taxa occurred both during and before the Pleistocene in Central America, but were primarily pre-Pleistocene in South America. This indicates plausibility both for models that predict tropical species diversity to be recent and that invoke a role for Pleistocene climatic change, and those that consider it ancient and implicate geological factors such as the Andean orogeny and the closure of the Panama Isthmus.
STRING THEORY AND GAUGE THEORY
Authors: Mariño Marcos 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines the relationship between gauge theories and topological strings. A precise correspondence between string theory and gauge theory was formulated by 't Hooft (1974), who used as a starting point the double-line formulation of perturbation theory. The perturbative expansion of a gauge theory with gauge group U(N) can be rewritten in terms of an expansion of double-line Feynman diagrams. This issue has been illustrated in the cases of matrix models and Chern-Simons theory, but it is clear that such a reorganization of the expansion can be made for any U(N) gauge theory, as the double-line representation of the graphs only exploits the underlying gauge symmetry. One important question that needs to be addressed is whether it is possible to make more precise this analogy between U(N) gauge theories and open string theories. Two different topological string theories are considered.
The Porous Medium Equation
Authors: Vazquez Juan Luis 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The heat equation is one of the three classical linear partial differential equations of second order that form the basis of any elementary introduction to the area of PDEs, and only recently has it come to be fairly well understood. This book provides a presentation of the mathematical theory of the nonlinear heat equation usually called the Porous Medium Equation (PME). This equation appears in a number of physical applications, such as to describe processes involving fluid flow, heat transfer, or diffusion. Other applications have been proposed in mathematical biology, lubrication, boundary layer theory, and other fields. Each chapter contains a detailed introduction and is supplied with a section of notes, providing comments, historical notes or recommended reading, and exercises.
4 Forms of Institutional Investor Engagement
Authors: Martin Roderick , Casson Peter D. , Nisar Tahir M. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractInstitutional investors adopt different methods of engagement. Much investor engagement is routine and informal; other engagement is extraordinary and arises from specific circumstances, such as firms adopting remuneration policies which are viewed as inconsistent with ‘best City practice’. Routine engagement is conducted by individual investors. But extraordinary engagement is usually conducted through collective organizations, such as the Institutional Shareholders' Committee, as a means of reducing the costs of monitoring and intervening and addressing ‘free rider’ problems.
5 Private Equity Investor Engagement
Authors: Martin Roderick , Casson Peter D. , Nisar Tahir M. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractPrivate equity funds contribute heavily to the performance of the firms in which they invest beyond the provision of capital. Through detailed examination of seven case studies of private equity funds and portfolio companies, this chapter shows how private equity funds provide ‘commercial savvy’ and international connections to the companies in which they invest, as well as sector-specific knowledge. The funds may involve themselves in areas traditionally considered as matters of concern to investors, such as corporate strategy, and in matters normally considered the province of managers, such as innovation and employee skill development.
3 The Palaeography of Vindolanda
Authors: Terras Melissa M. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the methodologies used to collate data sets needed to train a system to read unknown characters contained within the stylus tablets. The Vindolanda ink texts are the major significant body of contemporaneous documents to the stylus tablets, and it is demonstrated that the stylus tablets should contain similar Old Roman Cursive character forms. The construction of a corpus of annotated images, based on the ink tablet letter forms, and the gathering of linguistic information from the Vindolanda ink texts that have already been read provided the information needed to train the system. Techniques included knowledge elicitation exercises with experts to gain an understanding of the types of information used to describe and identify ORC character forms; the construction of an encoding scheme; and the adoption and adaptation of an image markup tool to enable the annotation of images of the Vindolanda texts, producing textual descriptions of the letter forms in Extensible Markup Language (XML). This resulted in a corpus of 1700 individual ORC characters. Additional linguistic analysis of the Vindolanda ink texts provided lexicostatistics (word lists, word frequency, and letter frequency) regarding the language used at Vindolanda.
Plant genomes
Authors: Murphy Denis J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter looks at plant genomes, especially those unusual aspects of their organization that have enabled some species to adapt so successfully to cultivation by humans. Vavilov and others demonstrated that humans only ever domesticated a small range of crop species in a limited number of ‘centres of origin’. These crops often have large polyploid genomes and readily hybridize with other species to create new genetic combinations that can rapidly adapt to the new environments created by artificial cultivation. Genomic research shows that unlike the vast majority of animals, plants are able to duplicate their genomes and to hybridize across species to produce viable offspring with new genetic characteristics, such as domestication-related traits.
Agriculture: a mixed blessing
Authors: Murphy Denis J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractAlthough agriculture acted as a spur to many aspects of social and technological development, increasing reliance on a narrow range of food crops had many downsides that sometimes caused people to revert to hunter gathering. The restricted nutrient content of some crops, especially cereals, led to a reduction in human stature and an increase in degenerative diseases. People adapted both behaviourally and genetically to their increasing reliance on crops and livestock. Genetic changes in various populations included reduced maxillo-facial structures, lactose tolerance, malarial resistance, and partial resistance to zoonoses. Although many of these changes had an adverse impact on human wellbeing at the individual level, the greater size and techno-social complexity of agrarian based societies enabled them to out-compete hunter-gatherers. Despite their superior individual fitness, hunter-gatherers were fewer in number, less well organized, and lacked access to new technologies developed by their sicklier but formidably equipped agrarian neighbours.
Agricultural improvement and the rise of crop breeding
Authors: Murphy Denis J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThe Renaissance provided some stimulus to European agriculture but a far more profound phenomenon after 1550 CE was a ‘neonaissance’ involving the creation and publishing de novo of reliable knowledge based on systematic observation. This was paralleled by the emergence of an entrepreneurial culture, especially in the maritime nations of England and the Netherlands, that encouraged exploration and agrarian innovation for private profit. In England, land enclosure began as a way to establish farming as a profitable business venture rather than as a socially based subsistence activity. Practical scientific breeding began to emerge in the 17th century with a newly united Britain and the independent Netherlands as major centres. This process was assisted by improved literacy and the establishment of agricultural and scientific societies, such as the Royal Society in London.
Agricultural improvement in modern times
Authors: Murphy Denis J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractModern agriculture has created the world we live in today, most notably by enabling farmers to feed a population of over six billion, possibly rising to ten billion by 2050. Key advances have been made in the management of crops, the more efficient use of inputs such as minerals and fertilizers, and in the breeding of new high-yield varieties that have enabled food production to be trebled over the past fifty years while the human population has only doubled. By enhancing or creating new genetic variation, scientific breeders have increased cereal yields three- to five-fold since 1965, and new molecular methods of screening and selection promise further yield gains in the future. Meanwhile, advanced DNA technologies may enable us to domesticate some of the thousands of potentially valuable food crops that, due to their recalcitrant genomic organizations, have previously eluded the best efforts of breeders to bring them into useful cultivation.
Accounting for Emergence and Novelty in Boston and Bay Area Biotechnology*
Authors: Owen-Smith Jason , Powell Walter W. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThe development of the biotech industry in Boston and the San Francisco Bay area, the two most prominent biotech clusters in the United States, are compared. Their analysis rests on three presumptions: high-tech clusters in particular require both the presence of networks and spatial density, inter-organizational networks serve the dual purposes of being locus of innovation and the underlying support structure that host the institutional and social context necessary for innovation, and, finally, the form and substance of innovation in successful clusters vary over time and with patterns of emergence. It is concluded that a process of convergence has been going on over the last twelve years. Consequently, even though path-dependence and variety in culture and norms determine the trajectory, clusters may still be quite comparable in terms of performance.
The Emergence of Ireland's ICT Clusters: The Role of Foreign Direct Investment
Authors: Barry Frank 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThe emergence of the Irish ICT-cluster is claimed to be driven by the presence of foreign anchor firms, for example Intel. These firms also acted as incubators for domestic entrepreneurs. Half of the Irish manufacturing labour force is now employed in foreign-owned firms, with the bulk in ICT. The ICT cluster (both hardware and software) is agglomerated around Dublin. Already in the mid-1990s Ireland had become host to the most important ICT-cluster in Europe. Equally transformative was institutional reform and fiscal policy that also paved the way for future tax reductions, a newly developed ‘social partnership model’ of wage determination and Ireland's EU-membership in 1973 which guaranteed access to the European markets.
Clusters and Clustering: Stylized Facts, Issues, and Theories
Authors: Orsenigo Luigi 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter presents a survey of factors associated with the crafting of new innovative high-technology clusters. The evidence strongly supports the view that there are strong agglomeration forces in high-technology sectors, mainly related to the concentration of scientific knowledge. Adequate incentive structures and entrepreneurial activity are also important, as are spin-offs from highly capable universities and research centres. Thus, the emergence of clusters is not a purely random phenomenon. Initial conditions and ‘endowments’ play a crucial role in defining the geography of innovation. However, these do not suffice to account either for the genesis of clusters, neither for the failures. The literature forcefully points to the observation that processes are the essence of what clusters are made of.
The Role of Public Policy in Emerging Clusters
Authors: Carlsson Bo 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThe question asked in the last chapter concerns how to design a public policy in a non-deterministic, evolutionary, and highly complex world. That is, a world where the most desirable outcomes are unknown but there may be many possible acceptable outcomes, and where change is characterized by both path dependence and unpredictability. Based on the case studies previously presented, the conclusion is that policy interventions exaggerate the system characteristics in cluster policies at the expense of incentives on the level of individuals, potential entrepreneurs, and firms. Particularly in Europe, with its tradition of governmentally administrated and targeted policies, there is a risk of downplaying the role of individual initiatives in the creation of clusters.
Introduction: the enigma of sexual size dimorphism
Authors: Fairbairn Daphne J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis introductory chapter opens by describing general patterns of variation in sexual size dimorphism (SSD), with emphasis on several taxa (plants, fishes, and aquatic invertebrates) not included in the survey chapters that follow. It also highlights recently documented examples of extreme SSD, such as Lamprologus callipterus, a shell-brooding cichlid fish, where males are &gt;12 times heavier than females, and the blanket octopus (Tremoctopus violaceous), where females can be 40,000 times larger than the dwarf males. The chapter then develops the two major integrative themes of the book: discovering the adaptive significance of SSD and determining the importance of genetic constraints in shaping its evolution. After briefly summarizing the contributions of the chapters to these themes, the chapter closes by discussing methodological difficulties associated with estimating adult body size and SSD in natural populations.
Sexual size dimorphism and offspring vulnerability in birds
Authors: Kalmbach Ellen , Benito Maria M. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter uses recent experimental and observational studies of birds to explore patterns of sex-specific offspring vulnerability (increased mortality and reduced fledging mass under poor conditions) in relation to sexual size dimorphism (SSD). The results show size-dependent modulation of male fledgling mass but size-independent mass reduction in females. Overall, growth is more phenotypically plastic in males than in females. Comparisons of fledging mass reached in ‘good’ and ‘poor’ environments suggest that having to grow large is mainly disadvantageous when coupled with the male phenotype. Differences in environmental sensitivity between the two sexes during ontogeny, either in the form of increased mortality or reduced body size, will tend to reduce dimorphism during development, affecting adult SSD. These results suggest that environmental conditions during ontogeny contribute significantly to variation in SSD within bird species, particularly when comparisons are made among environments or between generations.
Variation in sexual size dimorphism within a widespread lizard species
Authors: Roitberg Evgeny S. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter presents an analysis of geographic variation in sexual size dimorphism (SSD) within a widespread Eurasian lizard species, Lacerta agilis. Comparisons of snout-vent lengths from fifty-two samples reveal that the difference between female-larger L. a. agilis in West Europe and the predominantly male-larger L. a. boemica in the southeastern North Caucasus is caused primarily by divergence in male size (Rensch's rule). Five other subspecies occupy intermediate positions along the SSD axis. Both latitudinal and altitudinal clines occur within subspecies, with more male-biased SSD occurring in warmer climates. Data on age-specific SVLs and age compositions show that sex differences in body growth are the major proximate determinant of adult SSD, sex-biased adult survival being of minor importance. Selective and proximate-level factors are proposed as possible determinants of these patterns, but future studies will be required to adequately test these hypotheses.
Sexual differences in insect development time in relation to sexual size dimorphism
Authors: Jarošík Vojtěch , Honek Alois 
Published: September 2007

AbstractDifferences in the duration development between males and females is one of the major proximate mechanisms mediating sexual size dimorphism. This chapter reviews evidence for such differences in insects. Using the concept of developmental rate isomorphy, the slopes of male and female rates of development on temperature are compared for 122 insect species from eleven orders. On average, males develop significantly faster than females but there is large variation within insect orders, suggesting little phylogenetic inertia. The faster male relative to female development is more pronounced in heterometabolous insects (with no pupal stage) than in holometabolous insects, perhaps related to pre-imaginal development of male gonads being more costly than that of female gonads in the latter group. In contrast, the pattern was not affected by other life history traits such as a parasitoid life history or the existence of quiescent stages in insects lacking the true pupal stage.
Spending policy
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy 
Published: September 2007

AbstractInstitutions have spending and investment policies to support their endowments. Spending policies help in determining issues in long-term asset allocation. The governing bodies of colleges face the challenge of balancing the conflicting goals of supporting current operations and preserving endowment assets. Donors also expect their gifts to provide permanent support towards a specific activity, though colleges usually prefer undesignated or general donations. Spending policies act as referees in the perpetual game between current and future players. A clearly defined spending policy also frees up the asset allocation decisions and enables the fund manager to focus on investment issues.
Consultant selection and monitoring
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThe use of external investment advisers among institutions in Oxford and Cambridge is low. This may be due to the high level of professional expertise available internally, including alumni and others within the investment committee who are willing to offer their independent advice. Lack of any regulatory requirement for external expert advice and the historical asset mix of the endowment may have also contributed to the lack of professional employment of investment consultants in managing the endowment. About two-thirds of surveyed colleges in Oxford and Cambridge, for example, did not use any external investment consultants in the management of their endowment portfolios. And among those colleges that did, several registered dissatisfaction with the consultant's ability to deliver a value-added service. Less than 10% of bursars reported plans to appoint a consultant for the sake of strategic asset allocation or risk assessment.
Fund-raising: Role of gifts
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The endowments of the institutions of Oxford and Cambridge are the result of centuries of benefactions, donations, bequests, and legacies. In the majority of cases, benefactions were in the form of land. In principle, when institutions receive a gift, to provide true permanent support they also incur expenditures in maintaining that gift. Thus, offsetting benefactions in the form of land were the associated costs of maintaining buildings and estates. Similarly with financial donations, institutions are obliged to maintain the inflation-adjusted income from gifts. While gifts enlarge the scope of activities, it implies that institutions must factor in additional costs into their annual budgets to be able to deliver the same set of activities initially supported by the gift.
Elaboration and Explication of the Proposed Measurement‐Theoretic Account
Authors: Matthews Robert J. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThe proposed measurement-theoretic account takes seriously — in a way that the Received View does not — the notion that propositional attitude attributions are natural language representations of certain causally efficacious internal states of their possessors. However, a number of questions about the proposed measurement-theoretic account remain. First, there is the question of the explanatory adequacy of the account, e.g., how well it explains what having a propositional attitude amounts to, how well it explains the salient properties of propositional attitudes, how well it explains why we should have evolved the sort of attitude predicates that we have, and whether the account can explain the various puzzles about propositional attitudes that have so preoccupied philosophers since Frege. Second, there is the question of what the account implies regarding the intrinsic nature of propositional attitudes. Third, there is the question of what the account entails as regards the import of propositional attitude psychology for computational cognitive scientific theorizing, specifically as regards the computational entailments of propositional attitude attributions. Finally, there is the question of the consilience of this chapter's account with certain philosophical views and projects central to contemporary philosophy of mind, e.g., intentional realism, intentional content essentialism, and propositional attitude-based semantic programmes. This chapter answers each of these questions.
2 Mediation in Eusebius of Caesarea
Authors: Robertson Jon M. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter analyses Eusebius of Caesarea's understanding of the radical transcendence of God the Father, which influenced his view of the Word as an intervening mediator between the Father and the created world. It argues that his concept of mediation is necessarily a ‘deictic’ one, i.e., one in which the mediator — while similar to that which it images — is not to be identified with it in any fundamental way. This is particularly evident in his presentation of ‘image’ theology. He favoured the illustration of image for the Father/Son relationship because he felt it pictured their similarity and non-identity, as well as described the eternal soteriological function of the Son in mediating knowledge of the Father. His comprehension of the Incarnation was that it reflected, at a new but not qualitatively different level, the ongoing mediating function of the Word.
3 Mediation in Marcellus of Ancyra
Authors: Robertson Jon M. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter examines Marcellus of Ancyra's account of the ‘one God’ and how knowledge of that God comes to humanity. It begins by looking at Eusebius of Caesarea's portrait of Marcellus as one who threatened what he understood to be the Christian concept of divine mediation before turning to Marcellus. His comprehension of divine unity is examined in order to understand his perspective of divine mediation. The chapter then investigates how this strict monoprosopic view of God impacted his conception of the Incarnation. Only then will it be possible to appreciate his exposition of the mediation of knowledge of the invisible divine nature as taking place through the visible image of God.