bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Superstructure
Authors: Audi Robert 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter examines how justification is transmitted from one belief to another, as where one acquires justification for believing a proposition by inferring it from something else that one already justifiedly believes. An account of theoretical reason must also consider knowledge. Knowledge is not merely justified true belief, and its relation both to theoretical justification and to practical rationality is quite complicated. It is argued that rationality, justification, and knowledge are all based on reasons, and several kinds of reasons we must understand in order to see how they are so based are discussed.
The Sources of Practical Reasons
Authors: Audi Robert 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter considers whether practical reason is substantive or only instrumental. It examines egoism, in a normative form, as well as hedonism, for which pleasure and pain are the fundamental sources of practical reasons. The chapter also considers what metaphysical commitments a theory of practical rationality must make if it embraces some apparently irreducible normative notion, such as that of intrinsic value.
Desires, Intentions, and Reasons for Action
Authors: Audi Robert 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
With practical reason, as with theoretical reason, there is an important difference between reasons that are in some sense basic and those based on further reasons. Beliefs, actions, and desires can all be rational on the basis of rational elements that “transmit” rationality to them. This chapter addresses the following questions: what sorts of relationships hold between desires that are, for the agent, basic, as a desire to maintain good health might be, and desires based on those, such as the desire to swim? And how might desires, taken together with beliefs, justify actions?
Global Rationality
Authors: Audi Robert 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter argues that if we have a unified, comprehensive account of rationality for both domains, we should have much of the theoretical material needed to understand the notion of a rational person. But the matter is complicated. There are tradeoffs; for instance, a high degree of theoretical rationality might counterbalance some degree of practical irrationality, and no rational person need exhibit rationality all of the time. Some irrational actions, and even isolated moments of a wider irrationality, are compatible with the overall rationality of a person. Indeed, if some things, such as certain emotions, may fail to be rational without being irrational, then it is entirely consistent with being a rational person that one cultivate certain non-rational elements in oneself and allow them to play a significant role in one's life.
Zeraḥiah Ḥen
Authors: Eisen Robert 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This discussion of Zerahiah begins by outlining the contents of Zerahiah’s reading of Job, with special attention given to deciphering its esoteric doctrines. It then examines the three interfaces around which this study has been structured. It is shown that Zerahiah presents a reading of Job that is very much in the spirit of Ibn Tibbon’s exegetical enterprise in that he uses Maimonides’ Guide as a resource to produce a comprehensive commentary on the biblical text. Yet, there is also evidence to suggest that some of Zerahiah’s key insights regarding Job are taken directly from Ibn Tibbon himself. It is possible that Zerahiah may be closer to Ibn Tibbon in philosophical orientation than scholars up to now have appreciated. However, in a number of ways Zerahiah goes beyond Ibn Tibbon. He composes an exposition on the entire Book of Job, and this allows him to develop elements of Maimonides’ reading of Job to a much greater extent than Ibn Tibbon did. The most significant example of this tendency is his fascinating discussion of allegory. In addition, Zerahiah’s commentary displays a greater independence from Maimonides than does that of Ibn Tibbon. Most important in this regard is its elitist emphasis.
Simon ben Ẓema ḥDuran
Authors: Eisen Robert 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
Because Duran presents his systematic views on providence in his introduction to the commentary on Job, this chapter will deal with Duran’s thinking on this issue as part of the summary of the commentary, rather than in a separate section. The analysis as a whole will be aided by the fact that Duran’s philosophical thought is in many respects a reaction against Maimonides, and he therefore does not adopt esoteric discourse. It is shown that Duran’s commentary on Job presents another rich and original interpretation of the book. While his exposition is dependent on previous philosophical readings of Job — particularly Saadiah’s — Duran’s commentary also betrays the strong influence of non-philosophical sources in rabbinic midrash and Kabbalah, and these influences result in a reading of Job that is very conservative in orientation. The traditional turn initiated by Gersonides is completed in Duran. This provides a reading of Job that is “rationalistic” in the broad sense of the term, but one that has abandoned Aristotelianism and its concomitant radicalism.
Medieval Jewish Philosophy and the Exegesis of Job
Authors: Eisen Robert 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This study examined six readings of Job spanning five centuries; they originate in geographical locations as far apart as Baghdad and Provence; they reflect a wide range of philosophical orientations and perspectives; and they contain numerous insights about every aspect of Job. The remaining challenge is to formulate general conclusions about this material. This purpose will be greatly aided by the scheme of three interfaces around which this study has been organized. These interfaces are reviewed to draw general conclusions about these readings of Job as a collective. The implications of these conclusions for the field of medieval Jewish philosophy as a whole are also discussed.
Property Dualism, Phenomenal Concepts, and the Semantic Premise
Authors: White Stephen L. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter defends the property dualism argument. The term “semantic premise” mentioned is used to refers to an assumption identified by Brian Loar that antiphysicalist arguments, such as the property dualism argument, tacitly assume that a statement of property identity that links conceptually independent concepts is true only if at least one concept picks out the property it refers to by connoting a contingent property of that property. It is argued that, the property that does the work in explaining the possibility of a posteriori identities need not be a first-order property of the referent in question. On his view, the property dualism argument requires only a weaker semantic premise, which allows that the property in question be a higher order property. A refined version of the property dualism argument is formulated, which uses the weaker premise, and defends the argument against various objections.
Max Black's Objection to Mind‐Body Identity
Authors: Block Ned 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter criticizes the property dualism argument. It argues that one version of the argument conflates two different notions of mode of presentation: the “cognitive mode of presentation,” which is defined in terms of its role in determining reference and/or explaining cognitive significance; and the “metaphysical mode of presentation,” which is a property of the referent in virtue of which the cognitive mode of presentation plays its semantic and cognitive roles. It also examines John Perry's (2001) book, which discusses both Max Black's argument and the Knowledge Argument as well as some arguments drawn from Stephen White's (1986) essay on the topic and arguments inspired by unpublished papers by White.
Battle of the Isms
Authors: Binmore Ken 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter reviews the calumnies that are commonly directed at moral naturalists. Philosophical rationalism is compared unfavorably with the empirical tradition by drawing attention to the inadequacies in the reasoning that supposedly leads to Kant's categorical imperative. Moral naturalism is defended on the same basis as biological naturalism. Moral relativism — the big no-no for metaphysical moralists — is defended against a variety of common criticisms; reductionism gets the same treatment. Finally, the life of David Hume is advanced as a counter-example to those who feel that naturalism is necessarily dehumanizing or dispiriting.
Empathy
Authors: Binmore Ken 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
Sympathy refers to caring about another to some degree as one cares for oneself. Empathy refers to the capacity to put yourself in the position of others to see things from their point of view. Empathetic preferences compare being one person in one situation with being another person in another situation. John Harsanyi showed that mild assumptions imply that to have empathetic preferences is the same thing as having rates at which the utility units of different people are to be traded off against one another. A consequence is that empathetic preferences have the same structure as Hamilton's rule, and so may have originated from strangers adopted into a clan being treated as surrogate kinfolk. But since empathetic preferences are cultural artifacts, they are subject to cultural evolution. The idea of an empathy equilibrium is introduced to capture the medium-run effects of such cultural evolution on empathetic preferences.
Life, Works, and Influence
Authors: Adamson Peter 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the evidence regarding al-Kindī’s biography, and surveys what is known of his writings based on the account in Ibn al-Nadīm’s Fihrist. While most of his works are lost, there is a significant extant corpus which is also summarized here. The chapter discusses how al-Kindī’s writings relate to the translation movement under the ’Abbāsids, which produced Arabic versions of Greek philosophical and scientific works. It concludes by considering al-Kindī’s legacy, among Neoplatonic philosophers who followed his broad approach (such as al-’Āmirī and Miskawayh), contrasting this “Kindian tradition” to the more Aristotelian school in Baghdad, whose most famous representative was al-Fārābī.
Falsafa
Authors: Adamson Peter 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter discusses al-Kindī’s main influences from Greek works produced by the translation movement, and how al-Kindī thought the ideas from these works should be put together into a coherent philosophical curriculum. In philosophy, al-Kindī was most influenced by Aristotle and by Neoplatonic works (such as the Liber de Causis and Theology of Aristotle, which are Arabic versions of works by Proclus and Plotinus). His vision of philosophical methodology follows a Greek tradition of dividing philosophy up in terms of the different objects studied in different sciences. Finally, the chapter discusses the role of the Arabic language and Islam in al-Kindī’s thought by surveying texts in which he engages in Koranic exegesis, and by explaining his project of developing a new Arabic terminology in philosophy.
Science
Authors: Adamson Peter 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter is divided into three sections dealing with pharmacology, optics, and music, and emphasizes the issues of methodology, especially how al-Kindī thinks mathematics is used in science. In pharmacology, al-Kindī gives an arithmetical theory for calculating the effects of compound drugs. In optics, he expands on ideas inherited from Ptolemy to provide a novel theory of light and color. In music, he puts forward an ambitious theory, influenced by Pythagoreanism, which holds that all things are interconnected by relations of harmony.
Are Cap‐and‐Trade Programs More Environmentally Effective than Conventional Regulation?
Authors: Denny Ellerman A. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis essay explains why cap-and-trade programs (in which government establishes an overall cap on pollution but allows firms to trade allocations beneath the cap) can be both more economically efficient and more environmentally effective than prescriptive regulation. It underscores the importance of measuring effectiveness in ex post evaluations, which are defined as achieving the proximate goal (i.e., of emissions reduction), rather than the larger goal of solving the underlying problem (i.e., unhealthy air). The argument in favor of market instruments is supported with data from three emissions trading programs: the SO2 trading regime in Title IV of the Clean Air Act, the NOx budget program created by the EPA to address interstate ozone migration, and the RECLAIM program created by the South Coast Air Quality Management District in Southern California. It is proposed that market instruments represent a new pragmatism in environmental regulation and that they are part of the maturation of the regulatory process.
Environmental Trading Schemes and the Constitutional Leverage Effect
Authors: Farber Daniel A. 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This essay pursues an underexplored aspect of the literature on tradable permit regimes by asking which among polluting firms are the likely winners and losers in the shift from a prescriptive approach to a market trading scheme, and under which conditions will firms support such a shift? One of the reasons why literature overlooks such questions is that analysts tend to use an overly simplified and unrealistic notion of command-and-control regulation. Although in some instances government regulations dictate to firms the particular technologies they must adopt, most prescriptive regulation consists of performance standards that firms may meet any way they choose. So-called command-and-control regulation always relies to some extent on adjustments in light of economic realities: both in the initial phase of level setting when the regulatory agency takes account of industrial processes and capacities in choosing the standard and later, when agencies negotiate particular permits. There is, moreover, considerable flexibility in the enforcement process, when agencies must determine whether firms are out of compliance and what must be done in response.
Abraham Lincoln
Authors: Smith Gary Scott 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
Like George Washington’s, Lincoln’s faith has been closely scrutinized, hotly debated, and often misunderstood. Both men attributed their success in war to divine providence, proclaimed days of public thanksgiving and prayer as president, rarely mentioned Jesus, and were intensely private about their personal beliefs. Lincoln was never baptized, never received communion, and never joined a church, but he had a thorough knowledge of the Bible and peppered his speeches with biblical references and allusions. Lincoln cited the Scriptures and discussed theologically significant questions in his addresses more than the avowedly Christian statesmen of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Some friends and associates claimed he remained an unbeliever all his life who attended church and employed religious language to win voters, gain support for policies, and convince Americans to trust him. Others who knew the 16th president equally well contended that he became an orthodox Christian who regularly read the Bible, prayed habitually, and frequently used scriptural passages and illustrations to express his personal convictions. Many investigators conclude that in his later years Lincoln had a profound sense of God’s presence, accepted many central scriptural tenets, and valiantly strove to follow Christian ethics. Through years of wrestling with God, Lincoln developed a deep but unconventional faith. Although he did not become a born-again evangelical, he became increasingly receptive to Protestant orthodoxy. More than any other 19th-century president, he became known for seeking to base public policies on scriptural principles. Lincoln’s religious views helped shape his political philosophy and actions, most notably the way he dealt with slavery and interpreted the Civil War. After his assassination, Lincoln was deeply mourned and frequently eulogized as a martyr who offered a redeeming sacrifice for the nation’s sins. He became the second great hero of the nation’s civil religion.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the Quest to Achieve an Abundant Life
Authors: Smith Gary Scott 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
Scholars have provided scant analysis of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s personal faith, regular use of religious rhetoric, relationship with religious constituencies and leaders, the impact of his religious convictions on his policies as president, or the role of religion in his four presidential campaigns. The Democrat, however, repeatedly emphasized the importance of the Bible, prayer, and Christian morality. In numerous speeches and letters, he urged Americans to work for spiritual renewal, promote social justice, and strive to achieve a more abundant material and spiritual life. He frequently asserted that God directed history, labeled himself God’s agent, and insisted that the United States would prosper only if its citizens sought divine guidance and followed biblical principles. His courage, confidence, and calm in dealing with the Great Depression and World War II sprang from his temperament, life experiences, and faith. Interested much more in the moral, character-building, and social justice emphases of Christianity than its theological or devotional aspects, Roosevelt’s faith was sincere but not intellectually sophisticated. Like his approach to politics, his faith focused more on action than contemplation, more on results than on principles. More than any other 20th-century president, Roosevelt managed to maintain cordial relations with Protestants (especially ones concerned about social justice), Catholics, and Jews. In September 1935, Roosevelt sent a letter to more than 120,000 “representative clergymen” to ask them for “counsel and advice”, particularly about the impact of his administration’s new social security legislation and public works program. His faith played a significant role in shaping the New Deal and his approach to international relations.
Ronald Reagan
Authors: Smith Gary Scott 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
Ronald Reagan’s religious convictions were crucial to his understanding of the world and performance as president, but few scholars have provided substantive analysis of his faith and its impact on his policies during his tenure in the White House. Although the circumstances of Reagan’s life and the seeming inconsistencies between his beliefs and his practices make his faith difficult to explain, it appears to have been genuine, very meaningful to him, and essential to his political philosophy. Reagan firmly believed and often declared that God intended America to be a beacon of hope, faith, freedom, and democracy — “a city on the hill”. Reagan was deeply influenced by his godly mother, Nelle, and raised in the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Reagan’s firm belief that God had a plan for his life was fortified by his survival of an assassination attempt in March 1981. In many addresses, proclamations, letters, and private conversations, Reagan stressed his faith in God and prayer, the inspiration of the Bible, and the divinity of Jesus. Numerous leaders of the religious right were troubled by his infrequent church attendance and his wife’s interest in astrology. Although historians debate the nature of Reagan’s personal faith, they concur that he used religious rhetoric, discussed religious themes, and spoke to religious groups more than any other 20th-century president. Religion played a very important role in Reagan’s 1984 reelection campaign. Reagan’s personal life was not a paragon of evangelical piety, but his worldview was strongly shaped by his understanding of biblical teaching. His faith affected many of his policies, most notably his endeavors to curb abortion, pass a school prayer amendment, secure tuition tax credits, and oppose communism.
Establishing the Dispensation in LaṄkā
Authors: Berkwitz Stephen C. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter presents an English translation of the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa, focusing on the ordination of the king's son and daughter as Buddhist monastics. The son Mihiňdu becomes an arahant, and he later leads a small group of Buddhist monks to the island of Laṅkā in order to spread the Buddha's Dharma.
The Description of the Relic Chamber
Authors: Berkwitz Stephen C. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter presents an English translation of the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa, detailing how the relics were obtained for the shrine in Anurādhapura. The text narrates how a novice monk took the relics away from the subterranean kingdom of the nāgas. After the nāgas pursue the novice, they make an impassioned plea to have at least some of the relics returned to them. The account of their lamentation to the monks marks another place where Parākrama embellished older narrative traditions.
The Death of King Duṭugämuṇu
Authors: Berkwitz Stephen C. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter presents an English translation of the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa, focusing on the death of King Duṭugämuṇu. Duṭugämuṇu falls ill before the shrine is finished. One of his former warriors, who became a monk, returns to Duṭugämuṇu's deathbed and consoles him while a record of the king's meritorious acts is recited aloud. The king gives rise to feelings of serene joy in his deeds and charges his younger brother with the duty of finishing the shrine. When the king dies while gazing upon the relic shrine, he is instantaneously reborn as a deity who venerates the relics once more and admonishes the crowd of people to do merit so that they may attain a heavenly rebirth too.
Civic Identities
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter shows that the two congregational models of the relationship between religion and civic life found in ethnic-specific and multiethnic churches provide Korean Americans with resources to create identities as American citizens. Korean Americans use the different interpretations of Christianity to create civic identities with overlapping religious, class, racial, and ethnic components. Such perspectives structure how Korean Americans view their relationship with other ethnic groups, particularly those with black Americans, and provide Korean Americans with diverse ways to view the image of Asian Americans as model minorities.
The Framework
Authors: Bencivenga Ermanno 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter presents a summary of the basic framework in Kant'sCopernican Revolution. Transcendental philosophy has no factual content: it moves among concepts, in logical space, and its task is proving that a number of human beliefs and practices are possible. In order to prove that human knowledge is possible, Kant inverts the usual conceptual dependency of knowledge on objects. The outcome is that objects, including the self, become the imaginary foci of the never-ending process of subjecting experience to conceptual criteria of objectivity.
Values
Authors: Bencivenga Ermanno 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
That an act is unqualifiedly good means that it is rational: moral values are reason's commentary on facts. The only free acts are the good, rational ones; when one behaves irrationally, one is no longer acting at all. Which does not mean that one should not regard oneself as responsible for one's evil behavior. On the contrary, doing so is an additional act, conducive to the reestablishment of the rational level of interaction that was interrupted by the evil behavior.