bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reciprocity
Authors: Binmore Ken 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
The folk theorem shows that cooperative behavior can be sustained as a Nash equilibrium in indefinitely repeated games — a phenomenon known as reciprocal altruism. The same theorem offers a solution to various other social mysteries. Who guards the guardians? How are authority, blame, courtesy, dignity, envy, friendship, guilt, honor, integrity, justice, loyalty, modesty, ownership, pride, reputation, status, trust, virtue, and the like to be explained as emergent phenomena? How do beliefs that many people privately know to be false survive?
What Developmental Biology Can Tell Us about Innateness
Authors: Marcus Gary F. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines an apparent tension created by recent research on neurological development and genetics on the one hand and cognitive development on the other. It considers what it might mean for intrinsic signals to guide the initial establishment of functional architecture. It argues that an understanding of the mechanisms by which the body develops can inform our understanding of the mechanisms by which the brain develops. It cites the view of developmental neurobiologists Fukuchi-Shimogori and Grove, that the patterning of the part of the brain responsible for our higher functions is coordinated by the same basic mechanisms and signaling protein families used to generate patterning in other embryonic organs. Thus, what's good enough for the body, is good enough for the brain.
Strong versus Weak Adaptationism in Cognition and Language
Authors: Atran Scott 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the issue of methodological usefulness of a strong versus weak adaptationist position in attempting to gain significant insight and to make scientifically important advances and discoveries in human cognition. Strong adaptationism holds that complex design is best explained by task-specific adaptations to particular ancestral environments; whereas weak adaptationism claims that we should not assume that complex design is the result of such narrowly determined task- or niche-specific evolutionary pressures in the absence of substantial corroborating evidence. It argues that in cases of certain domain-specific cognitive competencies (e.g., folk biology) strong adaptationism has proven useful but not necessary to recent progress in the field. In other cases (e.g., language), a weak adaptationist strategy has been arguably most productive in advancing scientific understanding, without precluding that the structures uncovered by other means are actually adaptations.
What Neurodevelopmental Disorders Can Reveal about Cognitive Architecture
Authors: Tager‐Flusberg Helen 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter begins with an overview of the controversy surrounding the study of children and adults with neurodevelopmental disorders, and how these inform theories of neurocognitive architecture. It weighs the arguments for and against what we might learn from studying individuals who have fundamental biological impairments. It then discusses the example of research on theory of mind in two different disorders — autism and Williams syndrome (WMS) — which has highlighted a number of important aspects of how this core cognitive capacity develops in both normal and atypical populations.
Causal Models
Authors: Sloman Steven 
Published: February 2007

AbstractAccording to human perception, the world is full of causal systems composed of autonomous mechanisms that generate events as effects of other events. This chapter attempts to make this idea more precise and therefore more clear by making it more formal. It introduces the causal model framework as an abstract language for representing causal systems. It discusses the three parts of a causal model: the causal system in the world (i.e., the system being represented); the probability distribution that describes how likely events are to happen and how likely they are to occur with other events — how certain we can be about each event and combination of events; and a graph that depicts the causal relations in the system.
Observation Versus Action
Authors: Sloman Steven 
Published: February 2007

AbstractCausality does not just tell us what to expect as passive observers, but what to expect when we take action, when we act as agents and intervene on the world. Causality concerns the effects of the actions we take. It also concerns the effects that actions that we do not actually take would have were we to take them. Causality at the most fundamental level concerns action. This chapter provides a means to represent action in the formalism.
Reasoning About Causation
Authors: Sloman Steven 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter discusses three kinds of reasoning that illustrate the central role of causality. The first part shows that causal considerations enter into how people think about some mathematical equations, that their thinking about equations reflects an underlying causal structure. The second part concerns social attribution, reasoning about why people do things. It is shown that people's explanations of behaviour depend on the causal model that they believe governs that behaviour. The third part concerns reasoning about counterfactual events.
The Psychology of Judgment: Causality Is Pervasive
Authors: Sloman Steven 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the role of causal models in judgment. It is argued that causal modeling plays a central role in the process of judgment when the object of judgment can be construed as a causal effect. Such a construal is almost always appropriate in the legal domain where both crimes and accidents are effects of individual actions. It is also appropriate in scientific domains. Scientists are also in the business of building causal models, in their case to understand how the world works in general rather than to understand the circumstances of a specific event. Causal models are relevant to judgment in any domain in which physical, social, or abstract events cause other events. Causal models may well be the primary determinant of what is considered relevant when reasoning, when making judgments and predictions, and when taking action within such domains.
Categorical Induction
Authors: Sloman Steven 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter focuses on how we induce properties of the world. Some psychologists have been coming back to the view that induction is mediated by causal models — causal models that are often generated online through the application of causal principles, abstract causal relations that have general applicability. Such causal models help to explain how people make inductive inferences when the inference can be conceived as a causal effect, as in the ‘bananas have it; therefore, monkeys have it’ example. In other cases, inference involves analogy: a predicate is applied to one category because it is known to apply to an analogous category, as in the ‘tigers do it; therefore, hawks do it’ example. In such cases, the analogy seems to be between causal structures. Finally, causal models give a psychologically plausible way to think about why people sometimes show sensitivity to statistical information. Instead of assuming that people calculate statistics like measures of the variability of a property, the requisite information can be interpreted as a property's centrality in a causal model.
Locating Causal Structure in Language
Authors: Sloman Steven 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter discusses how we use aspects of language. It shows that we use causal models to produce and understand speech even when we have no idea that we are doing so. Two aspects of language are considered that illustrate this usage: what pronouns refer to and the meaning of conjunctions like and if. The meaning of if is especially complicated, and the details of the causal model framework are particularly helpful for understanding it.
Conclusion: Causation in the Mind
Authors: Sloman Steven 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis concluding chapter attempts to draw out the general lessons of causal and interventional principles for an understanding of people, their situations, their problems, and solutions to their problems. Topics discussed include the role of causal models in how the mind works, fundamental claims of the causal modelling framework, what causal models can contribute to human welfare, and the causal modelling metaphor.
Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth
Authors: Audretsch David B. , Keilbach Max C. , Lehmann Erik E. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractPublic policy spanning a broad range of contexts, ranging from the European Union, to states, cities, and local communities around the globe has turned to entrepreneurship to provide the engine for economic growth, competitiveness in globally linked markets, and jobs. This book explains why entrepreneurship has emerged as a bona fide instrument of growth policy. The knowledge spillover theory of entrepreneurship suggests that entrepreneurship provides a crucial mechanism in the process of economic growth by serving as a conduit for knowledge spillovers. Investments in new knowledge and ideas may not automatically spill over and result in commercialization, as has typically been assumed in models of economic growth. Rather, the existence of what is introduced as the knowledge filter impedes the spillover and commercialization of investments in new ideas and knowledge. By penetrating the knowledge filter and facilitating the spillover of knowledge that might otherwise not be commercialized, entrepreneurship provides the missing link to economic growth. This new focus of entrepreneurship as a conduit transmitting the spillover of knowledge generates a series of theoretical propositions, involving not just the impact of entrepreneurship on economic performance and growth, but also the very nature of entrepreneurship. The book concludes that the new millennium may not be so much about the process of Joseph Schumpeter's creative destruction, where entrepreneurial startups displace and ultimately drive incumbent company's out of business, but rather characterized by creative construction.
Entrepreneurship Capital and Economic Performance
Authors: Audretsch David B. , Keilbach Max C. , Lehmann Erik E. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter attempts to link entrepreneurship to economic performance. It provides empirical evidence consistent with the hypothesis that economic performance — output measured as GDP or economic growth — is positively related to the presence of a Standort's entrepreneurship capital. In particular, the empirical evidence based on German regions suggests that the neoclassical two-factor approach does not adequately explain economic performance, at least not in the case of contemporary Germany. Rather, including entrepreneurship provides a better explanation of why some regions exhibit a stronger economic performance than others. It is argued that the degree of entrepreneurial activity, which presumably reflects the underlying stock of entrepreneurship capital associated with a particular Standort, positively affects economic performance.
The Islamist Alternative to Globalization
Authors: Rosefsky Wickham Carrie 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis article examines the construction of an Islamist version of modernity in the platform of the Egyptian Wasat (Center) party, which is one of the clearest and fullest elaborations of the modernist Islamist world-view and, as such, indicates both the extent and the limits of the ideological innovation which has occurred within the region’s Islamic movement over the past decade. The embrace of a “modernist” Islamic platform has facilitated the integration of some of Egypt’s Islamists into broader civil society networks at both the local and global levels, creating new realities on the ground which defy the “clash of civilizations” paradigm, which portrays the cultures of Islam and the West as diametrically opposed.
Tradable Permits with Incomplete Monitoring: Evidence from Santiago's Particulate Permits Program
Authors: Montero Juan‐Pablo 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This essay extends the theoretical model of Montero (2004) and applies it to Santiago, Chile's total suspended particulate (TSP) program to compare the actual performance of this program with that of a hypothetically equivalent standards policy. In doing so, the production and abatement cost characteristics of affected sources and the regulator's perception about environmental damages are first recovered. Based on these estimates, it is shown that permits have provided large cost savings but also lead to higher emissions; about 6% higher than what would have been observed under an equivalent standards policy. However, the welfare loss from higher emissions is only 8% of the welfare gain from lower abatement and production costs. The theoretical and empirical results make a strong case for the wider use of pollution permits, even in situations where emissions are imperfectly observed.
An Economic Assessment of Market‐Based Approaches to Regulating the Municipal Solid Waste Stream
Authors: Menell Peter S. 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This essay explores the potential for pricing mechanisms to help internalize the costs and benefits of municipal solid waste management. It provides a comprehensive history of the development of variable rate pricing strategies in the United States and explains the challenges involved in moving from conventional municipal solid waste regulation to such pay-as-you-throw systems. The empirical studies on the effects of variable rate pricing policies are reviewed, and it is argued that they have proven to be successful at increasing waste diversion from landfills. Although the net economic impact of variable approaches is still unclear (because of operational costs and adverse impacts), many cities have adopted them and seen their total cost of waste disposal decline.
A Proposal to Use Transactions to Leverage Environmental Disclosure and Compliance
Authors: Gerrard Michael B. 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This essay proposes an information disclosure mechanism as a means of encouraging firms to comply with a variety of environmental laws. It argues that requiring environmental studies at the moment of property transfer could encourage compliance more than the traditional prescriptive approach. Such disclosure requirements are treated as market-based instruments because they take the characteristics of the property market into account when adjusting incentives, inducing buyers and sellers to move toward compliance when it is in their economic interest to do so, rather than in response to a legal mandate. The essay provides an overview of CERCLA's liability scheme, noting that it has led to improved practices for the generation, handling, and cleanup of hazardous waste, and has also established a precedent for imposing requirements on buyers and sellers at the moment of property transfer.
Thomas Jefferson and the Separation of Church and State
Authors: Smith Gary Scott 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
While many of George Washington’s contemporaries portrayed him as a devout Christian, Thomas Jefferson’s foes depicted him as an infidel and an atheist. Given how similar their religious views and practices were, these radically different appraisals of Washington and Jefferson are ironic. Religion mesmerized, tantalized, alarmed, and sometimes inspired Jefferson, and he discussed religious issues, movements, and leaders often in his conversation and correspondence and occasionally in his addresses and published writings. Religious issues played a major role in Jefferson’s life and presidency. He wrote the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1786) that disestablished the Episcopal Church, enshrined the principle of freedom of conscience, and helped prepare the way for the First Amendment. Since 1947 his metaphor of a “wall of separation” between church and state has dominated constitutional debate over the proper place of religion in public life and policy. Although he repudiated much of orthodox Christianity, the Virginian was a deeply religious man. Jefferson’s alleged lack of faith was a major issue in the hotly contested election of 1800. In an effort to discover the historical Jesus, he devised two different editions of the Gospels for his own use that eliminated all miraculous elements and focused on Christ’s ethical teachings. Although his supporters, his opponents, and academicians have, for the past two centuries, debated the nature of his faith and whether he should be labeled an Episcopalian, a deist, or a Unitarian, many scholars do not recognize how important Jefferson’s religious convictions were to his philosophy of government and career. Jefferson’s character and views of slavery are also examined.
Theodore Roosevelt and the Bully Pulpit
Authors: Smith Gary Scott 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
To many, Theodore Roosevelt was an exemplar of manliness and “muscular Christianity” and an exceptional public servant who led a crusade for social justice. To others, the sage of Oyster Bay was a jingoist, a nativist, a hot-tempered, unpredictable manic, and an egomaniac who put his own interests above America’s good. Roosevelt highly valued biblical morality and considered it vital to personal and public life, including politics. He downplayed doctrine and theological differences and strongly stressed the importance of good works and character. Many contemporaries called him a preacher of righteousness, and he labeled the presidency a bully pulpit, which he used to trumpet the importance of social justice, civility, and virtue. Three religious issues caused considerable controversy during Roosevelt’s tenure in office: his attempt to remove “In God We Trust” from some coins, the “Dear Maria” affair, and concerns about William Howard Taft’s Unitarianism during the 1908 presidential campaign. Christianity, especially the version espoused by turn-of-the-century Social Gospelers, played a significant role in shaping his philosophy of government. Roosevelt’s role in mediating the 1902 anthracite coal strike, “taking” Panama to build an isthmus canal, and promoting conservation illustrate how his religious commitments helped shape his policies.
George W. Bush
Authors: Smith Gary Scott 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
Although George W. Bush is not more personally devout than Woodrow Wilson or Jimmy Carter, religious issues have played an even more important role in his presidency than for any of his predecessors. The impact of Bush’s faith is evident in his personality, rhetoric, campaigns, appointments, and policies. It has helped shape his electoral strategy, his political agenda, and his relationship with domestic constituencies and leaders of other nations. The nature of his personal faith, the many religious factors involved in his campaigns, and the influence of his religious convictions on his policies have provoked an immense amount of discussion, debate, and disagreement. More than that of any other president, his White House is filled with individuals who have strong faith commitments. Bush has been frequently accused of being a Christian zealot who wants to remake America in accordance with his own religious views, as evident in his domestic agenda, political appointments, and approach to international relations. Detractors also protest that many of Bush’s policies and his belief that he is God’s instrument violate First Amendment guarantees of church-state separation and are extremely dangerous. Bush faithfully reads the Bible and stresses the power of prayer. The support Bush received from evangelicals and conservative Catholics contributed significantly to his narrow victories in the 2000 and 2004 elections. Bush’s faith played a major role in his promotion of compassionate conservatism and faith-based initiatives. The war on terrorism and the invasion and occupation of Iraq have provoked substantial debate among America’s religious communities. Critics and supporters reach dramatically different conclusions about Bush’s faith and its effect on his presidency. Some argue that Bush’s faith is insincere, hypocritical, and a political cover for his right-wing agenda. Others counter that his faith has sustained him during crises, strengthened his resolve, increased his courage, confidence, and compassion, and shaped his policies in many positive ways.
Conclusion
Authors: Smith Gary Scott 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This examination of the lives of eleven presidents demonstrates that their faith has been vitally important to a substantial number of the occupants of the Oval Office. Their faith helped shape their character, political philosophy, and style of governing. It also affected their relationships with religious groups and many of their policies. The policies they pursued to achieve these ends differed substantially, however, because of the religious traditions to which they belonged; their personalities and interests; their political parties, platforms, and perspectives; and the way they interpreted the Bible and conceived their political duties. Despite their differences, all eleven presidents emphasized the nation’s religious heritage, trumpeted the value of religion, called for spiritual renewal, and underscored the relationship between religious faith and morality. From George Washington to George W. Bush, they argued that God rules the universe, that the dictates of reason and revelation reinforce one another and supply a basis for both individual morality and public policy, and that religious faith best sustains the nation’s constitutional democracy and provides the strongest safeguard and support for republican virtue and liberty. These presidents have been both lauded and lambasted for their faith. Many have praised their personal piety and the influence of their religious convictions on various actions and policies, but others have complained that some chief executives have mistakenly (and dangerously) claimed to know God’s will on vital issues or that their faith influenced them to adopt policies that have harmed the nation. This final chapter evaluates how their religious convictions, their views of the separation of church and state, civil religion, and America as a chosen nation, and their character affected the work of these eleven presidents. The tremendous responsibilities and pressures and the trials and tribulations of the presidency inspired many of these eleven chief executives to develop a stronger faith. Faith — although not always orthodox, Christian faith — had a powerful influence on the thoughts and actions of many presidents, contributing significantly to their efforts to advance justice, peace, equality, compassion, and virtue.