bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Historical Analysis of Lottery Terms
Authors: Sprowls R. Clay 
Published: June 2006

Lottery tickets have been bought and sold in many countries for several centuries. There are many discussions of the historical social customs attending lotteries; the psychological, gambling, and fraudulent aspects of lotteries; the moral issues involved in the state licensing of lotteries; the lottery as a source of government revenue; and the mechanics of drawing. Economists have generally neglected to study the historical significance of lotteries. Friedman and Savage have suggested that the lottery may be a fruitful source of historical economic data; more recently, Aitken examined in some detail a large lottery firm which operated in the United States between 1821 and 1834. The purpose of this paper is to set down systematically quantitative measures of two essential lottery features: the inequality of the prize distribution and the actuarial value of the gamble. Some interesting historical comparisons can be made, and some hypotheses are suggested by the data which might be the subject of further research.The lotteries of this study are restricted to those with cash prizes to lend some uniformity to the lottery terms and, from the consumer's point of view, to make all alternatives money incomes. The selection of the sample can best be described by giving a short history of English and United States lotteries.
Development in the Legal Status of the Canadian Military Forces, 1914–19, as Related to Dominion Status
Authors: Vince Donald M. A. R. 
Published: June 2006

The political and administrative Control of the Canadian military forces by the Government of Canada during the First World War, 1914–19, presented several novel problems to the Canadian system of cabinet government. A detailed examination of the relations between the Government of the Dominion (a clean word in 1916), as represented by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, and the military organization overseas, as represented by its chief staff officers, is useful to students of both cabinet government and public administration. This paper seeks to throw light on two facets of these political-military relations: first, the problem of making cabinet control effective over an army physically separated from Canada by geographical distance and relatively primitive communications; second, that of the extent to which effective political control over an army establishment beyond her borders enhanced the de facto meaning of dominion status.In 1919 dominion status did not mean quite what it had come to mean in 1931. On the whole the control over high matters of war and peace lay beyond the powers of the Government of Canada. The British North America Act, 1867, had not foreseen the possibility that the advisors of the Governor General should assume control over the conduct of a great war. Even if it had been appropriate for Sir Robert Borden or his colleagues to direct policy in war, Parliament appeared to lack the power to legislate beyond the shores of Canada. When, after two years of war, Canada had placed a substantial army overseas, it became necessary to alter constitutional practice to fit the new facts produced by the war. This effort was considerably to modify the meaning of dominion status.
Recent Developments in Canadian Federalism
Authors: Rowat D. C. 
Published: June 2006

Canada provides an interesting illustration of how far a system of government in practice may depart from the provisions of a legally valid constitution. Although in 1867 the British North America Act created a relatively centralized form of government, today, through changes wrought by geography, convention, and judicial decision, Canada's machinery of government is essentially federal in its operation. In other words, Canada has developed an “unwritten” constitution which goes far toward ensuring the independence of provincial governments in the exercise of exclusive powers. In one or two important respects, however, we find the federal character of Canadian government still somewhat in doubt. And it is by examining whether the existing system satisfies the essential requirements of federalism that the post-war developments in federal-provincial relations may be fruitfully analysed; by examining, that is to say, the extent to which these developments represent a movement towards or away from federalism.Since World War II, Canada's constitutional system has been affected by three important changes: (1) federal-provincial financial arrangements have been radically revised; (2) the Supreme Court of Canada has been charged with the final interpretation of the constitution; and (3) the method of amending the constitution has been changed. It remains to record these developments in greater detail, and then to discuss their implications.
Usury Restrictions in a Mercantile Economy
Authors: Riemersma Jelle C. 
Published: June 2006

Our present social sciences, with their concepts of “culture” and “personality,” have made us vividly aware of the interrelatedness of the particular aspects of human behaviour in societies. It comes no longer as a surprise that religion and economic expansiveness are interconnected.In his famous study, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Max Weber developed the idea that ascetic Protestantism in some way prepared the way for the calculating spirit of modern, rational capitalism. Here an ideal factor was regarded as an independent variable in history. Although the main thesis has found fairly general acceptance, important criticisms have been levelled at particular points of Weber's essay. While Weber demonstrated the affinity between such ideas as the religiously coloured “calling” and “innerworldly asceticism,” and the more utilitarian and secular economic ideas of later times (Franklin), he did not carefully analyse the precise nature of the influence of the earlier ideas. For that purpose, a detailed study of the economic structure of early modern Europe would have been necessary, and, at least within The Protestant Ethic, Weber abstained from such a study.
The Family Compact and the Welland Canal Company
Authors: Aitken Hugh G. J. 
Published: June 2006

This Article is an attempt to reopen the question of the role of government in the economic life of Upper Canada before 1840. It stems from certain problems encountered in connection with a history of the Welland Canal Company, and material relating to the Welland Canal and to the career of William Hamilton Merritt, its promoter, will be used to illustrate the argument. The central problem to which we shall address ourselves is, quite simply: what difference did the political and social state of Upper Canada in this period make to the way in which the Welland Canal Company was founded and managed?The general outlines of Upper Canada's political organization and social structure will already be familiar to most readers. Other historians have dealt more than adequately with such matters as the origin of the dominant élite which we know as the Family Compact, the slow development of the idea of responsible or parliamentary government, and the aims, grievances, and methods of the colonial reformers. It is to be regretted that our knowledge of Upper Canada's economic development in this period is less detailed, but the main features are clear enough for present purposes.The few attempts that have been made to analyse the interaction of economic, political, and social factors in the history of Upper Canada, particularly in connection with the rebellion of 1837, suggest the fruitfulness of such an approach. The present essay is to be taken as a case-study in this type of analysis.
The British Governing Class and Democracy
Authors: Brady Alexander 
Published: June 2006

The concept of a governing class is as old as political speculation. Like so much else, it is found in Plato and Aristotle, and in most of the classic works of political thinkers from their day to the present. In this paper, however, I am not concerned with a history and comparative treatment of the concept, but with the idea and fact of the governing class in Britain within the period when the democratic state was evolving from the aristocratic; that is, from the Second Reform Bill of 1867 to the present. Yet a brief initial comment on the general concept is essential, even at the risk of raising more questions than one can answer here.Every state is a hierarchy of power and authority. A governing class consists of the individuals within the hierarchy who frame the agenda and plans for public action, make the final decisions about government, and hence about the people and interests affected by government. In the contemporary world of reality a sharp dividing line between governed and governors in this sense is seldom easy to draw. Yet there is a line. Democracy is not government by all the people, but by a few accountable for their decisions to the rest. The quality and modes of such accountability depend upon the laws and institutions of the state, especially upon the persons who actually make the laws, operate the institutions, and seek to render their actions acceptable to the majority of the electorate. Such a governing class, group, or élite, whatever term we apply, consists of those whose primary concern is with acquiring, sustaining, and exercising political authority. Their function in this matter is definite and clear, and in its performance they come to think in like ways about procedure, develop common skills appropriate to their purpose, and in miscellaneous efforts learn what is feasible and not feasible.
Post-War Economic Development and Policy in Canada
Authors: Gibson J. Douglas 
Published: June 2006

The period from 1946 to date has been one of the great periods of Canadian development. There are only two earlier ones which are comparable. The first was the great expansion from just before the turn of the century to 1913 in which the Prairies were settled and developed. The second was the boom of 1925 to 1929 which, though short, was impressive while it lasted. It is true that, in addition to these two earlier periods of marked growth, the two world wars have provided strong impetus to industrialization but for obvious reasons they were not characterized by capital development.During the eight years from 1946 to 1953 the population of Canada has been increasing at an average rate of 2¼ per cent per annum and new investment in fixed capital (not including maintenance and repairs) has been equivalent to more than 20 per cent of the gross national product. Recently, these rates of expansion have been higher, population increasing at over 2½ per cent per annum and capital investment representing over 23 per cent of the gross national product. These are high rates of growth by any standard of comparison. The investment programme of recent years has represented about the same proportion of the gross national product as did that of 1925–9, but the present expansion is more significant both because it has lasted a good deal longer and because it has been more broadly based. Even in the twenties it was still correct to think of the Canadian economy as dominated by wheat. Today, however, though wheat is still of great importance, other basic industries have developed strikingly, including pulp and paper, lumber, the traditional base metals, aluminum, the new metals, oil and iron. So far as population growth is concerned, the post-war increase has been more rapid than that of the twenties in part because we have not been losing nearly so heavily in emigration to the United States. From the middle of 1945 until the end of 1953 the natural increase in Canada's population has been about 2.1 million people and immigration has been about a million—a combined increase of 3.1 million. Over this same period, emigration has been around 500,000 and the net population gain has thus been 2.6 million, or over 20 per cent.
Some Problems in the Provision of Medical Services
Authors: Hall Oswald 
Published: June 2006

The machinery for providing medical services raises two kinds of problems for the sociologist. On the one hand these services involve various sorts of institutional structures, such as hospitals; these merit attention and analysis. On the other hand medical services involve a set of specialized occupations; these likewise merit study. These two classes of phenomena, that is, the social institution and the specialized occupation, represent two of the major subjects of present-day sociological investigation.The machinery for providing medical services raises comparable problems for other branches of science. The biological and psychological sciences find many of their theoretical problems dictated by the practices current in the medical field. The financing of such services raises problems for the economist, and the control and distribution of such services are matters of concern for the political scientist. This paper can, therefore, at best deal only with one facet of a large field of inquiry.In sociology in recent years a considerable body of literature has developed around the problem areas indicated above. Various parts of the work world have been explored in order to gain a better knowledge of work institutions, more specifically to understand them as going concerns. Concurrently many specialized occupations have been subjected to study, with the purpose of discovering the common characteristics of this feature of our society.
Clio's New Overalls
Authors: Heaton Herbert 
Published: June 2006

The general idea of my title was hatched some years ago for an after-dinner speech at the annual meeting of the Midwest Economic Association. It proved to have been hatched from a double-yoked egg. In the first place some of the younger members, nurtured in the New Deal and the labour developments of the late thirties, said there was a printer's error on the programme. My title should be, not CLIO, but CIO. In the second place, the toastmaster primed himself for introducing me by looking Clio up in the Encyclopædia. He was baffled to learn that it is “a shell-less pelagic mollusc in the class Pteropod. A small spindle-shanked animal with six tentacles on its head. It forms the principal part of the food of some species of whales.” Being brought up on short-run phenomena, he read no further. Had he persisted he would, of course, have discovered that another Clio was one of the nine Greek muses; that she got her Ph.D. for a thesis on epic verse, then settled down to that other branch of poetic licence, history; and that she was thus an eternally young lady who never forgot a date.From the evidence of sculpture and pottery it seems clear that Clio, unlike Venus, always wore clothes, choosing her apparel to fit the story she was writing. When dealing with military history she dressed like an Amazon, spear and shield and all; for political and constitutional history she had a whole clothes-closet—a crown and a purple coronation robe, a black gown which made her look like Portia, a knee-length coat copied later by southern senators, also miscellaneous wigs, cloaks, and daggers; the history of art and literature called for a corduroy tunic and flat-heeled buskins; for religious history she was garbed like a priestess; and when psychiatry was invented she experimented at length to see what went best with a couch. When, having passed through the drum and trumpet stage of history writing, she got round to economic history, she donned overalls: blue jeans, with copper rivets, pockets everywhere, white stitching, and union-made label. The get-up did not look divine, or even muse-like, especially from the back. But for the job in hand it has proved functionally well suited, and Clio at work has chalked up a creditable record of achievement during three quarters of a century's full employment of all her resources. It is about that record that I want to talk this afternoon.
On Some Fashions in Economic Theory
Authors: Elliott G. A. 
Published: June 2006

I have interpreted the rather facetious title given me by the programme committee as permission to speak rather light-heartedly, even irresponsibly, about a few of the changes in the formal methods of analysis in the field of economic theory; to speak of fashions in tools, fashions in gadgets, fashions, if you will forgive me, in models.In the 1920's Professor J. M. Clark supported the thesis that economic theory has developed by replacing worn and outgrown half-truths by new half-truths, that correspond more closely with increased knowledge, changing points of view, and different circumstances. Sir Dennis Robertson reviewed the first volume of the Survey of Contemporary Economics, called his review “A Revolutionist's Handbook,” and enumerated seven revolutions; but his phrasing is ironical. In his posthumous work on the History of Economic Analysis Professor Schumpeter has contended, with some success I think, that advances in economic analysis have been more consistent and less fluctuating than changes in the field of economic doctrine, economic systems, or economic thought. Fashions change, then, even in the methods of economic theory, but there is a good deal of continuity too. Many of the most widely useful tools of economic theory have changed very little in the last generation, or even in the last century; some have been in use for many centuries. Nevertheless, there have been many important changes too. Periodically, as attention comes to be focussed on a particular sort of problem, old tools are repaired, polished up, and put in the shop window; or new ones are invented.
Administrative Problems of the Technical Assistance Administration
Authors: Keenleyside H. L. 
Published: June 2006

Although it was not his intention, Edward Gibbon once defined the whole duty and substance of any governmental body when he wrote “a heart to resolve, a head to contrive, and a hand to execute.” Of these attributes and responsibilities the third is not the least important. Nor is this anywhere more true than in the case of the United Nations, an international organization representing and serving sixty diverse states and performing functions both unique and novel. Above all it is true of the United Nations operational agency known as the Technical Assistance Administration.The executive, that is the organizational and operational, problems of the Technical Assistance Administration break into two distinct categories. There is, first, the exceedingly difficult situation that is created by the administrative weakness of many of the governments of the underdeveloped countries which the TAA has been organized to aid. This weakness may be the result of inexperience, corruption, the general backwardness of the national economy, the primitive cultural structure, personal incompetence, or any combination of these factors. The second type of difficulty is that found in the formidable but essentially straightforward set of problems that will inevitably face an agency staffed by men and women drawn from a variety of national and personal environments, and charged with the conduct of business of an almost unique diversity, in areas globally dispersed.
Criteria for the Formulation of an Adequate Approach in Aiding the Development of Underdeveloped Areas
Authors: Niebyl Karl H. 
Published: June 2006

The two papers to which we have just listened throw a significant light upon the problem of developing underdeveloped areas. Mr. Tayyeb presented some of the material aspects of the conditions encountered in the attempt to integrate industrial activity with the still predominantly agricultural economies of South Asia, and Dr. Keenleyside throughout his thorough description of the problems of administering technical aid rightly discouraged thought that technical assistance amounts to very much more than a reflection of the difficulties which it is its aim to help solve. In my own remarks I should like to combine the two different aspects presented in the papers, namely, the problems of the aid-receiving countries or areas and the problems of the aid-giving nations, in discussing some of the structural characteristics of the economies involved. My aim is to elicit from the material at hand, or even to read into it, some criteria necessary for the formulation of adequate policies in aiding underdéveloped countries. Economic theory, in this context, will be defined as the means by which we establish relationships between data with the aim of understanding the structure and motion of the whole economy in a manner that makes possible the formulation of policy. The institutional flavour will be unmistakable.Mr. Tayyeb has reminded us of some of the prominent features of South Asia. He suggested that the poverty and degradation characteristic of this area cannot be explained by analysing them solely in terms of the state of subjugation of the Asiatic people, nor solely in terms of European exploitation. “Truth,” he said, “is to be found somewhere between.” The word “between,” I take it, suggests a relationship.
Labour Problems of an Expanding Economy
Authors: Jamieson Stuart 
Published: June 2006

The labour problems of expansion and full employment are as intense and numerous as those of depression. Social and psychological problems arise from the twin processes of industrialization and urbanization. Large-scale immigration, and internal migration from rural to urban areas, bring complex problems of social disorganization and cultural conflict. Similar difficulties attend new industrial projects set up in hitherto untouched rural communities and in remote, unpopulated areas. Occupational maladjustments of various kinds are often characteristic of rapid industrial expansion. Labour shortages and bottlenecks develop side by side with pockets of unemployment. Labour-employer relationships become less personal, and internal communication more difficult, as enterprises expand in scale. Restlessness and dissatisfaction arise where workers find difficulty in adjusting to rapid technological change and unfamiliar environments. Employers complain about labour's irresponsibility and insubordination, high turnover and absenteeism, inefficiency and slowdowns.Other problems are connected with the inflation that usually accompanies rapid economic expansion. Rising prices constantly threaten to outrun wages and salaries. Widening disparities of income among occupational groups generate dissatisfaction and unrest. Reports of high industrial profits, spectacular gains in the stock-market, and the conspicuous expenditures of the nouveaux riches, all provide very real (even if statistically inaccurate) symbols of unfairness in the distribution of income, and encourage labour to make what often seem exorbitant demands upon employers.