bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Steam Distillation Studies for the Kern River Field
Authors: Richardson W. C. , Beladi M. K. , Wu C. H. 
Published: December 2007

SummaryThe interactions of heavy oil and injected steam in the mature steamflood at the Kern River Field have been extensively studied to gain insight into the effect of steam on compositional changes of oil during the recovery process and to provide input for compositional thermal simulation. Steam distillation behavior of this 13°API California oil between 300 and 467°F under a variety of process conditions, along with extensive analysis of distilled hydrocarbons were incorporated to give a more in-depth description of what is happening to the oil and what changes are occurring in the distillates or produced oil. This information was further integrated with analysis of the field distillate, "casing blow," to infer what is happening in the field. The results show that steam distillation is temperature dependent and more important than originally thought. The data developed in this study are a basis for improvement of numerical thermal models with potential for better designed steamfloods and reservoir management. The results may also impact certain logging techniques used in steamfloods and possible heavy oil upgrading techniques.Kern River oil is more than 10% distillable at 300°F and 15% distillable at 400°F in dynamic laboratory steam distillation tests at steam throughputs of four times the initial volume of oil. Distillate physical properties of density, viscosity, molecular weight, and hydrocarbon composition of the distillates changed significantly. Distillate properties increased in value with increasing steam throughput, and at higher temperatures. This information is important in the tuning of equations of state, including hydrocarbon-water interaction parameters for compositional thermal simulation.Analysis of the field distillate, "casing blow," showed properties similar to laboratory distillates at low steam throughputs. The observation of a light field distillate production in a mature steamflood compared to laboratory measurements implies that the casing system temperature is a major controlling factor in "casing blow" composition and quantity.
Laboratory Design and Field Implementation of Microbial Profile Modification Process
Authors: Gullapalli Irene Lee , Bae Jae H. , Hejl Keith , Edwards Aimee 
Published: December 2007

Summary
A microbial profile modification (MPM) process consisting of sequential injection of spores and nutrient was designed and tested for the first time in a carbonate reservoir. An 80-acre, inverted five-spot pattern located in Eunice Monument South Unit in Lea County, New Mexico, was chosen for the field trial. Injection profiles taken before and after the microbial treatment showed that the thief zones were plugged by the biofilm resulting in fluid diversion. Injection profiles also indicated that the biofilm which formed in the reservoir remained stable for more than 8 months. The results of the field trial proved the viability of the MPM technology.
Pressure-Transient Behavior of Multibranched Wells in Layered Reservoirs
Authors: Larsen Leif 
Published: December 2007

Summary
Analytical methods are presented to determine the pressure-transient behavior of multibranched wells in layered reservoirs. The computational methods are based on Laplace transforms and numerical inversion to generate type curves for use in direct analyses of pressure-transient data. Any number of branches with arbitrary direction and deviation can in principle be handled, although the computational cost will increase considerable with increasing number of branches. However, due to practical considerations, a large number of branches is also unlikely in most cases.
A History of the Development of Rule 36
Authors: Smith J.E. 
Published: December 2007

Rule 36 concerns the safe design and operation of oil and gas activities involving hydrogen sulfide. This paper reviews the engineering concepts behind the regulation and how they were applied.

Introduction
Rule 36, issued by the Railroad Commission of Texas on March 15, 1976, and put into effect on Sept. 1, 1976, is a regulation developed to assure the safe design and operation of oil and gas activities that must handle hydrogen sulfide. The application of the nile has expanded to become an industry guideline for this type of operation.
In developing the regulation, it was necessary to apply certain engineering concepts. This paper reviews these concepts and the manner in which they were applied.
Ensuring the safety of the general public is one of the highest callings of the professional engineer. Insight into the engineering criteria on which Rule 36 was based will assist the engineer in its effective application.

Development
When the Railroad Commission of Texas began developing its regulation for ensuring the public safety, it was determined that the following criteria would be considered:nature and toxicity of hydrogen sulfide,radius of exposure,specifications for materials and equipment,notification and protection of the public, andapplicability of the rule.
Smith presents the conditions that would be necessary for a public hazard to exist:there must be a leak;the leak must have volume and concentration that will cause a toxic condition;there must be a weather condition that does not cause dispersion; andthere must be a public to be exposed to the gas.
The engineering concepts used to develop Rule 36 aredetermination of the toxic effect on humans,determination of the H2S concentration in the system,determination of the escape rate,determination of the radius of exposure,determination of the area of exposure,selection of limiting radius,analysis of the phenomena of sulfide stress cracking and hydrogen phenomena of sulfide stress cracking and hydrogen embrittlement,analysis of the criteria for determining susceptibility to sulfide stress cracking,determination of means of H2S detection in atmosphere,determination of requirements for leak detection, anddetermination of the requirements of contingency planning.
Fig. 1 (from Smith 2) outlines the major H2S areas in Texas. Table 1 (from Smiths) is a general outline of Texas Rule 36.
The following discussion outlines the engineering concepts and how they were used in developing the rule.

Effect on Humans
To ensure that any potentially harmful concentration would be considered, it was necessary to determine the effect of H2S on humans Tables 2 and 3 (tom the API) present data on this effect. Based on these data, the present data on this effect. Based on these data, the 100-ppm H2S concentration was selected as the base line. The 500-ppm H2S concentration was selected as the so-called knock-down limit. The Railroad Commission hearing transcripts further support these selections. Atherton and ANSI Standard 237.2 (1968) describe the limit for effects on humans.
JPT
P. 1227
Pyrolysis of Subbituminous New Mexico Coal
Authors: Nuttall H.E. , Stoddard Wendell G. , Chen R. 
Published: December 2007

Introduction
Most previous studies on devolatilization have concentrated on the effects of temperature, heating rates, and pressure. Various correlations have resulted from these studies. However, the role of particle size in the devolatilization step has not been studied thoroughly. Since a larger particle size tends to slow down heat and mass-transfer rates, the overall reaction rate will be reduced and the quality and quantity of the product gas will be affected. This study is a preliminary investigation of single-particle devolatilization using 2.5-cm diameter San Juan subbituminous coal. The apparent devolatilization-rate constant and activation energy were determined by a least-squares fit of the initial rate data. Two distinct mathematical models are presented and used to investigate the particle-temperature curve and the weight-loss history. This equipment and system are described in further detail by Stoddart.

Description of Equipment
Our experimental work centered around a bench-scale single-particle reactor, whose internal conditions could be both controlled and monitored by a minicomputer. Supporting equipment included a carrier gas flow system and product collection and analysis systems.
JPT
Fracturing With a High-Strength Proppant
Authors: Cooke Claude E. 
Published: December 2007

Introduction
The shortage of natural gas in the U.S. has caused an increasing number ofdeep well completions over the past several years--a trend that will likelycontinue. Many of these deeper wells will require hydraulic fracturingtreatments in order to produce at economic rates. To achieve successfulfracturing results, a material having properties superior to sand is needed toprop open the hydraulic fractures created at the high earth stresses present indeep wells. Silica sand, the commonly used propping material, tends to crush atclosure stresses encountered in deep formations, producing fine particles orfragments that can drastically reduce fluid conductivity of the proppedfracture. propped fracture. Efforts to develop a proppant capable of bearinghigh stresses without excessive crushing have produced such materials as glassbeads, steel shot, and aluminum pellets. Glass beads have been usedcommercially for over ten years, but there is evidence indicating that thestrength of the glass in multilayers is greatly decreased in the presence ofbrine. Metallic materials are presence of brine. Metallic materials arecomparatively expensive and corrode, so their use has been very limited. Otherresearch has looked at deformable materials, such as nut shells, that will notcrush and will prop open a fracture when a partial layer is present. The use ofdeformable propping materials in partial monolayer propping materials inpartial monolayer concentrations appears to have decreased in recent years.
Exxon Production Research Company (EPR) has worked for several years todevelop improved, high-strength proppants. A wide variety of materials weretested in the laboratory under simulated reservoir conditions. One material, sintered bauxite particles, showed greatly improved properties particles, showed greatly improved properties over any material available in the past andit has been field tested to date in 12 wells--all deeper than 10,000 ft.
This paper discusses laboratory studies of the new, high-strength bauxiteproppant, describes field applications of the proppant, and summarizes factorsaffecting gas well stimulation. The field results have shown that the benefitspredicted from laboratory studies can be realized. Widespread use of the newhigh-strength proppant is expected in the future.
Productivity Correlation for Horizontal Sinks Completed in Fractured Reservoirs
Authors: Sato Kozo 
Published: December 2007

Summary
When completed in fractured reservoirs, horizontal sinks (hydraulically fractured wells or horizontal wells) are believed to intersect several fractures and outperform their vertical counterparts. Based on the numerical experiment outcomes, productivity correlations are developed with horizontal-sink length and fracture parameters as the correlating parameters. The correlations are of use in predicting the expected value and the most likely minimum value of productivity for a horizontal sink parallel or perpendicular to fractures.
Analyzing the correlations developed enables us to quantify the individual contributions of a sink itself, distributed fractures, and sink-intersecting fractures to the horizontal-sink productivity. Fractures tend to yield a significantly magnified contribution to the productivity when they intersect the horizontal sink. The advantage of completing a horizontal sink perpendicular rather than parallel to fractures is attributed largely to such fractures.
Prediction of Turbulent Friction in Rod-Pumped Wells
Authors: Xu Jun , Shirazi S. A. , Doty D. R. , Prado M. G. , Blais R. N. 
Published: December 2007

Summary
Frictional forces acting on a rod caused by a rod reciprocating in flowing fluid significantly affect the prediction and diagnosis of rod pumping system performance. Available studies of the flow in the tubing combined with moving rods and couplings are limited to laminar flow. The flow is more likely to be turbulent, however, for liquids with low viscosity and for regions near the rod couplings. Therefore in the current study, turbulent flow in the annular region between the stationary tubing wall and the moving rod/coupling is considered.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is used to simulate turbulent flow in the annular region with moving rods and couplings. Also, a simplified model using a mixing-length method is developed that is more computationally efficient than the CFD code. The CFD code that uses the standard k–ε model is used to predict turbulent friction factors in the annulus with the moving rods and couplings. The simplified model is developed to predict turbulent friction factors in the annulus with the moving rods. The results from these models are compared with each other and to the available data published. The friction factors between the rod/coupling and fluid can be represented by four parameters: the rod to tubing radius ratio, the coupling to tubing radius ratio, the fluid Reynolds number, and the relative rod velocity.
Valuation of Gas Reserves
Authors: Davis Ralph E. , Wege J. Milton 
Published: December 2007

Introduction
Much has been said and written on this subject, and of its kindred subject, the valuation of oil reserves. Little would be gained by merely quoting again that which has been said and written. Our object in this presentation is to bring out ideas and maybe methods that have not been heretofore presented, or at least have not been widely circulated in the literature of this subject.
The fundamentals of this art or science or business of appraising gas properties have been presented by many writers. To avoid the necessity of reviewing and restating the basic factors and methods frequently employed, we refer you to a fairly recent discussion by the senior author of this paper in collaboration with Eugene A. Stephenson as presented in a paper entitled "The Valuation of Natural Gas Property". "The fundamentals were then expressed as clearly as we can do it today.
In this paper we presume the understanding of the points made in the paper referred to, and address this paper to a discussion of the appraisal of "gas reserves" as distinguished from "natural gas property." Hence, we assume a "proved reserve" available for sale in the conditions that exist today - as to financial, economic and political influences.
Generally speaking, properties such as gas properties are worth more money - i.e., they will sell for more money - when the financial conditions of the country and of the industry are good, when it is easier to finance. Also it is true that such a property is worth more money when the economic conditions are good, such as a continuing increase of the demand for the product and no serious threat of a cheaper competitive fuel; and also such a property is worth more money if the political atmosphere is favorable. The fixing of price, or even the threat of the fixing of price, by government, lessens the desirability of the property whose product is regulated. These factors should, we believe, be taken into consideration by the appraiser.
Numerical Homogenization of the Absolute Permeability Tensor Around a Well
Authors: Wouter Zijl , Trykozko Anna 
Published: December 2007

SummaryThis paper presents an extension of the classical homogenization method of upscaling around a well. The use of homogenization theory has been made possible by a transform of the cylindrical homogenization cell around a well to an "equivalent rectangular cell."First, it is shown by an introductory example for radial flow that direct use of the original homogenization cell leads to more than one coarse-scale permeability. This is at variance with the approach based on the transform to an equivalent rectangular cell, which yields one unique coarse-scale permeability that can be applied consistently both in Darcy's law and in the dissipation equation.The main body of the paper describes the extension of this transformational approach to general 3D permeability tensors, without assuming purely radial flow. The pressure equation is solved numerically; from this solution, classical homogenization algorithms compute the "transformed homogenized permeability tensor" in the equivalent rectangular cell.Finally, a back transform to the original homogenization cell leads to the coarse-scale permeability tensor. Validation examples compare the numerical homogenization with global upscaling.
Applications of Engineering Valuations in Management
Authors: Reistle C.E. 
Published: December 2007

Introduction
One of the most important decisions which the management of a corporation is called upon to make involves the investment of company funds to produce maximum benefit for the stockholders. Generally, this is not a one-time decision which can be made and then forgotten, as new funds are constantly being generated which require investment; and new investment opportunities are developing which require funds. In arriving at these investment decisions and in balancing the flow of earnings with the opportunities for investment, the valuation of the proposed investment represents the basic data which are available in management. In a producing company, this valuation is generally of an engineering type.
The engineering valuation should encompass every phase of a company's operation. It should provide the information with which management can measure and compare new investments but also should measure existing investments and operations. Management depends to a very large degree upon their technical staffs for new ideas and new opportunities, both in investments and in improving the return on existing investments through improved operation.
Even the simplest type of engineering valuation requires consideration of a multitude of factors. Extremely complex is valuation of new construction in which the income resulting from the investment is related to the operation and income of a number of facilities. But management must have valuations to act as guides at each step in the road. In construction, not only must the physical equipment be properly selected, but the size must be chosen to strike a proper balance between rate of income and initial investment. The effect of the new construction on the income of existing or anticipated other equipment must be analyzed and included in the valuation.

Investments and Engineering Valuations
From this discussion, it can be seen that the management of any profit-conscious corporation must lean heavily upon engineering valuations in arriving at decisions on all types of investments. The very large number of points which must be included serves to emphasize the importance of and the reliance placed upon a proper valuation. But there is also one factor which should not be included. That is the safety factor.
Gas Slippage and Permeability Measurements
Authors: Estes Robert K. , Fulton Paul F. 
Published: December 2007

Introduction
Relative permeabilities are factual data necessary to any prediction of reservoir production behavior. One important problem in determining relative permeabilities of porous media to gas is the effect of gas slippage on these determinations. Since certain aspects of the slippage phenomenon still remain unknown, this study is particularly concerned with that problem.
The validity of the theory of gas slippage as it is applied to the flow of gas through porous media has been well established. Therefore, in determining the permeabilities of porous media to gas by ordinary laboratory procedure, i.e., at atmospheric pressure, the slippage correction should be considered. Rose performed experiments on gas relative permeabilities which indicated that the effect of gas slippage on the measured effective gas permeabilities at various liquid saturations decreased with an increase in liquid saturation.
Following Rose, it was substantiated experimentally that the effective gas permeabilities at the various liquid saturations extrapolated to infinite mean pressure were the same as the non-wetting liquid permeabilities at the same saturations. This same paper also presented data which showed that the magnitude of the slippage between those values of gas effective permeability determined at atmospheric pressure and those found by extrapolation to infinite mean pressure decreased with an increase in liquid saturation. However, these experiments were not performed at liquid saturations above 30 per cent. Therefore, the purpose of this experimental work was to determine the effect of gas slippage on permeability measurements at liquid saturations in excess of 30 per cent.

Apparatus
Five core samples were used in this work: two synthetic Alundum samples (A-1, and A-2), a Nichols Buff sandstone sample (NB-13), and two samples from producing formations, a Soso sandstone (S-1), and a vugular dolomitic limestone (R-7). The core samples ranged in permeability from 32 to 663 md. These cores were chosen because they represented a fairly wide range of permeabilities and probably a considerable difference in pore size and pore size distribution.
Adverse Effects of Poor Mudcake Quality: A Supercharging and Fluid Sampling Study
Authors: Sarkar Amit K. , Lee Jaedong , Kasap Ekrem 
Published: December 2007

Summary
Wireline formation testers are routinely used at discrete depths of a well to collect reservoir fluid samples and to estimate undisturbed reservoir pressures, near-wellbore formation permeabilities, fluid compressibilities, and saturation pressures. A pressure profile in the vertical direction yields fluid densities and fluid contacts (gas/oil and water/oil contacts) in the reservoir. Reliable results are obtained when the mudcake isolates the wellbore from the formation. When the mudcake cannot provide isolation, mud filtrate invasion continues and supercharging occurs. The issue of sample quality becomes critical when using oil-based muds because the filtrate is also oil and is difficult to separate from the formation oil, a pure sample of which is needed for fluid characterization studies. This study investigated the effects of poor mudcake seal on sample quality and formation test data and its analysis when oil-based muds are used. Modeling studies were conducted using a finite-element simulator.
The results of the study indicate that mudcake permeabilities must be less than 1 μd and mudcake-to-formation permeability ratios must be less than 10−4 to achieve sample qualities higher than 90%. Such conditions as high pumpout rates, low overbalance pressures, and shallow filtrate invasion depths improve sample quality. The presence of a permeability-damaged zone around the mudcake improves the sample quality but reduces the sampling pressure. The formation rate analysis (FRASM)† technique estimates formation permeability accurately in the presence or absence of supercharging. The formation pressure estimated using the buildup data is the pressure at the mudcake-formation interface. The supercharged pressure must be subtracted from the apparent formation pressure to obtain the true formation pressure. A simple procedure is developed for estimating the mudcake permeability and the supercharged pressure. Supercharged pressure is shown to be a product of the apparent overbalance pressure, mudcake-to-formation permeability ratio, and an invasion factor representing the distance up to which supercharging extends.