bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Economic Case for Floating Production Facilities
Authors: Smith N.J. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
Floating production systems have been used for some twenty years, longer if jack-up based systems are included. For most of that time, they have been considered as a "special case" outside the mainstream of offshore oil production.
Their use is now increasing rapidly - not only in their long-term strongholds of the UK North Sea and of Brazil's Campos Basin but in many other theatres of offshore operations. The growth seems so fast that it has been predicted that the number in service will double in the remaining years of this century.
Technological progress has played a major part in the greater acceptance of floating production systems but there have also been powerful economic forces at work. This paper seeks to explain the reasons for the increase in popularity which promises to bring floating production within the main stream of offshore development.

INTRODUCTION
This presentation might better have been entitled "The Economic Case for Mobile Production Units" since the first exposed water example of using a mobile production unit (MPU) was the employment of the jack-up production unit (JPU) GULFT/DE on Norway's EKOFISK field from 1971 to 1976 as an early production system (EPS). Nevertheless, although there have been signs of a recent revival of interest in JPUS in the North Sea, the great majority (probably 90% or more) of the world's MPU experience has been with floating systems. This paper will adopt common industry parlance and refer to floating production, embracing in that term the small number of JPUS. The earliest example of a truly floating production system was the use of the semisubmersible TRANSWORLD 58 (later renamed NORTH SEA PIONEER) from 1975 on the UK's ARGYLL field. Though the original floating production semisubmersible (FPS) itself was later replaced, this proved to be the start of the first life of field (LOF) floater development.
The first deep water monohull floating production storage and offloading system (FPSO) was installed in 1976 on the CASTELLON field in the Spanish Mediterranean, H was a converted tanker. Thus by the mid-1970s floating production seemed to be taking root firmly. Growth occurred over the next ten years, but spectacularly so only in Brazil where the national need to bring new deep-water discoveries onstream in the shortest possible time seems to have overridden the inhibitions which slowed the spread of the technology elsewhere. According to a recent publication (l), oil production by MPU had reached an annual rate of nearly 300 million barrels in 1994, only some 4.5% of total offshore production. However, even this represented a big increase from the less than 2% of 10 years earlier. FIGURE 1 attempts to summarise the growth of MPU production over the last 20 years, both in absolute terms and as a share of world offshore production. It shows that growth was initially slow, but speeded up in the early 1980s. This was followed by a slowing in the late 1980s and then accelerated growth in the early 1990s.
Developments in Coiled Tubing BOP Ram Design
Authors: Palmer R. , Newman K. , Reaper A. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
Significant technical improvements have been made recently in the design of coiled tubing (CT) blowout preventer (BOP) shear and slip rams. This technology is constantly being enhanced and refined as the CT service industry continues to mature and new operational demands are placed on the CT pressure control equipment. Larger CT sizes require better BOP shearing capabilities. Advancements in the understanding of CT fatigue life25 have caused the life reducing affects of the slip ram markings on the pipe to be examined. This paper explores the circumstances that have precipitated these improvements, and the research and development methods involved in developing better BOP rams.

CT Shear Rams
The CT shear ram should be capable of shearing a specified range of CT with no tension in the string at maximum well head pressure5, leaving a sheared portion of CT with a fishable top profile that has a residual outside diameter equal to or less than the original outside diameter. Equally important is the amount of flow area in the lower fish to permit sufficient circulation through the sheared CT to control the well during the well recovery sequence. With the advent of operations with an electrical wireline installed inside of the CT, it has become an important design criteria that the shear rams cut not only a wide range of CT sizes but also stranded wireline inside the CT. The shear blades must be designed to eliminate any gap between the blades at the point of contact with the stranded wire to prevent trapping small diameterstrands of the cable that would result in an incomplete shear. Also, the ability to repeatedly shear a wide range of sizes and weights of CT offers a definite advantage over previous designs of shear blades which required changing out blades for each size of CT.
Earlier designs of shear blades were lacking in their ability to perform multiple cuts, and to shear wireline.hese designs typically had a "V" pocket configuration as is shown in figure 1, with a knife cutting edge fabricated from carburized carbon steel or hardened tool steel. These blades were generally limited to the smaller CT sizes up to 1-1/4" diameter used during that period. They were designed for a one time emergency cut and were to be replaced after each use due to their tendency to fracture on the first closure. Due to demand for a multiple cut blade and advances in CT metallurgy that propagated larger diameters and weights of CT, new innovations in blade design were required.
The radius pocket blade was introduced with a square cutting edge to overcome the shearing deficiencies of the earlier "V" blades, This concept proved successful in its ability to repeatedly shear CT and wireline without damaging the blade?s cutting edge. This was achieved by the radius pocket and blunt cutling edge, shown in figure 1, that allow the shearing impressive forces to be distributed over the entire cutting edge. Also, the radius net made a preferable cut that left an elliptical profile.
Novel Drilling Technology and Reduction in Drilling Costs
Authors: Enger Th. , Torvund T. , Mikkelsen J. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
Historically offshore drilling costs represent a large path of Norsk Hydro?s E&P investments. Thus a reduction in drilling costs is a major issue. Consequently an aggressive approach to drilling has taken place focusing upon:
* Reduction in conventional drilling costs, bothin exploration and production drilling. An ambitious programme to reduce drilling costs by 50 % has been introduced. The main improvement potentials include rapid drilling, improved contracts and more selective data gathering.
* Drilling of long reach wells up to approximately 9 km to reduce the number of subsea wells and fixed platforms, and thus improving the total field economy.
Norsk Hydro has also been aggressive in pursuing drilling techniques which could improve the total oil recovery. Horizontal drilling has made possible the development of the giant Troll oil field, even though the oil leg is only O-26m thick. Oil reserves in the order of up to 650 mill bbl will be recovered solely due tointroduction of horizontal wells.
Recently, offshore tests of techniques such as coiled tubing drilling and conventional slim hole drilling have been canted out. The aim k to qualify a concept which could enable us to use a light vessel for exploitation drilling, and not the large semi submersible rigs presently used. Potential future savings could be substantial.

1.INTRODUCTION
The last decade the oil industry has been characterised both by excitement and disappointment. The oil price collapse, the maturing of oil rich regions like the North Sea, etc., have eroded value creation as we knew it in the early eighties.
On the other hand, the period has also been a decade of innovation in oil finding and development techniques, and of newly opened geographies for international oil companies. Massive efforts are also being made to reduce costs in all phases of the activity, with noticeable results so far. And our efforts continue.
The presentation will briefly sketch some of the practical achievements Norsk Hydro has made over the latest years, both in technology improvements and cost reduction initiatives.
Drilling technology and drilling costs are getting more and more central in all phases of activity from exploration to production, and special attention will therefore be given to these developments.
There is no single innovation that is shaking things up.
Rather, every aspect of the petroleum sector is being marked by change, both in technology development and in more cost effective ways ofoperating on all levels.
In the oil sector where most technology is equally available to competitors, the challenge for the oil company usually means being innovative with what is available in the market rather than creating something from scratch. The important thing often is to find, adapt and apply the best technologies and bring them together in new and creative ways to improve business performance. This happens in teams that draw together scientific, engineering and operational expertise from inside - and outside - the company.
Understanding the Value of 3-D Seismic for Exploration
Authors: Downey Marian W. 
Published: October 2008

At my age, you don't have to worry about impressing anyone--you don't bother with unnecessary compliment-you get to between as your natural self. and Iet the curmudgeon show that's hidden under the soil and lie.
That's the role I've chosen, as a result of accepting this invitation lo speak to an audience of 3-D believe. I'm DQI here to self 3-D service, not here to make a name as a consult, and not likely to impress anyone with my technical knowledge of the 3-D process
Ins[cad, I want to talk to you as a senior manager. from technical background, who passes on the allocation of money to 3-D project(or not). I use the word allocation very purposefully, since any money used for 3-D comes out of money that be used for wagcs, for research for drilling. or leasehold. My job, as a senior manager for many years. is greatly concerned with the proper allocation of limited funds to numerous groups.
I heard a clamour from these sources all more of the money pie. I have so been hearing some extraordinary claim as to the value of 3-D to extraordinary, I don't Iike to look al some of these claims of benefits and describe to you why I am not yet ready to turn the exploration bussiness over totally to the managers of 3-D seismic.
I have been interested in 3-D seismic since 1970. when G, G. Walton of Exxon prevented an outstanding paper on the 3-D seismic method [o the SEG meeting in New Orleans, in 1970 I think we need to be careful about some of the claims of economic benefits that accrue to exploration from 3-D. l .don't Iike to say, ?.I'm from Missouri,(if I weren't poor of being from Nebraska)
I rural a paper on 3-D recently. and in reading it almost thought 1was seeing a medicine Iabel from o Chinese drug store: you know the kind; .'This extract cures AIDS and infantile paralysis, climinates psoriasis and bad breath and removes unwanted wart and pimples.
Perhaps I should describe my point of view rather particularly i think 3-D seismic is a wonder and a delight but m! job is not to be for technology. but to be the barbarian guarding the money gates. who must insist I that the 3-D work make money for exploration.
Here is something I say nearly every week to my wonderful geologist and geophysicists is a science: geophysics is a science: exploration is n business!
Let mc describe for you the sort of claims for 3-D Success (in the immortal words of Winston Churchill) up with which I shall not put.
Drill Site Geohazard Identification Facilitated by Rework of Suitable Existing 3D Seismic Data Volumes
Authors: Cowlard Andrew P. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
3D seismic volumes are increasingly being used to assist in the mapping and identification of drilling hazards. A method of reworking the 3D volume, termed the Short Offset method is proposed which offers the benefit of optimised resolution in the shallow section and therefore provides the interpreter with an enhanced in rage of the near surface geology, The processing sequence contrasts markedly with conventional 3D processing and involves the inclusion of only near normal incidence traces Two case histories are described which illustrate the application of the Short Of method and its robustness even in conditions not conducive to enhancing frequency bandwidth. In summary, Short Offset reprocessing results in a product which offers considerably improved resolution when compared to a conventional 3D volume and far finer areal sampling when compared to a traditional 2D site survey thus providing the industry with a valuable tool for drilling hazard investigation.

Introduction
Environmental concerns now have commercial importance for the oil industry. Adverse publicity can directly affect a company's profitability as the unforgiving consumer boycotts its products. Governments will demand full compensation for human injury and damages for oil spillages. Drilling into the Earth's Crust will always be a high risk activity and the oil exploration company should be aware of cost effective methods of reducing the risks involved. It is suggested that reworking existing 3D volumes using the Short offset method can preserve the latent frequency bandwidth available in the raw data and thus allow an interpreter to more readily map near-surface geological strata and identify drilling hazards.
The resolving power of exclusively near normal incidence, or "Short Offset", data volumes has been well understood since the concept was first proposed and successfully demonstrated by Paul Newman (1985). However, it is only relatively recently that the combination of increasingly cheap and plentiful compute resources and 3D surveys with adequate spatial sampling have facilitated the routine generation of Short Offset volumes for the imaging and subsequent mapping of shallow objectives.
In this paper an overview of the Short Offset method is offered and then two case histories are described which illustrate not only the viability of the method but also its robustness when applied to data whose characteristics are far from ideal for high resolution seismic processing.

The Method
In essence, the method demands the recognition of four primary requisites to ensure success, namely the honouring of data positioning, the application of precise time corrections, the preservation of absolute true amplitudes and inclusion of the minimum possible number of near traces.
Seismic Costs Prediction and Optimization : A Systematic Approach
Authors: Rodriguez Jean-Marc , Pion Jacques , Piazza Jean-Luc , Abdelkader Chaouch 
Published: October 2008

Introduction
Budget estimate for seismic projects, whether related to the application for an open exploration permit, to the exploration phase of a permit already awarded or to the appraisal of a discovery or the development of a proven field, are generally requested from geophysicists well ahead of the opening of seismic bids which will reveal the actual costs of the project without ambiguity With the growing application of 3D seismic and its integration with the reservoir development disciplines, the relative weight of seismic expenditures within the total cost of a project has now become a significant item which may affect its overall economic balance Providing reliable and accurate seismic cost estimates and tailoring survey parameters to meet simultaneously technical objectives and budgetary limits have become essential elements of the geophysicists role.

Analysis technique: 3D feasibility study
Within TOTAL, this is achieved by means of 3D seismic feasibility studies which aim at :assessing the economical impact of seismic parameters in order to select the most cost effective 3D field design without compromising data quality nor HSE standards.providing a cost and a duration estimate for the overall project planning purposes. Budget estimates for seismic projects, are generally requested from geophysicists well ahead of the opening of seismic bids which will reveal the actual costs of the project without ambiguity.
We propose a systematic five-step approach:definition of objectives and &ta bases Before initiating a feasibility study, one should ensure that the objectives assigned to the survey are well defined and understood by all the parties involved and in particular by the ultimate customers, the geologists and reservoir engineers. The scope of work ought to clearly specifi the reservoir(s) of interest, the type of information which one expects to retrieve or better constrain using seismic data, the areal extent of the problem. The objectives should be assessed against previous analogue experience. Previously acquired seismic and well data should be inventoried.field reconnaissance The purpose of the field reconnaissance is-to determine the local legal and administrative framework (e.g. customs, radio Iicence, explosive usage, work and safety regulations), the tax regime, the need for additional infrastructure, the logistical (e.g. transport, radio communication, consumables supply, geodetic network), environmental, meteorological constraints, the medical infrastructure (including for emergency medivacs).simulation of basic geometrical designs where bin attributes (i.e. bin offset and azimuth areal distribution) corresponding to a specific design are computed. Details have been published (E. Crouzy, J. Pion, SEG expanded abstracts, 1993 Washington).
The Value of Integrating Existing 3D Seismic into Shallow Gas Studies
Authors: Salisbury R.S. , Geol C. , Denley M.R. , Douglas G. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
Conventional 3D surveys, although designed and processed with clear exploration objectives in mind, often contain much valuable information in the shallow section This information can add significantly to shallow gas studies based on conventional high resolution seismic techniques. Examples from the North Sea are used to illustrate how an integrated approach to interpretation can lead to a better understanding of the shallow geology and to a more accurate and reliable assessment of drilling hazards, particularly shallow gas. A new approach site investigations has been tried and tested and has been found to be both time and cost effective.

Introduction
In recent years there has been a rapid increase in the use of 3D seismic surveys for exploration and development purposes. Oil and gas producing provinces all over the world are gradually becoming covered by 3D seismic, and the use of 3D in new exploration areas is fast becoming routine. The opportunity exists to make use of these existing datasets in drilling hazard studies of the shallow section. The challenge faced by the seismic interpreters working in this field is how to use this data in the most efficient way.
This paper shows how high resolution 2D seismic. acquired as part of a site survey programme, and existing 3D seismic can be interpreted together to overcome some of difficulties experienced when using either data se[ in isolation. Although the exploration 3D cannot provide the same resolution as high resolution 2D seismic, existing 3D data sets can provide essential information on the shallow geology which can lead ultimately [o a more refined and more reliable assessment of potential hazards, The approach can becaused to assess new with little or no existing high resolution coverage and can also help design site survey programmed. The approach is both time and cost effective.
The paper concentrates on shallow gas, but reference is also made to other tophole drilling hazard.

Conventional Shallow Gas Studies
Shallow gas is one of the most serious hazards offshore engineers face when drilling exploration and development well.
Although not restricted 10the shallow section (top 1000 metres below seabed), it is in this interval where shallow gas, if encountered unexpectedly and without the necessary precautions in place, poses the greatest threat to the drilling operation and the safety of the rig. Incidents vary from costly delays and lost wells to catastrophic blowouts, sometimes involving loss of life.
During the seventies and eighties these incidents occurred with alarming regularity which led to the development of site survey specifically designed to identify potential gas hazards prior to drilling. Site surveys are now carried out routinely to investigate the shallow section and provide essential information on water depths, seabed obstructions, jack-up foundation conditions or anchoring conditions, as well as drilling hazards.
Risk of Foundation Failure of Offshore Jacket Piles
Authors: Horanell M.R. , TooIan F.E. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
The paper discusses the application of reliability theory to offshore foundation piles. Tire theoretical risk of failure for piles is computed for a range of realistic soil and loading conditions. The reliability analyses are updated in the light of long term field experience and the results used to comment on reassessment procedures for foundations. It is concluded that, if standard design procedures are followed, the outcome is likely to be that, generally, piles in sand are more at risk of failure than piles in clay, and piles governed by the dead load condition more at risk than those for which the extreme environmental load governs.

Introduction
For almost 50 years, the offshore industry has made use of driven piled foundations to support offshore production facilities. Throughout this period, the design of such piles has remained a constant source of attention, especially with regard to the methodology for predicting the ultimate capacity. An account of how offshore pile design procedures have evolved and in particular those of API RP2A is provided in TooIan and Horsnelll and Pelletier et al'.
To date, there have been no recorded incidence in the North Sea of piled foundation failure, with many of the structureshaving experienced their 100 year design storm. McClelland et al.3 in their review of 650 major platforms in the Gulf of Mexico, covering a period of 4000 platform years and seven major storms, including Hurricanes Carla (196 1) and Camille (1969), identified a total of 25 failures, only 3 of which were attributable to soil failure and none to failure of driven piles under axial loading. A more recent study in the aftermath ofHurricane Andrew also indicated that, although there were 150 incidents of damage and failure to platforms, none were attributable to pile failure.
The situation is different under sustained loading where McClelland et al report two cases of failure in clay. If the survey is expanded to include pipe piles for marine structures under test load, then Tomlinson4 and Toolan5 have reported failures in sand at well below design capacity. The results of these testsrequired the piles to be redesigned in order to achieve a satisfactory foundation. In frontier areas, pull-out tests on conductors in calcareous soils have indicated much lower frictional resistance than used in design, leading to remedial measures to platform foundations b. Similar problems are known to occur in micaceous sands.
Failures have been reported of platform piles which have bee; installed by combinations of jetting, drilling and driving. However since there is no agreed design procedure for such, little can be learnt of general application from hindcast studies, other than to proceed with extreme caution if contemplating using such installation techniques. Another category of ‘pile failure’ arises when the pile becomes unserviceable as a structural element during installation. This may be through buckling, tip damage or fatigue during driving.