bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
5 Rethinking the SMASH Approach to Pronoun Interpretation
Authors: Kehler Andrew 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter argues that the manner in which pronoun interpretation has been characterized by many psycholinguistic and computational linguistic studies over the last three decades — what is called here the SMASH procedure, for Search, Match, and Select using Heuristics – is untenable and therefore should be abandoned. Data are presented that are unlikely to be explained by theories based on interactions among superficial heuristics and preferences, and instead motivate an account in which the relevant interactions lie at the levels of information structure and discourse coherence establishment. The study sketches an analysis of this process, with reference to a set of key examples, although a more complete analysis will be left for future work.
6 Good‐Enough Representation in Plural and Singular Pronominal Reference
Authors: Koh Sungryong , Sanford Anthony J. , Clifton Jr. Charles , Dawydiak Eugene J. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
When two individuals have been linked by a connective, a complex reference object is formed, and subsequent reference by plural anaphors rather than singular ones is preferred. Two reading time and one text change detection study were carried out to examine further the details of the representation of singular and plural objects under these circumstances. The normal conjunction cost associated with subsequently referring to one of the individuals by a singular pronoun is eliminated in circumstances where for the purposes of communication there is nothing to be gained from a singular/plural distinction. The findings fit with current views of shallow, good-enough processing, in which semantic distinctions in mental representations are only made when functionally necessary.
8 Reference, Centers, and Transitions in Spoken Spanish
Authors: Taboada Maite 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThe goal of this chapter is to examine the relationship between Centering transitions (Grosz et al., 1995) and choice of referring expression. For that purpose, analyses based in Centering Theory were carried out in two different corpora of spoken Spanish. The corpus analysis confirms reports in previous literature about what is the typical choice of referring expression. In some cases, however, the referring expression chosen violates expectation, or does not follow what other researchers have found (e.g. a proper name is used when a pronoun is expected). In those cases, the most likely explanation is that other constraints related to spoken language are at play (turn-taking and grounding).
9 Linguistic Claims Formulated in Terms of Centering A Re‐Examination Using Parametric CB‐Tracking Techniques
Authors: Poesio Massimo 
Published: May 2008

AbstractReliable techniques were developed to annotate corpora with the information to test several instantiations of Centering, and software that could be used to automatically compute CFs and CB of utterances according to a variety of proposals.These methods were then used to evaluate several claims concerning discourse topics. Support was found for a variant of proposals by Gundel, Hedberg, and Zacharski concerning when demonstratives will be used to realize a discourse entity. Secondly, it was found that the transitions in which CB=CP are most predictive of subject pronominalization. The third studyrevealed a clear, but not very predictive, correlation between segment boundaries and the use of `discontinuous' transitions in which one or both of the utterances have no CB. Finally, support was found for the claim by Hitzeman and Poesio that only entities that have been CBs serve as the antecedent of long-distance pronouns.
1 Orientation
Authors: Langacker Ronald W. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractCognitive Grammar represents one approach to cognitive linguistics, which in turn belongs to the functionalist (as opposed to the formalist) tradition in linguistic theory. Its central claim is that grammar is meaningful. More specifically, grammar forms a continuum with lexicon and is fully describable as assemblies of symbolic structures (form-meaning pairings). Lexicon varies with respect to the complexity of expressions and the degree of specifity of the meanings symbolized. Grammar varies along the same dimensions, being distinguished from lexicon primarily on the basis of being more schematic in regard to form as well as meaning. Cognitive Grammar is a usage-based approach, in which linguistic structure is seen as emerging by abstraction from usage events, i.e. the reinforcement of what is common across multiple instances of language use in interactive contexts. The theory is highly restrictive in what is posited, limiting linguistic units to structures that are either directly apprehended as parts of occurring expressions or else derive from such structures by the general cognitive phenomena of schematization and categorization.
2 Conceptual Semantics
Authors: Langacker Ronald W. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractWithout contradiction, linguistic meaning is seen as residing in conceptualization and as having a social-interactive basis. Conceptualization is fundamentally imagistic rather than propositional. Instead of there being a unique set of semantic primitives, there are different kinds of elemental conceptions, each basic in its own respect. Certain fundamental grammatical notions are semantically characterized both schematically, in terms of basic cognitive abilities, and prototypically, in terms of experientially grounded conceptual archetypes. Linguistic meanings do not reflect the world in any direct or straightforward manner, but rather embody particular ways of construing the situations described, often involving imagination and mental constructions. There is no specific boundary between linguistic and extralinguistic aspects of lexical meanings (which are better likened metaphorically to encyclopedia entries rather than dictionary entries), nor between semantics and pragmatics. Hence semantics is only partially (not fully) compositional. An expression derives its meaning by flexibly invoking an open-ended set of cognitive domains, i.e. concepts or conceptual complexes of any degree of complexity. These domains are connected in various ways, e.g. by overlap, inclusion, and metaphorical correspondences. There is no clear distinction between domains and mental spaces.
4 Grammatical Classes
Authors: Langacker Ronald W. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThe standard doctrine that basic grammatical classes (parts of speech) are not semantically definable rests on erroneous assumptions about the nature of linguistic meaning. With a proper view of meaning, basic categories—notably noun and verb—have plausible conceptual characterizations at both the prototype level (for typical examples) and the schema level (valid for all instances). The prototypes are based on conceptual archetypes: objects for nouns, and actions for verbs. The schemas are independent of any particular conceptual content, residing instead in basic cognitive abilities immanent in the archetypes: for nouns, grouping and reification; in the case of verbs, the ability to apprend relationships and to track their evolution through time. An expression's grammatical category specifically depends on the nature of its profile (not its overall content). Thus a noun profiles a thing (defined abstractly as any product of grouping and reification), while a verb profiles a process (a relationship tracked through time). Expressions that profile non-processual relationships include adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, infinitives, and participles. Relational expressions can be categorized in different ways, depending on factors like the number and type of focused participants, whether the profiled relation is simplex or complex, and whether it is apprehended holistically or sequentially. These characterizations prove efficacious in describing how relational expressions function as noun modifiers and in clausal organization.
9 Grounding
Authors: Langacker Ronald W. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractGrounding is the grammaticized means of relating the thing profiled by a nominal, or the process profiled by a finite clause, to the ground (the speech event and its participants). As narrowly defined, grounding elements make very fundamental specifications of a basically epistemic nature. Moreover, they construe the ground subjectively—leaving it implicit as the offstage locus of conception—with the profiled entity being the focused, onstage object of conception. Whereas a lexical noun or verb merely names a type of thing or process, a full nominal or finite clause designates and grounds an instance of the type. An instance differs from a type by being thought of as having a particular location in the domain of instantiation, one that distinguishes it from other instances. The profiled instance is not necessarily an actual individual, but may also be a virtual (or fictive) entity confined to a special mental space. A nominal referent is generally identified through a combination of description, which selects a set of eligible candidates, and grounding, which directs attention to a member of this set. Two basic grounding strategies are deixis (abstract pointing) and quantification. The deictic grounding elements—demonstratives and the definite article—are definite: they single out the intended referent independently of the content of the clause containing the nominal. By contrast, with indefinite grounding elements the referent is initially virtual, pending its identification by means of the clausal content (in the case of indefinite articles), or is necessarily virtual (in the case of quantifiers). Clausal grounding is less concerned with identification than with existence, i.e. whether or not an event occurs. For English the basic grounding elements are tense and the modals. The tense opposition present vs. past is a special case of the more schematic value of immediate vs. non-immediate (with respect to the ground). The absence of a modal indicates that the speaker accepts the profiled occurrence as part of the speaker's conception of reality. The presence of a modal indicates that it does not yet have this status, but is still a target for realization. The choice of modal registers the impetus for speaker control, which occurs on either of two levels: effective vs. epistemic control (corresponding to root vs. epistemic modals).
11 Clause Structure
Authors: Langacker Ronald W. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractA full clause profiles a grounded instance of a process type. Conceptual archetypes function as the prototypical values of basic clause types and clausal elements. Languages naturally differ in their implementation of this general characterization, and within a language clauses are varied and complex. Subject and object are defined schematically as trajector and landmark, i.e. primary and secondary focal participant. In most languages a particular semantic role represents the typical choice of trajector: either agent or theme (a patient-like participant). Each is the starting point along a natural path: the path of energy flow in the case of agent, and a path based on conceptual autonomy in the case of theme. In varied proportions and for different grammatical phenomena, every language makes some use of these two basic strategies. This is the basis for nominative/accusative, ergative/absolutive, and agent/patient organization. It can be argued that subject is a grammatical universal when defined abstractly in terms of primary focal prominence. In addition to the most typical clausal organization, every language offers a variety of alternatives for special purposes. Voice alternations (such as active, passive, and middle) pertain to the semantic role of the participant focused as trajector. The trajector can also be a non-participant, e.g. a setting or location. There is comparable variation in the choice of landmark, resulting in different kinds of objects. In agent-oriented languages, clauses which choose the theme as trajector represent an important secondary option. The verb of a clause is often complex. In addition to incorporating nominal or adverbial elements, the verb can exhibit layers of morphological derivation, be a phrase instead of a single word, or even consist in a series of verb-like elements.
12 Complex Sentences
Authors: Langacker Ronald W. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThe distinction between coordination and subordination is not clear-cut. The essence of coordination is the mental juxtaposition of structures construed as parallel and co-equal. Subordination has a number of dimensions, including form, the participation of one clause in the relationship profiled by another, and a clause's profile being overridden at the composite structure level. Constituency and profiling are often flexible, depending on factors like the size of clauses and their discourse function. The traditional division into adverbial, relative, and complement clauses is based primarily on how clauses are connected with one another. To the extent that these distinctions hold, they are based on semantic function rather than specific structural configurations. In the case of complements, the classic distinction between control and raising constructions is non-fundamental, the latter being just a special case of the former. Finite and nonfinite complements differ not just in form but in meaning and typical function. Predicates taking finite complements pertain to the epistemic status of propositions; those taking nonfinite complements pertain to the realization of occurrences. Complementation involves multiple conceptualizers and levels of conception. Different conceptualizers apprehend the same proposition each from their own perspective, assessing it with respect to their own conception of reality. Complement-taking predicates refer to different phases of this assessment. Impersonal constructions invoke a conceptualizer and the relevant scope of awareness in generalized fashion, suggesting that anyone would make the assessment under the circumstances.
13 Discourse
Authors: Langacker Ronald W. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractA discourse consists of usage events, and in the usage based approach linguistic units are seen as being abstracted from such events. Discourse is fundamentally interactive and necessarily dynamic. Abstracted units retain these properties to varying degrees. At both the semantic and the phonological pole, discourse unfolds in a number of channels: objective content, information structure, speech management; segmental content, prosody, gesture. Discourse presupposes an elaborate conceptual substrate which supports and makes coherent what is overtly expressed. One facet of this substrate is the context, including the speaker-hearer interaction and the ongoing discourse itself. Another is the viewing arrangement, i.e. the relation between the interlocutors and the situation described. Also involved are speech acts, based on culturally recognized scenarios of linguistic interaction; while typically covert, these can also be expressed by clauses used descriptively or as performatives (actual enactments of the scenarios). Closely related are vocatives and other kinds of expressive utterances. Being used for many purposes, discourse occurs in many spoken and written genres. Depending on the genre, various levels and dimensions of organization can be discerned. Important in conversation is organization into attentional frames: intonation groups each representing a single window of attention. As discourse proceeds, a conceptual structure is built and progressively updated. Discourse is most effective when it follows certain basic principles of structure building. Grammar is shaped by discourse, and grammatical structures serve particular discourse functions. Grammar includes not only conventional patterns for assembling complex expressions but also established ways of applying them to the ongoing discourse. Grounding is often effected in this manner.
ONE Defining the Art
Authors: Woodruff Paul 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThe first chapter proposes the hypothesis of the book: that the arts of theater are the art of making human action worth watching and the art of finding human action worth watching. Chapter 1 examines the purpose of definition in philosophy and explores the consequences of the definition of theater that it proposes, which includes a wide range of human endeavors, but excludes film and literature. The art of theater requires the presence of human action, but does not necessarily involve fiction or mimesis. Extreme theater and theater of presence can effect real changes in the lives of those involved. Theater need not be a fine art; that is, it can allow pedantry, utility, and other factors often thought inconsistent with the fine arts.
FIVE People Worth Watching: Characters
Authors: Woodruff Paul 
Published: May 2008

AbstractA character, in the art of theater, is a person worth watching, whether that person is fictional, historical, or actually present. Persons are worth watching if we are able to see them as agents with whom we can become emotionally engaged; they are carable about. A particular character takes his or her identity not from personal qualities or êthos, which is a universal, but from particular relationships with other characters. To be coherent, a character should act in ways that do not defy reasonable expectation (Aristotle's eikos), but characters may be reasonably expected to do unreasonable things. The most effective character is a “center of love,” who loves and is loved, and who has a past and pursues a future. This presents a problem for comedy, which often engages audiences through means other than character.
SIX Sacred Space
Authors: Woodruff Paul 
Published: May 2008

AbstractTheater is the heir of a tradition that makes spaces sacred for religious ritual; only people who have been consecrated may enter such a space without transgression, that is, without a violation of reverence. The art of theater divides the watchers from the watched by placing the watched in a measured or defined space, such as a stage, a sanctuary, or a playing field. Space is usually defined externally in theater, but it may be defined more fluidly by actors as they move, especially if they are seen as consecrated in such a way that they change the meaning of the space they enter. Transgression of performers into watching space, or of audience into performing space, can be electrifying, but only if it is seen as transgressive, and occurs only if the space has been fairly well defined at the outset. Powerful theater sometimes leads to an altar call that draws the audience into sacred space and converts them from watchers to participants, closing down the theatrical nature of the event while opening something new.
SEVEN Mimesis
Authors: Woodruff Paul 
Published: May 2008

AbstractMimesis is an activity by which one thing produces at least part of the effect that another thing would naturally produce. In art theater, mimesis is what makes a performance have an effect on its audience similar to the one that real events would have. Music may be mimetic, but in a limited way. Mimesis in all cases involves duplicity—producing the double of something—and in theater and fiction it also requires the complicity of an audience. In some cases, mimesis involves modeling, as when a child models the behavior of a parent. Plato rejected mimesis in theater because he thought that modeling would corrupt actors who present weak or bad characters, and also because he held that mimesis of virtue threatens to lead an audience astray through duplicity. Plato is wrong on the first point, but partly right on the second, which will be addressed in Chapter 12.
ELEVEN Understanding Theater
Authors: Woodruff Paul 
Published: May 2008

AbstractUnderstanding theater requires an emotional response, but different watchers have different responses depending on their experiences of life, their beliefs, and their personal qualities, so different watchers come to different understandings. It appears that only relativism would allow for different understandings of the same performance, but Chapter 11 argues that elements of a performance have certain emotion-engaging properties, and these are misunderstood by those who are not attuned to them.
The Dao and the Field
Authors: DeAngelis Gary D. , Frisina Warren G. , Henricks Robert G. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
For many years Robert Henricks has used the image of an untended field to help his students understand what the DDJ means by the Dao. Henrick's field is not a farmer's field but rather a natural field that is “barren and deserted in the winter but filled with a host of different wildflowers throughout the spring and summer.” This analogy leads naturally into discussion of such central Daoist themes as: the Dao's rhythmic cycles from tranquility to activity and back; the need to remain “rooted” in the Dao; the true nature of morality; and what the DDJ might mean by immortality.
The Daode Jing and Comparative Philosophy
Authors: DeAngelis Gary D. , Frisina Warren G. , Hall David L. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This essay discusses the way the DDJ contradicts or even subverts many Western philosophic and religious assumptions about ontology, cosmology and the self. Where many Western philosophers describe being as “a common property or a relational structure” the DDJ seems not to posit any such “superordinate One to which the Many reduce.” Similarly, where many Western thinkers portray the self as a collection of competing and sometimes conflicting faculties (e.g. reason, appetite and will), the DDJ does not. Bringing students to an awareness of these differences is, David L. Hall argues, an excellent way to introduce them to the advantages of a comparative approach to philosophic reflection.
Mysticism In the Daode Jing
Authors: DeAngelis Gary D. , Frisina Warren G. , DeAngelis Gary D. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This essay outlines the way Gary D. DeAngelis employs the DDJ in a course on comparative mysticisms. Beginning with Ninian Smart's definition of mystical experience as a “state of consciousness where one ‘acquires a fundamental insight into the nature of reality,'” DeAngelis leads students into a discussion of how the DDJ responds to two basic questions: “What is the nature of ultimate reality?; and How may one experience that reality?” These questions lead students to explore basic epistemological issues as they come to a deeper understanding of what the DDJ may mean by saying that it is possible to “know” a Dao which is itself “unknowable.”
My Way: Teaching the Daode Jing at the Beginning of a New Millenium
Authors: DeAngelis Gary D. , Frisina Warren G. , Girardot Norman J. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Reflecting on his own history of teaching the DDJ at American colleges and universities from the early 1970's through to the end of the 20th century, Norman Girardot describes scholarly and cultural changes that have had an impact on what he does in the classroom, especially his use of popularized presentations of the DDJ both as a way of opening students to the text, and as a reference point to be criticized once he has led them toward a fuller understanding of its historical and cultural context. Included is a discussion of the nature and role of performative ritual including a one‐day college‐wide phantasmagora called “Dao‐day.”