bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Europe's Advantage
Authors: Carnevali Francesca 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This book focuses on the relationship between banks and small firms in a comparative historical perspective. By comparing the rise of small firms in France, Germany, and Italy and their decline Britain, this book analyses how the structure of the countries’ banking systems has affected the growth of small firms. This analysis is placed in the historical context of the political economy of these four countries to show how banking and industrial structures developed over the century as a consequence of the state’s need to mediate between different social and economic groups. This approach shows why British banking became so concentrated and the negative impact this had on the supply of finance to small firms. The experiences of France, Germany, and Italy show alternative structures and policy responses towards small firms.
4 Small Firms and theSynthèse Républicaine
Authors: Carnevali Francesca 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter analyses the segmented nature of France’s banking system up to the early 1930s. It focuses on the social and political reasons why French small firms were able to influence the government’s economic policy, including banking regulation. The chapter also reassesses the role played by small firms in the process of French economic growth.
Plato and Aristotle in Agreement?
Authors: Karamanolis George E. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis book breaks new ground in the study of later ancient philosophy by examining the interplay of the two main schools of thought, Platonism and Aristotelianism, from the first century BC to the third century AD. From the time of Antiochus and for the next four centuries, Platonists were strongly preoccupied with the question of how Aristotle’s philosophy compared with the Platonic model. Scholars have usually classified Platonists into two groups, the orthodox ones and the eclectics or syncretists, depending on whether Platonists rejected Aristotle’s philosophy as a whole or accepted some Peripatetic doctrines. The book argues against this dichotomy, claiming that Platonists turned to Aristotle only in order to discover and elucidate Plato’s doctrines and thus to reconstruct Plato’s philosophy. They did not hesitate to criticize Aristotle when judging him to be at odds with Plato. For them, Aristotle was merely auxiliary to their accessing and understanding Plato. The evaluation of Aristotle’s testimony on the part of the Platonists also depends on their interpretation of Aristotle himself. This is particularly clear in the case of Porphyry, with whom the ancient discussion reaches a conclusion, which most later Platonists accepted. While essentially in agreement with Plotinus’s interpretation of Plato, Porphyry interpreted Aristotle in such a way that the latter appeared to agree essentially with Plato on all significant philosophical questions, a view which was dominant until the Renaissance. It is argued that Porphyry’s view of Aristotle’s philosophy guided him to become the first Platonist to write commentaries on Aristotle’s works.
Introduction
Authors: Karamanolis George E. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis introductory chapter addresses the question why Aristotle’s philosophy attracted so much attention by Platonists in late antiquity. The author argues that Platonic (that is, Plato’s) philosophy was subject to different reconstructions by Platonists, who often resorted to Aristotle in order to reconstruct parts of it. It then examines the main philosophical issues on which Platonists focused when discussing Aristotle’s philosophy and its relation to Platonic. Finally, it briefly reviews the evidence regarding the Peripatetic positions on how Aristotle’s philosophy compares with Plato’s.
3 Numenius
Authors: Karamanolis George E. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of Numenius’ Pythagoreanism and his thesis on Aristotle’s philosophy. It then analyses the question of whether Pythagoreanism is incompatible with Aristotelianism. It is argued that Numenius does not show hostility to Aristotle, and does not even display much concern for his thought. However, existing evidence suggests that Numenius did voice a warning to Platonists to the effect that Aristotle’s philosophy is substantially different from that of Plato, and that any concession to his views on the assumption that he preserves Plato’s doctrines can cause sedition and secession from Plato’s actual philosophical spirit.
3 Theology, Wissenschaft, and the Founding of the University of Berlin
Authors: Howard Thomas Albert 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the establishment of the University of Berlin (1810), its early years of operation, and this institution’s implications for the future of theological instruction and scholarship. One feature that distinguishes Berlin’s founding from those of older universities was the energetic outpouring of theoretical treatises on higher education that preceded the actual event. Together, these writings provide a remarkable window onto a variety of intellectual trends and cultural realities of the time; they also bear witness to an acute sense of modernity, an idealist and post-revolutionary sense that ‘the human spirit’ possessed an entirely new range of individual and institutional possibilities. The analysis of these documents concentrates on the question of what role the theological faculty was to play in the new university. Should it be drastically reduced or even eliminated, as some suggested, or should it be given a new academic lease so long as it could demonstrate an ability to adapt to the post-1789 world order and the new scholarly demands of Wissenschaft?
4 An Erastian Modernity? Church, State, and Education in Early Nineteenth‐Century Prussia
Authors: Howard Thomas Albert 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter examines reconfigurations in Prussian politics, bureaucracy, educational policy, and church-state relations in the early 19th century. It explores the rhetoric and realities of Prussia qua Kulturstaat, and examines in detail the establishment of the Ministry of Culture (Kultusministerium) during the Prussian Reform Era and the far-reaching Erastian authority this ministry exercised over church affairs, academic life, and theology throughout the 19th century. It was largely through the agency of this Ministry, the nationalist historian Heinrich von Treitschke once wrote, that the church in Prussia was kept ‘under the benevolent tutelage of the state’.
2 Trustee‐Type Public Service Bargains
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter discusses ‘trustee’ bargains, in particular, it explores the background to the notion of government as a ‘trust’ and considers the puzzle why ‘trustee’ type PSBs emerge and persist in the democratic age. It draws a distinction between representative and tutelary forms of trustee bargains, and discusses empirical examples of such variants.
4 Reward in Public Service Bargains: Pyramids,Noblesse Oblige, Turkey Races, and Lotteries of Life
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter explores the reward dimension of public service bargains. It analyzes different forms and aspects of reward and then explores four specific types of reward bargains: pyramids and escalators, noblesse oblige, turkey race, and lottery of life. Each of these bargains is discussed, indicating potential difficulties and highlighting empirical examples. Mixes and matches as well as trends and tendencies are discussed, with some forms of reward bargain apparently in decline and others increasing in importance.
6 Loyalty and Responsibility in Public Service Bargains: Judges, Partners, Executives, and Jesters
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter discusses the loyalty dimension of public service bargains, exploring four types of loyalty-type bargains: judge-, partner-, executive- and jester-type bargains. It gives examples of each, discusses the curious case of jester-type bargains, and explores mixes and matches. The chapter shows how these types of loyalty bargain have played out in the German and UK political systems, and discusses the direction of changes over time.
7 Putting the Pieces Together
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe first part of this chapter brings together the earlier analysis and considers combinations of public service bargains, suggesting there are many possible combinations, but also some elements that do not seem to mix effectively. It then goes on to show how the various dimensions of PSBs have combined over time in two state traditions, Germany and the UK. It shows how a PSB lens can be utilized in different historical perspectives, ranging from the long-term perspective covering two centuries to the analysis of the past two decades.
10 Conclusion
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter first shows what contribution a Public Service Bargain (PSB) perspective can make to the understanding of executive government. It claims that such a perspective can aid comparison, can be applied at various levels of aggregation, and can sharpen understanding of cheating and strategic behaviour. It then shows how the PSB perspective can add to existing analytical and comparative work on executive government. The future of PSBs is discussed and it is argued that rather than stasis, convergence, or divergence, the most likely future is one of further multiplication and, therefore, complication.
Counterpart Theory and the Puzzles of Transworld Identity
Authors: Mackie Penelope 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter considers the proposal that counterpart theory should be adopted as a solution to the problems about identity across possible worlds discussed in the previous chapters: a solution that requires neither bare identities, extrinsically determined identities, nor non-trivial individual essences. It concludes that unless one is already committed to counterpart theory on other grounds (such as the adoption of David Lewis’s version of realism about possible worlds), one has insufficient reason to prefer a counterpart-theoretic solution to a ‘bare identities’ solution to the problems.
The Necessity of Origin
Authors: Mackie Penelope 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter argues that the intuitive appeal of Kripke’s necessity of origin thesis can be explained by seeing the thesis as the consequence of a temporally asymmetrical ‘branching model’ of de re possibilities, which, in turn, rests on two principles concerning possibility, time, and identity called ‘the assumption of open futures’ and ‘the overlap requirement’. This explanation of the necessity of origin intuition is defended against a standard objection, and compared with two other proposed explanations. It is also argued that the explanation of the intuitive appeal of the necessity of origin thesis does not justify that thesis, principally because the ultimate defensibility of the overlap requirement is doubtful. The chapter concludes by suggesting that the necessity of origin thesis advocated by Kripke and others should be rejected in favour of a weaker thesis called ‘the tenacity of origin’, that does not imply that distinctive features of an individual’s origin are among its essential properties.
Sortal Concepts and Essential Properties II: Sortal Concepts and Principles of Individuation
Authors: Mackie Penelope 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines David Wiggins’s version of sortal essentialism, which relies on the EPI thesis, that a thing’s principle of individuation is essential to it in order to derive the result that certain sortals (‘ultimate sortals’) are essential sortals. It argues that the attempt to defend sortal essentialism by appeal to EPI faces a dilemma: either the thesis is vacuous, and lends no support to sortal essentialism, or it is a substantial thesis, but one that we have no good reason to accept. It concludes that even if it is true that, for any given individual, there are some sorts or kinds to which it could not have belonged, there is insufficient reason to believe the sortal essentialist’s explanation that this is because there is some sortal kind to which it belongs essentially.
Essential Properties and Remote Contingencies
Authors: Mackie Penelope 
Published: September 2006

AbstractHaving rejected the standard views about the essential properties of ordinary individuals, this chapter confronts the question whether such individuals have any interesting essential properties at all. It defends a version of ‘extreme haecceitism’, also known as ‘minimalist essentialism’, according to which ordinary individuals have relatively few interesting essential properties. According to this theory, many properties that might be assumed to be essential properties of ordinary individuals are not, strictly speaking, essential, but rather ‘tenacious’ or ‘quasi-essential’, where this implies that the possibility that the thing should lack the property is so remote as normally to be ignored in the context of counterfactual speculation. It is argued that the appearance of conflict between this version of extreme haecceitism and our intuitions may largely be dispelled, partly by appeal to the fact that in many contexts in which we make de re modal claims, we restrict ourselves to what all theorists must acknowledge to be a limited subset of the full range of de re possibilities. It is also argued that extreme haecceitism need not undermine the role played by an appeal to essential properties in various philosophical arguments, such as the debate between psychological and biological theorists concerning personal identity and a standard form of argument that appeals to modal distinctions, in order to establish the numerical distinctness of coincident entities.
Essentialism, Semantic Theory, and Natural Kinds
Authors: Mackie Penelope 
Published: September 2006

AbstractFollowing Nathan Salmon and D. H. Mellor, this chapter argues that natural kind essentialism of the type advocated by Kripke and Putnam is not an inevitable consequence of the adoption of an anti-descriptivist semantic theory of natural kind terms. It attempts to clarify various issues about the characteristics of natural kind essentialism and its relation to semantic theory, as well as reinforcing the distinction made earlier in the book between essentialism about individuals and essentialism about natural kinds. The author remains agnostic on the question of the truth of essentialism about natural kinds, but suggests reasons for scepticism about its plausibility in comparison with some weaker views, such as the theory that a natural kind has a Lockean ‘real essence’ which need not belong to the kind in all possible worlds.
In Pursuit of a Theory of Political Obligation
Authors: Gilbert Margaret 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter argues that a fully satisfactory theory of political obligation will pass certain tests. It will offer an affirmative answer to the membership problem and, among other things, it will show how membership in a political society gives one obligations to uphold that society’s political institutions. There are discussions of A. John Simmons’s ‘generality test’ and of some broad notions of membership: membership through residence and imputed membership.
Actual Contract Theory: Attractions
Authors: Gilbert Margaret 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe best-known theory of political obligation is actual contract theory: a political society is founded on an agreement, and the parties to the agreement — now the members of the society — are obligated accordingly. As is generally admitted, actual contract theory has significant attractions as a solution to the membership problem. For one, agreements are a canonical source of obligations. For another, an agreement may indeed suffice to found a social group in general. This chapter details eight analytic points that have been or might be judged to favour of the theory, and five ways in which it might appear to be morally attractive.
Political Societies
Authors: Gilbert Margaret 
Published: September 2006

AbstractA political society was defined in Chapter 1 as a society with institutions of governance. These institutions are its institutions. Three kinds of institution of governance are discussed, all involving social rules of one kind or another: governing rules, personal rule, and rules of governance or constitutional rules. The nature of social rules is explored in counterpoint to the classical account of H.L.A. Hart, and an alternative joint commitment account is offered. Given this account, the members of a political society are jointly committed to uphold its institutions of governance. By the argument of the previous chapters, they will then be obligated to uphold the institutions in question. This is the gist of the plural subject theory of political obligation.
Deontologism
Authors: Bergmann Michael 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter focuses on whether deontologism — the view that justification is to be understood in terms of concepts such as duty, obligation, and blame — entails internalism. If it does, then internalists could still avail themselves of this deontological motivation for internalism despite the argument made in Chapter 1, that internalists endorsing the weak awareness requirement lose the main motivation for their view. It is argued that deontologism does not entail internalism. An explanation is offered for why philosophers are misled into thinking it does.
Proper Function
Authors: Bergmann Michael 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter defends an externalist analysis of justification, focusing on its proper function requirement. It identifies three ways a popular evidentialist view needs improvement, and argues that the proper function analysis captures the recommended improvements. It then highlights some virtues of the analysis, including the fact that because it has no reliability requirement, it is an externalist position that avoids the usual objections to reliabilist accounts of justification. The chapter concludes by responding to several objections.
Epistemic Circularity
Authors: Bergmann Michael 
Published: September 2006

AbstractOne prominent objection to externalism is that it commits its adherents to approving of epistemic circularity. This chapter explains and then responds to this objection by giving two arguments for the conclusion that we should sometimes approve of epistemic circularity, that being committed to approving of it is not, in itself, a defect of externalism. It then explains why approving of epistemic circularity misleadingly seems like a defect, and how epistemic circularity is likely to occur in an acceptable manner.
Overview
Authors: Brown Harvey R. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractFollowing Einstein's brilliant 1905 work on the electrodynamics of moving bodies, and its geometrization by Minkowski which proved to be so important for the development of Einstein's general theory of relativity, it became standard to view the FitzGerald-Lorentz hypothesis as the right idea based on the wrong reasoning. This chapter expresses doubts that this standard view is correct, and believes that posterity will look kindly on the merits of the pre-Einsteinian, ‘constructive’ reasoning of FitzGerald, if not Lorentz. The theories of FitzeGerald, Michelson, Heaviside, Einstein, and Bell are discussed. The chapter also considers what space-time is not.
The Relativity Principle and the Fable of Albert Keinstein
Authors: Brown Harvey R. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter argues that Albert Einstein was not the first to use the relativity principle (RP) as a postulate in the treatment of a problem in physics. Christian Huygens had done so over two hundred years earlier in his treatment of collisions. It is shown that even Newton in his pre-Principia writings viewed the RP as having the same axiomatic status as his laws. But the prominent role played by the principle in Einstein's 1905 paper on moving bodies in electrodynamics marked the beginning of a new attitude concerning the foundational status of symmetries in physics.
The Trailblazers
Authors: Brown Harvey R. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe cradle of the special theory of relativity was the combination of Maxwellian electromagnetism and the electron theory of Lorentz (and to a lesser extent of Larmor) based on Fresnel's notion of the stationary ether. This chapter looks at the contributions of the principal figures concerned with the explanation of the prima facie failure to detect any significant trace of the ether wind on the surface of the earth. Topics discussed include the Michelson-Morley experiment, Michelson-Morley kinematics, FitzGerland and Heaviside, Lorentz, Larmor, and the role of ether prior to Einstein.
2 The Life and Career of Peter the Iberian
Authors: Horn Cornelia B. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter discusses the major stages in Peter the Iberian’s life and career, highlighting the impact of different geographical, cultural, and political influences, namely those of Georgia, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Palestine, Alexandria, and Egypt, and the contributions of individuals from different social roles, such as imperial nobility, patriarchs, monks, pilgrims, and women. Central to this examination is Peter’s multifaceted role of prince, monk, and bishop. He played a central role in the history of the anti-Chalcedonian community in Palestine, both as a figure who decisively influenced events as well as a model and hero that inspired people to adhere to an ideal even after his death.
Asceticism as Locus of Authority: The Case of Peter the Iberian
Authors: Horn Cornelia B. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter demonstrates how ascetics gained authority, and used this to promote adherence to the particular religious group with which they were affiliated. It addresses those issues of authority, which surfaced in the anti-Chalcedonian ascetic milieu in the 5th and early 6th centuries in the patriarchates of Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch, focusing on the people and events pertaining to Peter the Iberian’s life and career. It examines ascetic influences to which Peter was exposed during the formative years of his life, starting in Georgia, then in Constantinople, and, eventually, in a highly concentrated and direct way in the Holy Land. The specific ascetic style which Peter appears to have developed and which his biographer Rufus further worked out in the literary portrait of Peter is highlighted.
4 Weaving the Crown of Pilgrimage: The Spiritual and Polemical Dimensions of Pilgrimage and the Holy Places from an Anti‐Chalcedonian Perspective
Authors: Horn Cornelia B. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines the role of the Holy Land as a singular setting for the Christological controversies in the 5th century. In the context of pilgrimage to the numerous holy places, Peter’s own role as a pilgrim to the Holy Land comes into focus. The spiritual and political implications of his personal pilgrimage as well as the sensitivities of anti-Chalcedonians concerning the fact that the holy places were in the hands of ‘heretical’ Chalcedonians are crucial to understand both Peter’s role as well as the model held out for future generations by Rufus.