bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
5 Care Theory and Culture
Authors: Engster Daniel 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter explores the cultural institutions and arrangements best suited for fostering in people a positive disposition toward caring, including the sentiments of sympathy and compassion. A brief survey is provided of recent psychological studies on the childrearing practices most likely to foster the development of caring attitudes and behaviors in children. A number of family policies are then proposed to enable and encourage parents to raise their children according to these practices. Drawing on the work of Nancy Chodorow, next the chapter argues that the current gendered division of caring within and outside the family must also be addressed if men, in particular, are to become more positively disposed to caring. The chapter then briefly discusses Nel Noddings's proposal for a more caring educational curriculum, and proposes an alternative set of educational reforms. The final section explores the effects of the media, and especially television, on people's attitudes about caring, and outlines some policies for mitigating some of the harmful consequences of television and other media on people's attitudes about caring.
Introduction
Authors: Guellec Dominique , van Pottelsberghe de la Potterie Bruno 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis introductory chapter shows how patents have become central to the knowledge economy, in connection with the key role of innovation and globalization. It argues that the economic approach to the analysis of patent systems may be useful to better understand its functioning. It offers a beginner's guide to patenting procedures and summarizes the basic economics of patents. The structure of the rest of the book is also described.
Historical Insights
Authors: Guellec Dominique 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter addresses the genesis and evolution of the patent system, since the first patent statute was issued in Venice in 1471, until the international harmonization pressures of patent regimes at the end of 20th century. The European Patent Office (EPO), which began its activity in 1978, has established a common examination procedure and common standards for patenting all over Europe. The main characteristics of modern patent systems are discussed, which include the subject matter (technical inventions in Europe), priority rule (first to file), inventive step, a statutory duration of twenty years after filing, prior examination of applications before grant, inventive step as minimum degree of novelty, disclosure of the protected invention, and the possibility of various restrictions on patent rights, such as compulsory licensing or working requirements.
Patent Design
Authors: Guellec Dominique 
Published: May 2007

Abstract‘Patent design’ is the discipline which studies the substantive features of the patent system (subject matter, inventive step, scope, duration) from the point of view of their economic effects. From an economic perspective, a ‘good patent system’ is one which encourages inventions and does not hamper their diffusion. This dual test is applied when evaluating any particular feature of a patent system from the point of view of ‘economic quality’. The chapter offers a critical and comprehensive economic analysis of each of these aspects of patent design.
Hot ‘Patent’ Issues: Quantitative Evidence
Authors: van Pottelsberghe Bruno 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter explores several challenges facing the patent system: university patenting, the cost of patents, and the growing number and voluminosity of patent filings. The pros and cons of academic patenting are investigated through its potential impact on the quality and quantity of scientific research. A methodology for the evaluation of patent costs is then presented. The international comparison shows that European patents are more expensive mainly due to the translation costs (including intermediation with patent attorneys) and the validation fees in each national patent office following approval by the EPO. The chapter ends with a brief illustration and explanation of the recent boom in the patent workload, characterized by an increase in both the number of patent filings and their size (number of pages or number of claims).
The Sufferings of Beasts
Authors: van Inwagen Peter 
Published: May 2007

AbstractSince there were non-rational but sentient organisms long before there were human beings, the free-will defence cannot account for the sufferings of those organisms. This chapter presents a defence — the ‘regularity of nature defence’ — that purports to account for the sufferings of pre-human beasts and all the more recent sufferings of beasts that cannot be ascribed to the abuse of free will by human beings. It concludes with a consideration of some problems that confront anyone who employs both this second defence and the free-will defence.
Gödel
Authors: Potter Michael 
Published: May 2007

AbstractOn September 7, 1930, Gödel announced at a conference that ‘one can give examples of propositions that, while contentually true, are unprovable in the formal system of classical mathematics’. On October 23, he cited both the incompleteness of the formal system of Principia and the unprovability of the consistency of the system by methods formalizable within it. Gödel also went as far as to deny expressly that his theorems killed off Hilbert's programme. Three doubts were salient. First, Gödel's theorems apply only to theories that are formal, in the sense that ‘reasoning in them, in principle, can be completely replaced by mechanical devices’. Second, in order to demonstrate that the consistency of a formal system cannot be proved by methods formalizable in the system itself, it was necessary to appeal to certain features of the method of formalization: a consistency proof formalizable by methods not sharing these features therefore remained a possibility. Third, what Hilbert had demanded was a finitary proof of consistency Gödel's theorem does not rule out unless all finitary methods are formalizable in the system in question. Eventually, Gödel overcame his doubts on all three counts, but to understand why, his reservations must be investigated in detail.
Carnap
Authors: Potter Michael 
Published: May 2007

AbstractIn Vienna during the 1920s there emerged a group of philosophers — the logical positivists — who wished to deny that any metaphysical questions were meaningful. Although they held much of the Tractatus in high regard, they took the parts of it which gestured towards the unsayable — especially the mystical sections near the end of the book — to embody a straightforward mistake on Wittgenstein's part. If they accepted the Tractarian conception of language, even in outline, their position thus amounted to a denial of the concept of the self. This chapter examines the extent to which the positivists' account of arithmetic, the locus classicus for which is Carnap's Logical Syntax of Language, survives their denial of metaphysics.
Emotion and Peace of Mind
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe Stoics (Chrysippus, Seneca, Epictetus) tell us how to get rid of unwanted emotions by re-evaluating situations (cognitive therapy). In their view, an emotion is a pair of value judgements that harm or benefit if at hand, and that it is appropriate to react. Bodily and mental shocks (e.g., crying) are not part of the emotion. One Stoic, Posidonius, protested that such judgements are neither necessary nor sufficient for emotion, not necessary, for example, for emotion produced by melody, or in animals. Seneca replied that what is produced by music and the arts, or in animals, is only preliminary shocks or ‘first movements’. Others (Galen) suggested that bodily factors are important and need separate physical treatment, and recent brain studies (LeDoux) explain why. But the Stoics are right that cognitive therapy can often on its own remove unwanted emotion. Moreover, their two judgements are the right targets for re-evaluation, and it is a muddle to be sad (William James) because I cry. Crying is only a shock. We need not share the Stoic ideal of apatheia — freedom from all emotions — just freedom from unwanted ones. Some Christians (Origen, Evagrius) took up the idea of first movements and converted them from preliminary shocks into preliminary ‘bad thoughts’, which act as temptations. They worked out a whole art of nipping them in the bud to achieve the Stoic ideal of apatheia. But Augustine favoured Aristotle's emotion in moderation, except for example for lust, which he saw as disobedient to will.
Posidonius
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractFor Posidonius, the value judgements proposed by Chrysippus are not sufficient for emotion because they can remain intact while emotion fades through exhaustion, and because emotion requires us also to imagine what is judged and to pay attention to it. Posidonius' explanation is that in exhaustion and without imagination, the movements of the irrational capacities are missing. These movements are spatial movements of physical soul, but not yet identified, like Seneca's first movements, with contractions and suchlike. Further, whereas Posidonius' emphasis is that in special cases the movements can be sufficient for emotion, Seneca's emphasis is that first movements need not lead on to emotion at all, because emotion is something of a very different kind, namely judgement.
Stoic Indifference: A Barrier To Therapy?
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractExcept for committed Stoics, the Stoices do not include their idiosyncratic and unacceptable view in their therapy, castigated by Bernard Williams that everything is indifferent except character and rationality. Health and wealth, they concede, are naturally preferable objectives and must be pursued energetically for oneself and others. But their value lies not in themselves, but in the fact that good character, the only real good, is exercised in the right pursuit of natural objectives. Nor need the unacceptable Stoic view that most emotions include a wrong evaluation of indifferent things as if they were actually good be followed. But something can be learnt from the Stoics, because many of our emotions are unwanted, and for these, the effectiveness of their cognitive therapy is vividly illustrated in Cicero and Seneca.
Physiology and the Non‐Cognitive Galen's Alternative Approach to Emotion
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe idea that the body's chemical blend is the soul is rejected by Plato, Aristotle, and Augustine, but held by Galen for the mortal soul. Among Aristotelians, Andronicus thinks soul is rather a capacity that ‘follows’ the blend, Alexander a capacity that ‘supervenes on’ it. The idea that psychological capacities ‘follow’ the blend is favoured by Lucretius and Galen, who so interprets Plato and Posidonius. Galen concludes that diet must come first, and that this affects even rational capacities. Others too offer non-cognitive therapies, but Galen also accepts cognitive therapy. The Neoplatonist Proclus (5th century CE) denies that psychological capacities follow the bodily blend, though admitting that the body can disturb psychological activities. Philoponus, the Christian Neoplatonist (6th century CE), denies that psychological capacities follow or result from the blend, else philosophy could not counteract. But they do supervene on the blend and act in turn on the body.
Sex, Love, and Marriage In Pagan Philosophy and the Use Of Catharsis
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractIn ancient philosophy, sex, being in love (erôs), marriage, and rearing children each got advocated in separation from the others. Moreover, a good form of erôs got distinguished from one or two bad forms, most influentially by Plato's Socrates. The Stoics agree and so are able to advocate a good form of erôs as not emotional, namely being led by beauty to make friends in order to inculcate virtue. The Epicureans are against erôs and in most circumstances against marriage. Sex would be alright as a palliative, if it did not lead to illusion, harm, and pain, so casual sex is better. Among the Neoplatonists, Porphyry wants the philosopher to avoid anything that might even arouse sexual desire, but Iamblichus rebukes him: erotic rituals for ordinary people provide Aristotelian catharsis.
Catharsis and the Classification Of Therapies
Authors: Sorabji Richard 
Published: May 2007

AbstractIf Aristotle's catharsis gets rid of something by allowing it moderate exercise, by tragedy it will get rid of an excessive disposition to grief, as well as pity and fear; and in comedy of an excessive disposition to contempt. Dispositions to fear, grief, and contempt do tend to be excessive. Until the Neoplatonists Porphyry and Iamblichus, there are only brief references to Aristotle's catharsis in Pythagoras and Pythagoreans, Philodemus, Plutarch, less clearly in the Stoics Diogenes of Babylon and Seneca. But among later Neoplatonists, Proclus denies theatre can be cathartic while Simplicius allows over-indulgence to be cathartic. Both compare a healing emetic. Olympiodorus associates catharsis through moderate exercise of emotion with Pythagoras, whereas Aristotle's catharsis is associated with his advice in Rhetoric to drive out one emotion by its opposite, and there are three other kinds of catharsis.
Imagination and Simulation in Audience Responses to Fiction
Authors: Goldman Alvin 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThis chapter considers how imagination generates emotion. ‘Supposition-imagination’ (S-imagination) is distinguished from ‘enactment-imagination’ (E-imagination). The former kind of imagination involves entertaining or supposing various hypothetical scenarios; with the latter kind of imagination, one tries to create a kind of facsimile of a mental state. Thus, one might try to create a perception-like state as in visual imagination or motoric imagination. It is argued that this much richer form of imagination generates typical emotional reactions to fiction. Emotional reactions to fiction are generated in several different ways, including a process in which we E-imagine being a hypothetical reader or observer of fact.
Imaginative Resistance Revisited
Authors: Gendler Tamar Szabó 
Published: May 2007

AbstractThe puzzle of imaginative resistance is the puzzle of explaining our comparative difficulty in imagining fictional worlds that we take to be morally deviant. The author of this chapter, Szabó Gendler, refines her earlier (2000) account of the phenomenon. The chapter argues that cases that evoke resistance are those where seriously engaging with the proposed fictional perspective would alter the reader's apprehension of the actual world in unwanted ways. It contrasts the author's account with those of several other authors, including Hume, Walton, and Weatherson.
Therapy for Children with Henoch-Schonlein Purpura Nephritis: A Systematic Review
Authors: Zaffanello Marco , Brugnara Milena , Franchini Massimo 
Published: May 2007

Although severe kidney involvement in children with Henoch-Shonlein purpura (HSP) is rarer than that in adults, morbidity should not be underevaluated and follow-up is mandatory. Some drugs are introduced as well-defined treatment options, others can be promising therapeutic alternatives.Therapy of HSP nephritis in children can range from simply steroids to combined immunosuppressant treatments. The prophylactic treatment for renal complication of patients with HSP has been sometimes suggested, but with conflicting results and ultimately not clearly proven. The treatment of overt HSP nephritis includes steroids and other immunosuppressant drugs. Methylprednisolone pulse therapy and prednisone per os are tested drugs. These steroids could be used in combination with other immunosuppressant drugs, such as cyclosporin A and cyclophosphamide. Unfortunately, of these two drugs, only cyclophosphamide is demonstrated as effective in a recent randomized controlled trial. However, since there are insufficient data and unstructured study designs, ACE-I, azathioprine, mycophenolate mofetil, and urokinase need to be more tested in childhood HSP nephritis. In addition to drugs, other techniques are used to treat the severe form of nephritis. Of these, in a multicenter study, plasmapheresis demonstrated efficacy in delaying the progression of kidney disease. However, no convincing studies have been made to date concerning either intravenous immunoglobulin, factor XIII administration, antioxidant vitamin E, and fish oil to treat HSP nephritis.
Changes in the Essential Oil Composition in the Needles of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestrisL.) Under Anthropogenic Stress
Authors: Judzentiene Asta , Stikliene Aida , Kupcinskiene Eugenija 
Published: May 2007

Unfavorable anthropogenic factors, such as air pollution, lead to biochemical responses in trees. Changes in the amounts of secondary metabolites may be early indicators of invisible injuries. The aim of this study was to evaluate composition of the essential oils in the needles of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestrisL.) growing in the areas affected by pollutant emissions of main factories in Lithuania: a nitrogen fertilizer factory (NFF), a cement factory (CF), and an oil refinery (OR). Totally, 14 pine stands were examined along transects from the factories (July 2005). Volatile components of the needles were extracted and analyzed by GC and GC/MS. Over 70 components of the essential oils were identified in current-year and 1-year-old needles.Along the CF transect for current-year needles, the percentage of diterpenes was decreasing with the increasing pH of the pine bark (r = -0.582;p< 0.05) or with the increasing concentration of SO2(r = -0.573;p< 0.05); for 1-year-old needles, the percentage of diterpenes was decreasing with the increasing pH of the bark (r = -0.534; p < 0.05). Along the OR transect, in both the current-year and 1-year-old needles, the percentage of diterpenes was decreasing with the increasing SO2(respectively, r = -0.773;p< 0.01; r = -0.486;p< 0.05); an opposite relation was true for sesquiterpenes (respectively, r = -0.751;p< 0.01; r = 0.785;p< 0.01). The view was different along the NFF transect. For current-year needles, the percentage of monoterpenes was decreasing with the increasing NH3(r = -0.669;p< 0.01); while the percentage of sesquiterpenes or oxysesquiterpenes was increasing with the increasing NH3(respectively, r = 0.540;p< 0.05 and r = 0.688;p< 0.01). For each transect, cluster analysis of the percentages of components of essential oils in the needles allowed us to distinguish the most contrasting stands according to the concentration of air pollutants. Current-year needles were more effective as indicators of the effects of pollution than 1-year-old needles in the case of the NFF and the OR transects, and both-aged needles were equally valuable in the case of the CF transect. The changes detected in the proportions of components of the essential oils in the needles of the trees affected by the industrial emissions may play a significant role in modifying the susceptibility of the pine stands to the biotic factors, and also may alter emissions of terpenes from the stands to the atmosphere.
Patterns of Understory Diversity in Mixed Coniferous Forests of Southern California Impacted by Air Pollution
Authors: Allen Edith B. , Temple Patrick J. , Bytnerowicz Andrzej , Arbaugh Michael J. , Sirulnik Abby G. , Rao Leela E. 
Published: May 2007

The forests of the San Bernardino Mountains have been subject to ozone and nitrogen (N) deposition for some 60 years. Much work has been done to assess the impacts of these pollutants on trees, but little is known about how the diverse understory flora has fared. Understory vegetation has declined in diversity in response to elevated N in the eastern U.S. and Europe. Six sites along an ozone and N deposition gradient that had been part of a long-term study on response of plants to air pollution beginning in 1973 were resampled in 2003. Historic ozone data and leaf injury scores confirmed the gradient. Present-day ozone levels were almost half of these, and recent atmospheric N pollution concentrations confirmed the continued air pollution gradient. Both total and extractable soil N were higher in sites on the western end of the gradient closer to the urban source of pollution, pH was lower, and soil carbon (C) and litter were higher. The gradient also had decreasing precipitation and increasing elevation from west to east. However, the dominant tree species were the same across the gradient.Tree basal area increased during the 30-year interval in five of the sites. The two westernmost sites had 30–45% cover divided equally between native and exotic understory herbaceous species, while the other sites had only 3–13% cover dominated by native species. The high production is likely related to higher precipitation at the western sites as well as elevated N. The species richness was in the range of 24 to 30 in four of the sites, but one site of intermediate N deposition had 42 species, while the easternmost, least polluted site had 57 species. These were primarily native species, as no site had more than one to three exotic species. In three of six sites, 20–40% of species were lost between 1973 and 2003, including the two westernmost sites. Two sites with intermediate pollution had little change in total species number over 30 years, and the easternmost site had more species in 2003. The easternmost site is also the driest and has the most sunlight filtering to the forest floor, possibly accounting for the higher species richness. The confounding effects of the precipitation gradient and possibly local disturbances do not show a simple correlation of air pollution with patterns of native and invasive species cover and richness. Nevertheless, the decline of native species and dominance by exotic species in the two westernmost polluted sites is cause for concern that air pollution is affecting the understory vegetation adversely.
Identification of a potential hydrophobic peptide binding site in the C‐terminal arm of trigger factor
Authors: Shi Yi , Fan Dong‐Jie , Li Shu‐Xin , Zhang Hong‐Jie , Perrett Sarah , Zhou Jun‐Mei 
Published: May 2007

AbstractTrigger factor (TF) is the first chaperone to interact with nascent chains and facilitate their folding in bacteria. Escherichia coli TF is 432 residues in length and contains three domains with distinct structural and functional properties. The N‐terminal domain of TF is important for ribosome binding, and the M‐domain carries the PPIase activity. However, the function of the C‐terminal domain remains unclear, and the residues or regions directly involved in substrate binding have not yet been identified. Here, a hydrophobic probe, bis‐ANS, was used to characterize potential substrate‐binding regions. Results showed that bis‐ANS binds TF with a 1:1 stoichiometry and a Kd of 16 μM, and it can be covalently incorporated into TF by UV‐light irradiation. A single bis‐ANS–labeled peptide was obtained by tryptic digestion and identified by MALDI‐TOF mass spectrometry as Asn391‐Lys392. In silico docking analysis identified a single potential binding site for bis‐ANS on the TF molecule, which is adjacent to this dipeptide and lies in the pocket formed by the C‐terminal arms. The bis‐ANS‐labeled TF completely lost the ability to assist GAPDH or lysozyme refolding and showed increased protection toward cleavage by α‐chymotrypsin, suggesting blocking of hydrophobic residues. The C‐terminal truncation mutant TF389 also showed no chaperone activity and could not bind bis‐ANS. These results suggest that bis‐ANS binding may mimic binding of a substrate peptide and that the C‐terminal region of TF plays an important role in hydrophobic binding and chaperone function.