bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Silicon Carbide
Authors: Wright Nicholas G. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractSilicon carbide (SiC) is a crystalline material having a color that varies from nearly clear through pale yellow or green to black, depending on the amount of impurities. It occurs naturally only as the mineral moissanite in the meteorite iron of Canon Diablo, Arizona. The commercial product, which is made in an electric furnace, is usually obtained as an aggregate of iridescent crystals. The iridescence is caused by a thin layer of silica produced by superficial oxidation of the carbide. The loose black or green grain of commerce is prepared from the manufactured product by crushing and grading for size. Traditionally, the metallurgical, abrasive, and refractory industries are the largest users of silicon carbide. SiC is also used for heating elements in electric furnaces, electronic devices, and applications where its resistance to nuclear radiation damage is advantageous. The development of advanced pressureless sintering and complex shape‐forming technologies has led to silicon carbide becoming one of the most important structural ceramics. Silicon carbide has found wide acceptance in wear‐, erosion‐, and corrosion‐resistant applications; it has demonstrated excellent performance as a heat‐exchanger material; it is also being evaluated for prototype high temperature gas turbine engine component applications. The measurements made on commercial, polycrystalline products should not be interpreted as being representative of single‐crystal silicon carbide. The pressureless‐sintered silicon carbides, being essentially single‐phase, fine‐grained, and polycrystalline, have properties distinct from both single crystals and direct‐bonded silicon carbide refractories. Silicon carbide may crystallize in the cubic, hexagonal, or rhombohedral structure. Silicon carbide is a leading candidate material for rotating and static components in many gas turbine engine applications. As is the case for other ceramics, silicon carbide is brittle in nature. The strength of a silicon carbide component is determined by preexisting flaws introduced into the material during processing. Sintered silicon carbide retains its strength at elevated temperatures. Silicon carbide is a semiconductor: It has a conductivity between that of metals and insulators or dielectrics. Silicon carbide is comparatively stable. The only violent reaction occurs when SiC is heated with a mixture of potassium dichromate and lead chromate. There are several routes to preparing SiC powders. Methods that have been examined include growth by sublimation from the vapor phase, carbothermic reduction, and crystallization from a melt. The high modulus, high intrinsic strength, and temperature stability make SiC, in the form of whiskers, platelets, and fibers, a promising candidate reinforcement material for metal, polymer, and ceramic matrix composites. Silicon carbide has been described as a mild inhalation irritant. The threshold limit value for silicon carbide in the atmosphere is 5 mg/m3.
Steam
Authors: Bellows James 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Steam is the most important industrially used vapor and, after water, the most common and important fluid used in chemical technology. It can be generated by evaporation of water at subcritical pressures, by heating water above the critical pressure, and by sublimation of ice. Steam is used in electric power generation; for driving mechanical devices; for distribution of heat; as a reaction medium; as a solvent; as a cleaning, blanketing, or smothering agent; and as a distillation aid. Steam not only has high latent heat, moderate density, and nonpolluting properties, but also provides easy control of temperature in processes and heating application. Steam is generated from water by boiling, flash evaporation, and throttling from high to low pressure. The phase change occurs along the saturation line with the specific volume of steam larger than that of the boiling water. Thermal energy (heat of evaporation) is absorbed during the process. At the critical and supercritical pressures, the water–steam distinction disappears. The thermodynamic and physical properties of pure steam are well established over the range of pressures and temperatures used. Corrosion of containment materials and purity of water are important to steam production.
Styrene
Authors: Chen Shiou‐Shan ,   Updated by Staff
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Chen, Shiou‐Shan (Raytheon Engineers & Constructors). Styrene, the simplest and most important member of a series of aromatic monomers, is produced in large quantities for polymerization. Its versatility has resulted in the manufacture of plastics, including polystyrene, ABS, SAN, styrene–butadiene latex, SBR, and unsaturated polyester resins. Polystyrene accounts for 65% of total styrene demand. Rapid growth in styrene production has been seen worldwide since 1970, including, since the 1980s, in the Pacific Rim. The fastest growing demand in 2006 is in South America, Eastern Europe, and the Middle East. Many factors contribute to its growth. Chief among these are that it can be polymerized and copolymerized under a variety of conditions by common methods and that the raw materials, benzene and ethylene, are produced in large quantities in refineries and can be supplied through pipelines. The two process routes used commercially for manufacture of styrene, dehydrogenation, and coproduction with propylene oxide, are covered. Both routes use ethylbenzene as the intermediate.

The commodity nature of the product and easy access to licensed processes have enabled new producers in developing countries to enter the global styrene market. Timing is important as price fluctuates broadly and rapidly. A large number of styrene derivatives have been reported, and several have been used for manufacturing small‐volume specialty polymers, including vinyltoluene,
para
‐methylstyrene, α‐methylstyrene, and divinylbenzene.
Styrene Plastics
Authors: Priddy Duane B. ,   Updated by Staff
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis article examines both styrene plastics, including such commodity styrenic resins as general‐purpose polystyrene, high impact polystyrene, styrene–acrylonitrile, and acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene, and specialty resins such as ionomers, styrene derivatives, and tactic polystyrenes. Topics discussed include styrenic plastic properties such as stress–strain, creep, stress relaxation, fatigue, impact strength, surface appearance, and melt properties, as well as rubber modification and glass filling of styrene plastics. Styrene plastics manufacturing processes and the chemistry of styrene polymerization are both described, the former with an emphasis on the most widely used continuous free‐radical reaction designs, the latter mainly on the industrially important free‐radical mechanism; other mechanisms by which styrene can be polymerized, ie, anionic, cationic, and Ziegler‐Natta, are also mentioned. The description of free‐radical polymerization of styrene covers spontaneous initiation, chemical initiators, chain‐transfer agents, and living free‐radical polymerization. Copolymerization of styrene with other monomers is also discussed. Other topics covered include fabrication processes, ie, injection molding, extrusion, thermoforming, and blow molding; additives; economic aspects; characterization techniques; health and safety issues; foamed polystyrene; and environmental issues, including recycling.
Thorium and Thorium Compounds
Authors: Clark David L. , Neu Mary P. , Runde Wolfgang , Keogh D. Webster 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAn overview is provided on thorium and thorium compounds with an emphasis on their relevance to chemical technology. The main interest in thorium is as a nuclear fuel, but thorium and its compounds have many specialty uses including lantern mantles and catalysts. Discussion on the occurrence, recovery, preparation, properties and radiochemistry of thorium is provided. While not intending to be exhaustive, a broad based review is provided on the coordination and organometallic complexes of thorium with halogens; N, P, and O donors; cyclopentadienyl; annulene; hydrocarbyl; and allyl ligands. A drawback to using thorium in many processes is the chemical reactivity of the metal as well as the inherent radioactivity of all thorium isotopes. As such, health and safety factors essential for working with thorium are discussed. General references from which more detailed information of the aforementioned subjects is provided.
Transportation
Authors: Moreno Jeffrey O. , Prange Laurence W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A wide range of issues and matters relevant to the transport of chemicals is addressed. In particular, the various modes of transport, including railroad, motor carrier, water carrier, pipelines, and air transport, and the role played by each in the transport of chemicals is discussed. In addition, the significance of regularly used shipping terms and documents are explained. The different laws applicable to interstate and intrastate transportation, and how to identify under which jurisdiction a particular shipment will be regulated, also are addressed. Changes in the economic regulation of the various modes of transport are explained and the significance of those changes to chemicals shippers is explored. Economic regulation includes important distinctions between contract, common, and private carriage, and the allocation of responsibility between shippers and carriers for freight loss and damage. Finally, safety and hazardous materials transport regulations, a critical concern for chemical shippers and carriers alike, are discussed.
Microfluidics
Authors: Lii Jerry , Hsu Wern‐Jir , Lee Stephanie P. , Sia Samuel K. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMicrofluidics is a technology that features the movement of small volumes of fluids through microscale channels. It provides a powerful and precise research platform for studying basic phenomena of fluid flow at the microscale, and a powerful analytical platform for conducting experimental assays. This article discusses the basic features and applications of microfluidics.
Dimensional stability of wood–polymer composites
Authors: Zhang Yaolin , Zhang S. Y. , Yang Dian Qing , Wan Hui 
Published: September 2006

AbstractWood–polymer composites (WPC) were prepared by impregnation of polymeric monomers in wood and in situ polymerization. Three polymeric chemicals were chosen for this study: methyl methacrylate (MMA), hydroxyethylene methacrylate (HEMA), and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA). The effects of polymeric monomers and their combinations on moisture adsorption (M), anti–moisture adsorption efficiency (AME), liquid water uptake (D), water repellency efficiency (WRE), longitudinal, radial, tangential, and volumetric swelling properties (S) after soaking, and antiswelling efficiency (ASE) were investigated. It was found that M was different for different methacrylate combinations and depended not only on the composition of the impregnants, but also on wood properties. Liquid water uptake was similar regardless of the formulation of the WPC. Wood–polymer composites with high MMA content displayed enhanced dimensional stabilities, but WPCs with high HEMA content did not. Tangential and volumetric ASEs were strongly dependent on the type of treatment. Mold growth tests showed that wood treated with HEMA alone had no surface mold growth, and wood treated with MMA alone also showed less mold growth than did the control samples. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl PolymSci 102: 5085–5094, 2006
Polyaniline/poly(ethylene terephthalate) conducting composite fabric with improved fastness to washing
Authors: Huang Huihua , Liu Weijin 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIn this article, we report a novel method for the design and development of a polyaniline (PANI)/poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) conducting composite fabric based on in situ polymerization. With the aim of improving fabric–PANI adhesion and good fastness to washing, we took some special steps: the alkali reduction pretreatment of the PET fabric before the polymerization of aniline onto the fabric, the introduction of squeezing the laboratory padder on the fabric to push the reagent into the inner part of the fabric, and short immersion time of the aniline‐absorbed fabric in oxidant solution. Factors affecting the conductivity and fastness to washing, including the alkali reduction percentage, the wet pickup of the reagent‐absorbed fabric, the immersion time in oxidant solution, and the reaction time, are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 5775–5780, 2006
Crystallization behavior of nylon 11/montmorillonite nanocomposites under annealing
Authors: Zhang Xikui , Yang Guisheng , Lin Jiaping 
Published: September 2006

AbstractExfoliated nylon 11/montmorillonite (MMT) nanocomposites were prepared via in situ polymerization by the dispersion of organically modified MMT in 11‐aminoundecanoic acid monomer. The polymorphic behavior of the nylon 11/MMT nanocomposites was investigated with X‐ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared with attenuated total reflectance. MMT induced and stabilized the δ‐crystalline form of nylon 11. The crystal structure of nylon 11 was transformed from a hexagonal δ‐form structure to a triclinic α‐form structure during the annealing process. Meanwhile, the hydrogen bonds in the nanocomposites also exhibited some differences from neat nylon 11 after annealing. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 5483–5489, 2006
Synthesis and characterization of novel biodegradable poly(p‐dioxanone‐co‐ethyl ethylene phosphate)s
Authors: Li Feng , Feng Jun , Zhuo Renxi 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPoly(p‐dioxanone‐co‐ethyl ethylene phosphate)s were successfully synthesized by the ring‐opening copolymerization of p‐dioxanone and ethyl ethylene phosphate with triisobutyl aluminum as an initiator; this was confirmed by 1H‐NMR and infrared spectra. The effects of the reaction conditions, such as the feeding ratio of the monomers and the reaction temperature and time, on the molecular weight of the copolymers were also studied. The in vitro degradation results showed that the introduction of phosphate segments into the backbone chains of the copolymers led to an enhancement of the degradation rate of the copolymers. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 5507–5511, 2006
Effect of the delignification of wood fibers on the mechanical properties of wood fiber–polypropylene composites
Authors: Karimi Alinaghi , Nazari Saleh , Ghasemi Ismaeil , Tajvidi Mehdi , Ebrahimi Ghanbar 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe effect of the delignification of hornbeam fibers on the mechanical properties of wood fiber–polypropylene (PP) composites was studied. Original fibers and delignified fibers at three levels of delignification were mixed with PP at a weight ratio of 40:60 in an internal mixer. Maleic anhydride (0.5 wt %) as the coupling agent and dicumyl peroxide (0.1 wt %) as the initiator were applied. The produced composites were then hot‐pressed, and specimens for physical and mechanical testing were prepared. The results of the properties of the composite materials indicate that delignified fibers showed better performance in the enhancement of tensile strength and tensile modulus, whereas the hardness of the composites was unaffected by delignification. Delignified fibers also exhibited better water absorption resistance. Notched impact strength was higher for delignified fiber composites, but it was reduced at higher delignification levels. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 4759–4763, 2006
Preparation of an anion‐exchange adsorbent by the radiation‐induced grafting of vinylbenzyltrimethylammonium chloride onto cotton cellulose and its application for protein adsorption
Authors: Kumar Virendra , Bhardwaj Y. K. , Jamdar S. N. , Goel N. K. , Sabharwal S. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPoly(vinylbenzyltrimethylammonium chloride)‐graft‐cotton cellulose, an anion‐exchange matrix, was synthesized by a mutual radiation‐induced grafting technique with a 60Co γ‐radiation source. The grafted matrix was characterized by grafting yield estimation, elemental analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. The grafting yield decreased with the increase in the dose rate. However, the grafting yield and nitrogen content of grafted samples increased almost linearly with an increase in the total irradiation dose. To evaluate the performance of the grafted anion‐exchange matrix, the protein adsorption and elution behavior were investigated in a continuous column process under various experimental conditions, with bovine serum albumin used as a model protein. The binding and elution behavior of the anion‐exchange matrix depended on different experimental parameters, such as the grafting yield, ionic strength, pH of the medium, and amount of protein loaded. From a breakthrough curve, the equilibrium binding capacity and elution percentage of the grafted anion‐exchange matrix were estimated to be 40 mg/g and 94%, respectively. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 5512–5521, 2006
Effect of spin finish on fiber/binder adhesion in chemically bonded nonwovens
Authors: Fourdrin Sylvie , Rochery Maryline , Gengembre Léon , Rumeau Pascal , Lewandowski Maryline , Ferreira Manuela , Bourbigot Serge 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe purpose of this study is to better understand the mechanisms governing the phenomena of fiber/matrix adhesion by controlling the fiber surface properties. This adhesion is evaluated by studying the micromechanical and thermodynamical behavior of the fiber/matrix interface. The complexity of the interactions at the interface requires a global approach that takes into account the chemistry, morphology, and mechanics. The thermodynamical affinity between the binder and fibers is evaluated by the wetting behavior, whereas the mechanical resistance of the fiber/matrix interface is characterized with the pull‐out test. Three distinct approaches are used to classify the different systems according to the nature of the binder and the fiber surface. It is found that there is better adhesion when the spin finish is removed from the fibers, revealing the surface roughness on which the latex can mechanically anchor. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 4092–4100, 2006
Side‐chain liquid‐crystalline polymers with a limonene‐co‐methyl methacrylate main chain: Synthesis and characterization of polymers with phenyl benzoate mesogenic groups
Authors: Mishra Garima , Srivastava A. K. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractA new series of liquid‐crystalline polymers with a polymer backbone of limonene‐co‐methyl methacrylate were synthesized and characterized, and the spacer length was taken to be nine methylene units. The chemical structures of the obtained olefinic compound and polymers were confirmed with elemental analysis and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The thermal behavior and liquid crystallinity of the polymers were characterized with differential scanning calorimetry and polarized optical microscopy. The polymers exhibited thermotropic liquid‐crystalline behavior and displayed a glass‐transition temperature at 48°C. The appearance of the characteristic schlieren texture confirmed the presence of a nematic phase, which was observed under polarized optical microscopy. These liquid‐crystalline polymers exhibited optical activity. A comparison was also made with polyacrylates and polymethacrylate‐based materials. This revealed that the nature of the polymer backbone had a major effect on the liquid‐crystalline properties. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 4595–4600, 2006
Thermal and physical properties of allyl PPO and its composite
Authors: Wang Lihua , Xu Qingyu , Chen Donghua , Yuan Yuhong , Tang Wanjun , Wang Laoli 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe thermal behavior of allyl PPO and its cured resin were investigated. In the allyl PPO curing process, the specific temperatures were Tgel = 173.6°C, Tcure = 225.4°C, and Ttreat = 237.7°C, and the activation energy (Ea) was 122 kJ/mol. The average number of PPO molecular units between two crosslinking points was about 20. In the degradation process of cured allyl PPO resin, the temperature at which mass loss equaled 1% was much higher than 300°C. The Ea for degradation was calculated as 125 kJ/mol, with a degradation fraction (α) in the range of 0.15–0.65, or 117 kJ/mol with an α of 0.10–0.90. The most probable mechanism function of decomposition of the cured allyl PPO resin was f(α) = 2(1 − α)3/2 or g(α) = (1 − α)−1/2 − 1. The thermocompressed laminate of the allyl PPO blending with an additive resin (made from BDM and DP) exhibited the desired properties. ©2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 4111–4115, 2006
Effect of composition on aqueous polyurethane dispersions derived from polycarbonatediols
Authors: Lee Da‐Kong , Tsai Hong‐Bing , Tsai Ruey‐Shi 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAqueous polyurethane dispersions derived from isophorone diisocyanate, various polycarbonatediols of different molecular weights, and dimethylol butyric acid were prepared by a dispersing procedure modified to enhance molecular weight. Particle size, average molecular weight, and tensile properties were determined. The molar ratio of reactants affected the properties of the polyurethane dispersions significantly, with the trends described as the effects of their ionic group and polycarbonatediol soft‐segment contents. The molecular weight of the polycarbonatediols also significantly affected the particle size of the aqueous polyurethane dispersions and the film properties. As the molecular weight of the polycarbonatediols decreased, the particle size of the aqueous polyurethane dispersions decreased, and the moduli of the cast films increased, as expected. However, the tensile strength of the cast films decreased as the molecular weight of the polycarbonatediols decreased because of the decrease in elongation at break. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 4419–4424, 2006
Synthesis of macroreticular copolymer beads having various phenolic derivatives immobilized via different bond and their radical scavenging activity
Authors: Maeda Shuuji , Nonaka Takamasa , Ogata Tomonari , Kurihara Seiji 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe macroreticular copolymer beads (RCS‐4G) were prepared by suspension copolymerization of chloromethylstyrene (CS) and tetraethyleneglycol dimethacrylate (4G) in water, using cyclohexane as a diluent. Then, the copolymer beads carrying phenolic derivatives immobilized via amide, methylene, or ether bond were prepared by subsequent reactions of RCS‐4G with various phenolic derivatives. The radical scavenging activity against 2,2‐Diphenypicrylhydrazil (DPPH) of the copolymer beads carrying phenolic derivatives immobilized was investigated in toluene. It was found that the copolymer beads had high radical scavenging activity against DPPH. The order of the radical scavenging activity against DPPH of the copolymer beads carrying phenolic derivatives immobilized did not coincide with the order of inhibition activity against the generation of 1,4‐dioxane hydroperoxide. The radical scavenging activity against DPPH of the copolymer beads having phenolic derivatives immobilized via methylene bond or ether bond was higher than that of the copolymer beads having phenolic derivatives immobilized via amide bond. It was found that the radical scavenging activity of the copolymer beads having phenolic derivatives was affected by not only the kind of phenolic derivatives immobilized and bond groups through which phenolic compounds were immobilized, but also the swelling ratio of the copolymer beads in toluene. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 4791–4800, 2006