bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Characterizing Costs and Benefits of Uncertain Future Regulatory Requirements on the U.S. Natural Gas Industry
Authors: Godec M. L. , Smith G. E. , Fitzgibbon Timothy , Linz David , Pauling Gene 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Environmental regulatory requirements at both the state and federal level are constantly changing, making it difficult for industry and R&D program managers to project future compliance requirements and costs. Even if a company is trying to keep abreast of various proposed regulatory initiatives, the number of possible combinations of initiatives that could occur in the future seems virtually limitless. Uncertainty associated with potential future environmental compliance requirements makes the identification and evaluation of future investment and R&D opportunities exceedingly difficult, and makes the process of systematic strategic planning increasingly complex.
This paper describes a methodology for accounting for uncertain future environmental compliance costs in a systematic, comprehensive manner. Through analysis of proposed initiatives for making future environmental requirements more stringent, forecasting the likelihood of occurrence and potential timing of each initiative, and estimating potential future compliance costs associated with each initiative, a thorough process for incorporating regulatory uncertainty into strategic planning and project evaluation is described. This approach can be used for evaluating R&D opportunities to determine where development of new technologies or assessment of risks posed by industry operations may have the greatest impact on future industry costs of compliance. This approach could also be used to account for the uncertainty of future environmental costs in corporate strategic planning or for factoring future compliance costs into project evaluation. This approach could also be enhanced through use in conjunction with other modeling and forecasting systems that could consider a broad range of impacts, including impacts on gas production, industry activity levels, and tax revenues.
Environmental Compliance Management System
Authors: Cason A. , Larrinaga L. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
A cross-functional team of environmental regulatory experts, plant managers, and plant engineers have been working since 1991 on the development, implementation and maintenance of the Environmental Compliance Management System. The Environmental Compliance Management System is a practical and accurate method of determining the applicability of the state and federal environmental regulations and of establishing standard and straightforward procedures to meet these requirements. The Environmental Compliance Management System allows individual manufacturing facilities to avoid the additional manpower that would be required to read, digest and decide on the applicability and plan of action to meet the requirements of all the environmental regulations.
Environmental Issues and Solutions for Exploratory Drilling in Sensitive Areas
Authors: Smith Robin M. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
A multi-disciplinary team approach was successfully employed to design and implement innovative environmental solutions to drill the 8000 foot deep Hunter Creek exploratory well, less than 20 miles from Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming. Acquiring permission from the FS, the BLM, and ultimately, the public to drill the Hunter Creek well involved substantial teamwork in identifying and resolving many potential, environmental pitfalls. Creative, workable and cost-effective mitigation measures employed at Hunter Creek included: utilizing a helicopter and limiting vehicle use of an existing road, conducting environmental and safety training, careful project planning, an erosion control and reclamation plan, designing an environmentally friendly, near-zero-discharge drilling location, initiating a water quality monitoring program, designing a waste minimization plan, identifying threatened and endangered and special status species possibly affected by project activities, and ensuring compliance with all mitigation measures and Federal and State regulations.
EPA'S Natural Gas Star Program
Authors: Resch Rhone A. 
Published: December 2007

Rhone A. Resch

Abstract
The Natural Gas STAR Program is a voluntary partnership between industry and government, designed to reduce emissions of methane. The program uses market forces to save industry money while achieving the objectives of the Climate Change Action Plan.
This paper describes the development of the Natural Gas STAR Program, including sources of emissions, cost-effective solutions, and program benefits. Specifically, in the production sector the replacement of high-bleed pneumatics with low or no-bleed devices, and adding flash tank separators to dehydrators are two cost-effective methods that reduce emissions. Although the paper focuses on the production sector of the industry it is important to note that a program for transmission and distribution is already in place. Participation in the Natural Gas STAR Programs can provide each company with valuable information on updating systems and saving money

Introduction
In 1992, in response to global concern on greenhouse gases emissions, the U.S. developed the first Climate Change Action Plan. A section of the plan is dedicated to the reduction of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, and required EPA to create the Natural Gas STAR Program. The Natural Gas STAR Program is a cooperative, voluntary program between the Natural Gas Industry and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to implement pollution prevention techniques in a cost effective manner. The initial program focused on transmission and distribution companies, and in the first full year of the program (1993) methane emissions were reduced by l,340,000 Mcf. This year, EPA has expanded the program to include the production sector of the industry.
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Oil & Gas E & P Field Personnel Pollution Prevention Training Project
Authors: Megna A. T. , Kinias C. J. , Souders Steve 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The National Environmental Training Association (NETA) with a grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a comprehensive pollution prevention training program for oil and gas exploration and production field personnel. The program, developed by an interdisciplinary committee of industry, industry association, regulatory agencies, and environmental groups, provides the knowledge, tools, and instructional techniques to transfer a pollution prevention mind-set and cost-effective methodologies to field personnel.
Reuse of Spent Natural Gas Liquid Sweetening Solutions
Authors: Hahn Warren J. , McKim Mark N. , Smith Lynn S. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Partially spent caustic solutions from natural gas liquids (NGL) sweetening processes can be used as reagent for sulfur dioxide (SO2) scrubbing facilities, reducing the costs for purchasing scrubber reagent and eliminating the costs and liabilities associated with waste disposal.
This paper discusses: 1) the characteristics of typical spent NGL sweetening solutions, 2) State and Federal regulations governing the disposal of these solutions as wastes, 3) the operational variables affecting reuse of these solutions in SO2 scrubbers, 4) field and laboratory analytical data from a pilot project conducted to evaluate the reuse of a partially spent NGL sweetening solution as SO2 scrubber reagent, and 5) economic data from the pilot project.
For the pilot project, a partially spent caustic NGL sweetening solution was used in place of soda ash solution as reagent in a SO2 scrubber serving two steam generators burning sour gas. Emissions testing of the scrubber demonstrated that the solution provided effective removal of oxides of sulfur (SOx) in both gaseous and particulate phases to meet permitted limits. Data from the pilot project is used in the paper to: 1) quantify SO2 scrubber performance with partially spent caustic solutions in terms of SOx removal efficiency, 2) identify the necessary modifications in scrubber operation (reagent feed rate, scrubber liquor pH and specific gravity, blowdown rate) to achieve acceptable performance using partially spent caustic solutions, and 3) describe the effect that the use of partially spent caustic solutions has on physical and chemical properties of scrubber liquor.
Biocide and Corrosion Inhibition Use in the Oil and Gas Industry: Effectiveness and Potential Environmental Impacts
Authors: Brandon D. M. , Fillo J. P. , Morris A. E. , Evans J. M. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Treatment chemicals are used in all facets of the natural gas industry (NGI) from well development through transmission and storage of natural gas. The multitude of chemicals used, combined with the dozens of chemical manufacturers and/or suppliers has lead to the availability of hundreds of possible chemical products. Because of the widespread use of chemical products and their numerous sources, the NGI needs access to consistent data regarding their effectiveness and potential environmental impacts.
The objective of this work was to evaluate the effectiveness and potential environmental impacts of chemical products used in the NGI. This assessment was initially focused on biocides and corrosion inhibitors and their use in the gas production, storage and transmission facilities, The overall approach was to obtain the necessary data on chemical use and effectiveness directly from the oil and gas industry, supplemented with data/information obtained from the published literature. Five case histories of chemical use were documented and evaluated to assess the effectiveness of these chemicals. Potential environmental impacts were addressed by performing a screening environmental assessment on the use of glutaraldehyde, a widely used biocide. Prototype discharge scenarios were formulated and modeled to evaluate potential impacts to groundwater and surface water.
The paper describes the basis for the study, provides an overview of chemical use with a focus on biocides and corrosion inhibitors, describes and assesses the specific uses of chemicals, and presents the results of the environmental assessment. It was found that various chemicals can be effective in treating microbiologically influenced corrosion and souring, but that the effectiveness of specific chemicals is dependent on the operational scenario and the site-specific conditions. Results of the screening environmental assessment indicated that surface and groundwater impacts were not significant for the scenarios evaluated.
Environmental Impact of a Flocculant Used to Enhance Solids Transport During Well Bore Clean-Up Operations
Authors: Yunus M. Nassir Moho , Procyk Alexander D. , Malbrel Christophe A. , Ling Kenny L. C. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
This paper investigates particle flocculation as a mechanism to remove residual contaminants in well bores during completion operations. Laboratory tests and field trials were conducted demonstrating the ability of flocculating polymer sweeps to improve well bore cleaning efficiency. This process reduces the volume of fluid accumulated in the well bore that is discharged to the environment and minimizes the risk of formation damage by residuals left in the well bore. In addition, a comprehensive environmental impact study was performed on the flocculating polymers which included 72 hrs-EC50, 48 hrs-LC50, 10 day- LC50 tests on a variety of marine organisms, and bioaccumulation and biodegradability tests. In all cases, the flocculating polymers were shown to be environmentally safe at the recommended concentrations.
Synthetic Drilling Muds: Environmental Gain Deserves Regulatory Confirmation
Authors: Burke C. J. , Veil J. A. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Efficient drilling technology is essential to meet the needs of the oil industry. Both the challenges of new oil provinces, especially in offshore waters, and the demands for efficient environmental protection have driven the development of new technology. Drilling mud is a key factor influencing drilling technology used in modern drilling operations. New oil industry developments involve directional and horizontal drilling as well as drilling in frontier areas at greater and greater depths. Such capabilities and conditions demand careful attention to the selection and engineering of efficient mud systems.
Spent drilling fluids and drill cuttings are among the most significant waste streams from exploration and development activities in the oil and gas industry; they pose a serious and costly disposal problem for offshore operators who must barge spent mud and cuttings to shore for land disposal if they do not meet U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) discharge limitations or permit requirements. Suppliers of mud systems have responded to this problem. Since 1990, several non-toxic, biodegradable synthetic-based muds (SBMs) with desirable performance and environmental characteristics have entered the market.
However, EPA regulations apply mud technology that was available when the regulations were developed, namely water- and oil-based muds (WBMs and OBMs). While EPA requirements appear to have been a major driver behind the development of SBM, now concern is focused on the inhibiting effect of discharge limitations on use of alternative mud technologies.
This paper examines and describes SBM systems recently developed as substitutes for conventional drilling muds. Initially, background information on drilling mud is presented to provide an overview. The paper identifies the advantages and disadvantages of alternative drilling muds and assesses their comparative environmental impact and cost/benefit. The paper also characterizes the regulatory factors which affect the introduction and widespread use of innovative alternative mud technology. Finally, the paper asssesses the approach of EPA in administering effluent limitations guidelines (ELGs) and its impact on innovative technology development. It recommends areas of further study and suggests regulatory process improvements to enacourage the development and use of alternative mud technologies.
Field and Laboratory Tests on Nitrate Treatment for Potential Use in Natural Gas Operations
Authors: Morris E. A. , Derr R. M. , Kenney T. M. , Pope D. H. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
A variety of treatment products containing forms of nitrate have become available for use in optimizing microbial activities in a manner that results in improved system performance. While many of the traditional approaches to microbiological control have involved the use of biocides to achieve overall reduction in bacteria levels, the nitrate approach involves promoting growth of "beneficial" organisms which can negate the effects of, or out-compete the offending organisms. Suppliers of products, as well as systems operators in the natural gas industry, have reported the approach successful in a wide variety of applications including mitigation of downhole and above-ground produced water sulfide-souring, enhanced recovery of hydrocarbons in production reservoirs, and expediting cleanup of wastewater. In a study sponsored by the Gas Research Institute (GRI), Chicago Illinois, nitrate-based treatment strategies were assessed in field tests for efficacy in wastewater cleanup and mitigation of sulfide-souring in a produced water containment facility. In addition, laboratory tests were done to assess nitrate treatment for its potential for mitigation of downhole sulfide-souring using a test loop containing formation core material which was colonized by microbes producing sour water. Details on the test results, discussion of potential advantages/disadvantages of nitrate treatment, and criteria for determining if nitrate treatment is appropriate are provided herein.
Use of Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Instrument for Air Toxic Compound Screening and Quantitation in the Natural Gas Industry
Authors: Evans Jim , McCarthy Jim , Ogle Larry , Shareef Gunseli Sagun , Campbell Lisa , Ferry Kathy , LaCosse Jeff 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
In response to the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, the Gas Research Institute is investigating emissions of air toxics from natural gas industry sources. As part of this effort, air toxic emissions data has been collected for various gas industry sources using a combination of measurement methods, including extractive Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR). The FTIR protocol used during the program was initially developed along with quality control/quality assurance (QA/QC) procedures to meet the needs of the air toxics measurement program. Since there are no validated measurement methods currently available for quantifying aldehyde emissions from engines, GRI initiated a field test to validate the extractive FTIR method for measurement of these species using U.S. EPA Method 301 "Field Validation of Pollutant Measurement Methods for Various Media".
FTIR and other measurement methods were used in the field to collect air toxics data from sources located at a sour gas plant, as well as internal combustion (IC) engines at compressor stations. At the sour gas plant, emissions were monitored for IC engines, gas turbines, heaters, boilers, and tanks, as well as other sources. This paper presents a summary of the extractive FTIR measurement method, the development of the measurement protocol and reference spectra, and how the method was used in the field for data collection. Also included is a summary of the results using FTIR during the first four measurement campaigns, and a discussion of the FTIR validation effort using EPA Method 301 procedures.
Natural Gas Production: Performance of Commercial Technology for Removing Small Amounts of Hydrogen Sulfide
Authors: Leppin Dennis 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The Gas Research Institute (GRI) is sponsoring an evaluation program for hydrogen sulfide (H2S) scavenging technologies as part of an overall sulfur removal recovery research program. The evaluation of liquid-based scavenging processes in batch tower applications was the first in a series of full-scale field evaluations. This paper discusses the results of the initial field evaluation which was conducted at a natural gas production plant in South Texas treating 16 MMSCFD of natural gas with 19 ppmv H2S and 0.5 percent CO2 at 1000 psig.
Three types of commercial scavenging agents were evaluated: nitrite, nonregenerable amine, and triazine. All three types met the treatment specification of 4 ppmv H2S. Capacities ranged from about 0.60 lbs sulfur per gallon of scavenging agent for the nonregenerable amine and triazine agents to about 0.75 lbs/gallon for the nitrite agent. Foaming was encountered with all of the agents and was controlled to manageable levels with defoaming additives. Overall treatment costs including capital recovery and operating costs ranged from about 0.037/MSCF for the nitrite agent to about $0.051/MSCF for the nonregenerable amine and triazine agents, based on treating gas containing 19 ppm H2S. (Operating costs will increase nearly in proportion to H2S concentration.)
Developments in Regulation of Air Pollution from Oil and Gas Exploration and Production James D. Braddock, Kelly, Hart & Hallman, P.C.
Authors: Braddock James D. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The impacts of the 1990 amendments to the federal Clean Air Act on oil and gas exploration and production activity are now being experienced. Regulations developed by both state and federal regulatory agencies are having direct as well as indirect effects on the industry. Although the 1990 amendments granted the industry regulatory relief in several areas, regulatory agencies are developing and implementing new programs that will have significant impacts.
This paper will address the substance and impact on the oil and gas industry of federal environmental regulatory programs such as those involving hazardous air pollutants (including risk management), control of methane to prevent global warming, regulation of hydrogen sulfide, and exploration activities in the outer continental shelf. The paper will also discuss state regulation, using Texas as an example. State activity includes implementation of many of the federal programs in addition to state-initiated regulation of the industry. Among the Texas regulatory efforts that will be analyzed are odor regulation, licensing requirements, and control of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds to minimize the formation of atmospheric ozone.
This paper alerts oil and gas operators to the potential for additional clean air requirements in the future including the establishment of maximum achievable control technology ("MACT") for the control of hazardous air pollutants.
Emergency Preparedness for the Small Oilfield Contractor
Authors: Reavis H. C. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Changes in the oil and gas industry have been dramatic in recent years. Operators have consolidated field office facilities and downsized staffing at many of their remaining facilities. As a result, operators are turning to independent contractors as a method of controlling both peak personnel demands and selected production functions. With these changes in the business environment, the role of the specialized contractor has been greatly expanded. Tasks once performed by operator employees are now ongoing services provided by the contractor. Their performance can often be exemplary until a major emergency occurs. Emergency response can no longer be considered a secondary issue. Every contractor, small or large, must be equally prepared for an emergency. Their ability to address emergency incidents will have a direct effect in their success.
This paper is a presentation of the actual learning experiences of one oilfield contractor confronted with the task of emergency preparedness, more specifically a small contractor. Oilfield service contractors commonly employ field personnel who work for extended periods of time without direct supervision. These employees may singularly or collectively float between sites or anchor one site. Operating sites might be localized or spread over a vast geographical area. Because of the uniqueness of their situation, direct supervision is minimal and the employees will shoulder greater responsibilities and authority. The contractor must evaluate operating conditions and develop an approach which will achieve the optimum results.
Reclamation of Soil Affected by Oilfield Salts: Investigation, Assessment, Planning and Implementation
Authors: Evans G. B. , Barck J. A. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
From well sites to water collection systems and disposal facilities across the U.S., salt in produced waters and waste residues has affected agricultural and range soils and shallow groundwater. Increasing concerns about these effects by producers, surface owners, trustees, and regulatory agencies suggest the need for realistic approaches to assessment and management of saline materials generated by the oil and gas industry. Salt impact assessment and management approaches have received much attention by agriculturalists, especially in irrigated desert regions, and these methods and tools can be adapted to the unique needs of the oil and gas industry.
This paper demonstrates salt assessment and management principles as applied to a typical site. Rapid quantification of the environmental setting and extent of impacts, using tools such as electromagnetic inductance (EM), accurately and inexpensively provides the basis for management decisions. Reclamation goals are then determined, accounting for the resource capability classification of soils and groundwater and the effects of local agricultural practices. Site specific reclamation alternatives are evaluated, supported by simple laboratory treatability screening of standard and innovative soil amendments. These efforts and associated cost analysis provide a basis for the development of an appropriate reclamation plan. Remedy selection attempts to optimize costs by taking maximum advantage of site conditions, natural forces, and time. Reclamation then results in return of the land to agricultural production.