bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Project Famous
Authors: Heirtzler J. R. 
Published: February 2008

A National Academy of Science workshop held in January 1972 outlined a number of timely studies that could be made of the Atlantic Ocean floor. One recommended study was a detailed multidisciplinary investigation of the axis of the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge. Toward that end, plans, initially begun earlier by institutions in France and the United States, were finalized and put on a viable funding basis, and the project was called Famous (French American Midocean Undersea Study).The purpose of this project was to study and understand the geological and geophysical processes operative at the axis of the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge spreading center. Broad regional surveys were made with more detailed, smaller area surveys following. A number of specialized surface and deep‐towed instruments were employed. These included the Scripps deep tow fish, accurately navigated dredges, photographs, water temperature sensors, and heat flow instruments. Special large area bottom cameras were employed. Contour charts of about 10 km were made of the bottom by using narrow beam echo sounders. A sonar side scan image of the whole area was made with a powerful surface‐towed side scan device. Bottom seismographs and accurately tracked surface sonobuoy arrays were used to study natural seismicity and to undertake refraction experiments. The final study was made by specially trained scientific divers in manned submersibles in the summer of 1974. In the study area, which was a section of the rift valley southwest of the Azores, 47 dives were made to the inner rift valley floor.
Weather‐climate modification
Authors: Mordy Wendell A. 
Published: February 2008

Although modern efforts to modify weather date from 1946, the field of weather modification is separately described in this quadrennial report for the first time. Nevertheless, the scope of the remarks which follow is confined, insofar as possible, to developments from 1971 to 1974; for those outside meteorology, attention is drawn to several works which describe the background and early work in the field [McDonald, 1958; Mason, 1961; Battan, 1969; Droessler, 1972; Hess, 1974].During the past 4 yr, activities in this field have come to embrace studies of what has happened or is happening to the weather and climate as a result of human activities not intended to alter the weather, as well as experiments and operations designed to alter atmospheric phenomena. Furthermore, in addition to physical and technical studies of deliberate and inadvertent weather modification by meteorologists, mathematicians, physicists, chemists, and engineers, many concurrent investigations have recently been undertaken of the implications of weather modification, involving the fields of geography, ecology, economics, law, political science, and sociology. The latter endeavors are ultimately for the purpose of providing guidance in the formulation of public policy in regard to weather modification, which can have profound implications for society under modern population and technological conditions. While some sort of ‘atmospheric management’ is coming to be regarded as a necessity for the future, scientists are beginning to raise questions about the wisdom of projecting climate control as a goal. A recent article weighing the pros and cons of the idea of climate stabilization [Kellogg and Schneider, 1974] concludes that at the least, an important social goal is the development, through interdisciplinary studies, of the ability to understand and anticipate natural, inadvertent, and purposeful climate change and its social consequences.
Neutron and γ ray emissions from the Sun
Authors: Duggal S. P. 
Published: February 2008

The contributions of U.S. researchers made during the period from 1971 to 1974 concerning neutron and γ ray emission associated with solar flares are summarized in this report.The observations of neutrons from the quiet sun which are important for models of storage of protons in the solar magnetic field have not been included in this report [Heidbreder et al., 1970; Cortellessa et al., 1971; Daniel et al., 1971; Eyles et al., 1971, 1972; Simnett, 1971; Sood, 1972; Lockwood, 1973; Lockwood et al., 1973; Hovestadt, 1973; Moon et al., 1973]. Furthermore, we shall confine this summary to primary emissions only; thus the neutron and γ ray production processes in the earth's atmosphere are not discussed [Armstrong et al., 1973; Klumpar and Lockwood, 1973; Klumpar et al., 1973; Lockwood, 1973; Mendell et al., 1973; Preszler et al., 1974; Reppin et al., 1973a; Dahlbacka et al., 1973; Daniel and Stephens, 1974; Kinzer et al., 1974; Peterson et al., 1973; Seeman et al., 1973; Staib et al., 1973, 1974; Stecker, 1973; Thompson, 1974; Thompson et al., 1973].
Marine gravimetry
Authors: Cochran James R. , Talwani Manik 
Published: February 2008

The first continuous shipboard gravity measurements were made just over 20 years ago on board U.S.S. Compass Island (Worzel, 1958) and, since about 1961, gravity measurements have been routinely made by several institutions as part of marine geophysical surveys.During the 1960's much effort went into developing and refining instruments and into understanding the mechanical and environmental factors affecting them. A major factor in improving the reliability of gravity measurements was the introduction in the late 196O's of satellite navigation systems which meant that accurate positions, speeds, and courses, all necessary to compute the theoretical gravity value and the Eotvos correction, could be obtained.
Polar oceanography II: Southern Ocean
Authors: Baker D. James 
Published: February 2008

The results of experiments started in the Southern Ocean during the past four years have led to a large increase in the number of papers for this report.Long‐term measurements in both the Drake Passage and Weddell Sea have led to new insights into processes in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and polar front zone and into processes of mixing and transport of various Antarctic water masses. A number of theoretical studies on ocean models relevant to the region and studies of air‐sea interaction and southern hemisphere climate effects have appeared.
Gravimetry
Authors: Wilcox Luman E. , Scheibe Donald M. 
Published: February 2008

The details of progress in United States gravimetry during the period 1979–82, reported below, have been compiled largely from unpublished reports, personal communications to the authors and the authors' own knowledge of recent developments. A representative sampling of important literature published during the period is included.Recent developments in gravimetry in the United States are highlighted by the development and deployment of a new portable absolute gravity apparatus, a rebirth of airborne gravimetry in the form of an accurate operational helicopter gravity measuring system, the impending fabrication of a superconducting gravimeter for geodetic surveys, and the establishment of a new long‐range calibration line.
The Global Atmospheric Research Program: 1979–1982
Authors: Fein Jay S. , Stephens Pamela L. , Loughran Kristyne S. 
Published: February 2008

In this report we discuss the activities of the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) during 1979–1982. We continue a tradition established eight years ago when Perry (1975) described the scientific framework, management structure and field programs of GARP in the U.S. National Report for 1971–1974. Perry and O'Neill (1979) followed with a description of the major GARP activities for 1975–1978; they considered the GARP field programs planned for late 1978 and beyond while Greenfield and Fein (1979) discussed research highlights of the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE), the first major GARP field program which was completed in 1974.The period 1979–1982 was one of extraordinary activity. Several major field programs were completed: the Global Weather Experiment (also known as FGGE, the First GARP Global Experiment) with its regional subprograms, the Monsoon Experiment (MONEX) and the West African Monsoon Experiment (WAMEX), and the last of the GARP field programs, the Alpine Experiment (ALPEX). We describe these experiments and report some of the preliminary results; we also summarize the GATE research results for the last four years.
Subsurface subtropical gyre of the North Atlantic and Pacific oceans
Authors: Stommel Henry 
Published: February 2008

In this review we will restrict our attention to studies of the structure of subtropical gyres(i) in the North Atlantic and Pacific,(ii) between the bottom of the mixed layer and about 1500 meters depth,(iii) between 15°N and 35°N,(iv) in the open ocean eastward of the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio Current and high‐energy eddy regions.We will confine ourselves largely to work published 1978 or later by American workers.The task of making this review is much lightened by the appearance of a comprehensive review “Dynamics of Large‐Scale Ocean Circulation” by George Veronis (1981). Readers who are new to the subject, or experts who detect lacunae in the present review will do well to refer to it.
Structure of the Earth: Mantle and core
Authors: Lay Thorne 
Published: February 2008

The deep interior structure of the earth has been extensively analyzed using a wide variety of seismic phases and techniques during the last four years. Most studies have emphasized quantitative three‐dimensional mapping of the lateral velocity heterogeneity of the mantle and core. These aspherical velocity variations are believed to be direct manifestations of thermal and compositional heterogeneity associated with convective processes. A first generation of global models for the lateral velocity variations in the deep earth has been produced, providing tantalizing images of large scale structures suggestive of a non‐steady state thermal convection system.The upper 400 km of the mantle has the strongest lateral velocity variations, of up to ±10% for shear velocity. Surface‐wave analyses that do not require a priori regionalizations have demonstrated that there is a strong association between surface tectonic provinces and the uppermost mantle velocity variations. Thus, the thermal and convective state of the upper 200 km of the mantle can be reliably interpreted in the context of plate tectonics. The upper mantle models support the contention that continents have deep roots, with differences in velocity structure from oceanic and active tectonic regions extending as deep as 400 km. Very long‐wavelength lateral velocity variations of a few percent have been detected in the transition zone at depths from 400 to 670 km, as well as throughout the lower mantle. These deep‐seated variations have little correspondence to surface tectonics, and efforts to interpret their nature are just beginning. The lowermost 200 km of the mantle (D″ region) has lateral velocity fluctuations comparable to those in the upper mantle, and evidence has been presented for the presence of a sizable velocity discontinuity at the top of the D″ layer. A combined thermal and compositional boundary layer, roughly mirroring the lithosphere, is a likely explanation for this anomalous zone. The core‐mantle boundary appears to have significant (10 km) long‐wavelength topography, presumably sustained by dynamic stresses from deep mantle convection. The inner core may have strong lateral heterogeneity or axially symmetric anisotropy, suggesting a complex thermal and compositional state.Significant progress has been made in characterizing the frequency dependence of anelastic attenuation in the mantle in the short‐period body‐wave band. Models for teleseismic P‐wave attenuation operators have converged, with t* values of 0.7–1.0 s appropriate at 1 Hz, and t* values of 0.4–0.6 s appropriate at 4 Hz. Regional variations of attenuation are slowly being mapped out as well.
Properties of Lunar Surface Material From Direct Observation by Spacecraft—Summary*
Authors: Jaffe Leonard D. 
Published: February 2008

The seven unmanned spacecraft that have landed on the moon, together with the lunar orbiting spacecraft, provided considerable information on the chemical composition, mechanical properties, and small‐scale structure of the lunar surface. This abstract, prepared prior to manned landing on the moon, summarizes some of the results; a more complete account is available elsewhere [Jaffe, 1969a, c]. Space‐craft results pertaining to the lunar interior and to the surroundings of the moon are omitted from this paper, as are results based on data from electromagnetic detectors alone, which other papers at this symposium discuss and interpret.SURFACE OVERThe disturbances of the lunar surface produced by Surveyor landing gear, surface sampler devices, and rocket engines showed that both maria and high‐lands are covered with a layer of fine particles.
The magnetic work of the United States coast and geodetic survey
Authors: Bauer L. A. 
Published: February 2008

In the “Plan for the Reorganization of the Survey of the Coast, as adopted by a Board convened on the 30th of March, 1843, by direction of the President of the United States,” explicit provision is made for the making of “ all such magnetic observations as circumstances and the state of the annual appropriations may allow.” Since then Congress, by more or less generous appropriations, has distinctly recognized the importance of this feature of the work of the Survey.Under the first Superintendent, Professor F. R. Hassler, the magnetic declination (“variation”) was supplied, on the Coast Survey Charts, as determined with the aid of the ordinary nautical instrumental means then in vogue. In the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1825, Professor Hassler proposed to measure relative magnetic intensity by means of oscillations of a needle, no method for absolute measurement being then known.
Über die Errichtung stationärer und temporärer magnetischer Observatorien
Authors: Eschenhagen Von M. 
Published: February 2008

Die erdmagnetische Forschung bedarf wie bekannt für die Aufstellung ihrer subtilen Apparate besonders sorgfältig errichteter Gebäude, um einestheils vor dem Einflüsse benachbarter Eisenmassen gesichert zu sein, andererseits um die zur Erzielung präciser Messungen nöthige Constanz der Temperatur zu erreichen. Man hat derartige Anlagen häufig mit ändern Instituten, Sternwarten oder meteorologischen Observatorien verbunden, vorwiegend wohl aus äusseren praktischen Gründen.Ursprünglich war der Astronom der Beobachter fast aller Naturerscheinungen, wozu ihn die Aufmerksamkeit, die er dem gestirnten Himmel widmete, sowie die Präcision, mit der er seine Beobachtungen der Rechnung zu unterwerfen wusste, besonders anregte und befähigte. Mit dem Ausbau der wissenschaftlichen Behandlung der einzelnen Gruppen von Phänomenen löste sich ein Zweig nach dem ändern von der eigentlichen theoretischen und praktischen Astronomie ab. So trennten sich Meteorologie und Geodäsie, als sich deren Gebiete specialisirten, und die Einführung des physikalischen Experimentes führte zur Begründung des neuesten Zweiges, der Astrophysik. Ob man den Erdmagnetismus zu einem der soeben genannten Gebiete hinzuschlagen will oder ob man ihn selbst‐ständig ausbauen will, dürfte, wie bereits bemerkt, meistens nach äusseren, praktischen Gesichtspunkten entschieden werden; vom wissenschaftlichen Standpunkt aus ist sicher, dass die Besonderheit der magnetischen Beobachtungs‐ und Mess‐Methoden ihm seinen eigenen Weg weisen. Dieser Umstand dürfte genügen, für die innere Berechtigung des Erdmagnetismus als selbständige Wissenschaft ausschlaggebend zu sein, da die Beobachtungen das Fundament für seine Fortentwickelung bilden. Der Umstand, dass eine Verknüpfung der Ergebnisse mit einem der oben genannten oder anderen Forschungs‐Zweigen stattfindet, kann nicht wohl Anlass sein, ihn zu einem oder dem anderen hinzu zu rechnen, da man ihn sonst bald zur Astrophysik, wenn man seine Verwandtschaft mit den Erscheinungen auf der Sonnenoberfläche in Betracht zieht, bald zur Meteorologie, wenn man die Vorgänge in den höchsten Regionen der Atmosphäre studirt, rechnen müsste. In letzer Instanz müssen alle Wissenschaften convergiren, welche als gemeinsames Studienobject die kosmisch‐physikalische Stellung unserer Erde haben, und es können daher die vergleichenden Folgerungen von jedem dazu befähigten Gelehrten gezogen werden, wenn er auch die Einzelheiten der Beobachtungsmethoden nicht beherrscht. Zur Entwicklung jedes einzelnen Zweiges aber gehören Observatorien, in welchen die entsprechenden Methoden in ihrer Eigenart am besten gefördert werden können.
On glass windows in magnetometers
Authors: Chree Charles , Watson W. 
Published: February 2008

I have read with interest the note by Dr. Morize on pp. 29, 30, of the last number of the Journal, with your note thereon. I understand Dr. Morize to mean that when a ray of light is transmitted through both the windows of his magnet‐box there is a refraction error of 7″ 11′, but that he is uncertain whether this arises wholly from one window or partly from each. He explains, however, that refractive error from the window nearest the telescope would not matter, so far as the declination is concerned, supposing use made as usual of a distant mark.It is easy to hold the magnet box in such a position that the line of vision of the telescope, directed to the distant mark, cuts the center of either window (of course at an angle) and passes through an open side. In this way, by interposing and removing the box, each window can be tested separately, without taking the box to pieces. A second method is to fix a piece of looking‐glass on an independent support inside the magnet‐box, and view the image of the wire in a telescope reflected by this with the box away and in situ. The second method allows of normal incidence of the light ; the first if less accurate is simpler, and it easily shows whether there is a refraction error of the order of 10′. Magnetometer verniers usually show only 20′, so that quantities less than 10′, need hardly be considered.
Bemerkung zu der Mittheilung des Herrn Moureaux “sur la périodicité des perturbations de l'aiguille aimantee horizontale, à l'Observatoire du Parc St. Maur”
Authors: Von G. Lüdeling 
Published: February 2008

In der oben genannten Mittheilung findet Herr Moureaux bezüglich des täglichen Ganges der magnetischen Störungen, dass bei der Declination ein Maximum um etwa 1h a. m.; ein Minimum in den Morgenstunden von 5–8 Uhr erreicht wird. Bei den Störungen der Horizontal‐Intensität ist der tägliche Gang ein ganz anderer, hier fällt das Maximum auf die Mittagstunden, das Minimum auf ungefähr 5h a. m.Diese Resultate stehen nun mit früheren, von anderen Forschern gefundenen nicht ganz im Einklang.
The magnetic work of the Norwegian North Polar Expedition, 1893–96
Authors: Hazard D. L. 
Published: February 2008

A perusal of Nansen's “Farthest North” shows clearly that the Norwegian North Polar Expedition of 1893–96 was not simply an attempt to reach the North Pole, but a carefully planned scientific expedition, prepared to avail itself of every opportunity to extend our knowledge in every branch of science. It requires a study of the Scientific Results, however, to appreciate fully the immense amount of scientific work done by the small band of men on board the Fram.The fundamental idea of the expedition, allowing the ship to become fast in the ice and drift with it across the Polar Sea, gave to the members of the party abundant time for making the various scientific observations and investigations for which provision was made in planning the work. Moreover, astronomic and magnetic observations could be made with nearly the same accuracy on the ice as on land, provided the time occupied was not too long, and no sudden disturbance of the ice floe took place. Yet, it could not be assumed that the absolute position of the ship changed with any regularity, nor that the relative position of different parts of the ice floe was the same from day to day.
The proposed magnetic researches of the Norwegian polar stations in 1902–1903
Authors: Birkeland Kr. 
Published: February 2008

As leader of the expedition started by the Norwegian government for the study of Earth‐magnetism, Boreal Lights, and Cirrus‐clouds, I beg to state that during the time from August 1, 1902, until June 30, 1903, four Norwegian Stations will be erected, viz.: at Bossekop (Finmarken), at Dyrafjord (Iceland), at Aksel‐Island (Spitzbergen), and Matotschkin‐Schar (Novaja‐Zemlja).At these four stations the three magnetic elements will be registered photographically. To this effect registering instruments will be employed like those used by the contemporary Antarctic Expeditions. The three elements will also be determined absolutely. The term observations stipulated by the Antarctic Expedition will also be carried through at these stations.
Scientific work of the Ziegler Polar Expedition
Authors: Peters Willliam J. 
Published: February 2008

The Ziegler Polar Expedition, which left Norway, July 10, 1903, was not intended to be a scientific expedition. Only such scientific work was contemplated as would further the ends of the expedition and also such as could be done without detriment or delay.Meteorological observations were begun immediately after leaving Norway and continued without interruption to the date of the return, July 28, 1905. These observations were made and recorded according to the methods of the United States Weather Bureau.
Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory registration of effects from electric cars over twelve miles or twenty kilometers distant
Authors: Bauer L. A. 
Published: February 2008

A close inspection of the magnetograms obtained during the past year at the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Magnetic Observatory situated at Cheltenham, Maryland, employing the sensitive Eschenhagen‐Edler variometers, has disclosed the interesting fact that magnetic effects are being photographically registered daily which are to be ascribed to certain electric car lines in the vicinity of the City of Washington.The Observatory is situated about 14 miles or 22 ½ kilometers, in an air line, southeast from the United States Capitol at Washington, in a rural region, far removed from possible disturbing effects of industrial plants. The selection of the site of the Observatory was made only after a careful examination of the possible sites fulfilling the requirements of a principal or standard observatory for the purposes of the magnetic survey work of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. This particular locality offered, for various reasons, the least inducement for the penetration of electric car lines. Nor have electric car lines thus far entered this region. There is a possibility, however, that within another two years an electric car line may be constructed which will come within 3 or 5 miles (5–8 kilometers) of the Observatory.
Porto Rico Magnetic Observatory, Vieques Island
Authors: Faris R. L. 
Published: February 2008

The Porto Rico Magnetic Observatory of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, temporarily established in February, 1903, in the basement rooms of the old abandoned Spanish fort (Isabel) at Vieques, on the Island of Vieques, Porto Rico, was removed to a new site during the first part of April, 1907. The occasion for the change in the location of the observatory was that the Insular Government required the entire fort for the installation of a public hospital.After a thorough examination and lnagnetic survey of the possible locations in the vicinity, a suitable site was found about ⅝ mile west of the old observatory (Fort Isabel). The erection of the special buildings required was begun the first of February, 1907, the work was completed under the supervision of Mr. W. B. Keeling (the present observer‐in‐charge), the variation instruments were installed, and records were being obtained on the 10th of April, 1907.