Teaching & Learning Guide for: The Sociology of Religious Organizations
Authors: Scheitle Christopher P. , Dougherty Kevin D. 
Published: March 2009

Authors’ introductionContemporary religion is at its core an organizational phenomenon. Religious behaviour is channelled and religious communities are structured through congregations, denominations, religious nonprofits, seminaries, and other organizational forms. To understand religion, then, one must understand the organizational aspects of religion. This includes those aspects common to all organizations and those unique to religious organizations.Authors recommendNancy Tatom Ammerman, Congregation and Community (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997) and Nancy Tatom Ammerman, Pillars of Faith: American Congregations and Their Partners (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2005).No organization, religious or otherwise, is an island. Each is surrounded by a unique environment, and each is embedded in a network of social and organizational ties. These two works by Ammerman explore the ecologies and networks that shape the identity and behaviour of religious congregations.Ross P. Scherer, American Denominational Organization: A Sociological View (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1980).This edited volume serves as an introduction to the structure and operations of different religious organizational forms, including denominations, Catholic religious orders, theological schools, and ‘parachurch’ mission societies. It also has three chapters addressing issues of change and conflict in religious organizations.Mark Chaves, Ordaining Women: Culture and Conflict in Religious Organizations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).Why did some denominations adopt policies allowing the ordination of women earlier than others? What explains the lag between adoption of the policy and actual implementation? Chaves applies ideas in organizational studies and social movements to understand these issues.Roger Finke and Rodney Stark, The Churching of America, 1776–2005: Winners and Losers in Our Religious Economy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005).Finke and Stark explore the dynamics underlying historical patterns of denominational growth and decline in the United States. Drawing upon ideas in economics, organizational studies, and other related disciplines they argue that American religious history can be understood as marketplace in which religious groups and organizations compete for resources.N. J. Demerath III, Peter Dobkin Hall, Terry Schmitt, and Rhys H. Williams (eds.), Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organizations (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998).An interdisciplinary collection of authors examines the intersection of research on religion, organizations, and social movements. Chapters include essays and empirical studies, mostly pertaining to religious organizations. They cover prominent organizational forms (denominations, congregations, and religious non‐profits) and incorporate theories drawn from organizational sociology, social movements, economics, and the sociology of religion.Online materials1. The Association of Religion Data Archives http://www.thearda.com/ The Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) contains over 400 freely downloadable data files focusing on religion in the United States and around the world. The site also features many interactive online tools, including QuickStats on religious beliefs and behaviors, denominational profiles and statistics, and maps of religious, social and demographic information. Instructors and students will be particularly interested in the ARDA's Learning Center, which features downloadable ‘Learning Modules’ and other classroom resources.2. The Pluralism Project http://www.pluralism.org/ The Pluralism Project at Harvard University aims to ‘help Americans engage with the realities of religious diversity through research, outreach, and the active dissemination of resources’. The website contains a variety of tools for students and instructors, including online slideshows of religious communities around the United States. Check out the site's Teacher Resources page for syllabi, maps, weblinks, and many other valuable resources.3. Hartford Institute for Religion Research http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ The Hartford Institute's website is a virtual clearing house of information on religion research. It has content devoted to congregations, theology, denominations, religious leadership, and the sociology of religion as a field. Under these areas, you can find helpful summaries, bibliographies, and links. A special section on megachurches is especially popular.4. Faith Communities Today http://fact.hartsem.edu/ This is the homepage for a major collection of data on religious congregations. The Faith Communities Today (FACT) survey was first conducted in 2000 and has been repeated in 2005 and 2008. You can access summaries of findings and other resources related to the study on this site.5. The U.S. Congregational Life Survey http://www.uscongregations.org/ Another valuable source of information on congregations comes from the U.S. Congregational Life Survey (USCLS), administered in 2001 and again in 2008. The USCLS is a nationally representative study of congregations and their worshippers. A novel feature of the USCLS is that it gathered information from both a leader and participants in each congregation. The website gives an overview of the survey, reports on key findings, and links to publications.6. Religion & Ethics Newsweekly http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/ This is the website of a long‐running PBS series focusing on contemporary religion in the United States and abroad. Episodes are available online and often have relevance to the study of religious organizations. In addition, teachers can find other resources in the ‘For Educators’ section.Focus questions

How are religious organizations unique from other types of organizations, if at all?
What are common forms of religious organizations?
What research methods do sociologists use to study religious organizations?
What are the major forces that influence the success or failure of a religious organization?

Sample syllabus DESCRIPTION A sociological approach to religion emphasizes the collective, social nature of religion. Consequently, religious organizations are an important area of investigation for sociologists. The quantity and quality of research in this area have improved dramatically in recent decades. This course is an introduction to this burgeoning area of research. It explores organizational aspects of religion, including organizational forms, common methodologies, and prominent theories. OBJECTIVES At the completion of this course, students should be able to:

Describe common forms of religious organizations.
Identify methodological strategies for studying religious organizations.
Explain the relevance of prominent organizational theories to religious organizations.

SCHEDULE 1. Defining Religious Organizations Ross P. Scherer, American Denominational Organization: A Sociological View (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1980).Thomas H. Jeavons, ‘Identifying Characteristics of “Religious” Organizations: An Exploratory Proposal.’ 79–95 in Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organizations, eds. N.J. Demerath III, Peter Dobkin Hall, Terry Schmitt, and Rhys H. Williams (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998).Margaret Harris, ‘Religious Congregations as Nonprofit Organizations: Four English Case Studies.’ 307–320 in Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organizations, eds. N.J. Demerath III, Peter Dobkin Hall, Terry Schmitt, and Rhys H. Williams (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998).Mark Chaves, ‘Religious Organizations: Data Resources and Research Opportunities’, American Behavioral Scientist 45 (2002): 1523–1549. 2. Religious Economies Theory Laurence R. Iannaccone, ‘Why Strict Churches are Strong’, American Journal of Sociology 99 (1988): 1180–1211. (Reprinted in Demerath et al.'s Sacred Companies, pp. 269–291.)R. Stephen Warner, ‘Work in Progress toward a New Paradigm for the Sociological Study of Religion in the United States’, American Journal of Sociology 98 (1993): 1044–1093.Rodney Stark and Roger Finke, ‘A Theoretical Model of Religious Economies.’ 193–217 in Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000).Roger Finke and Rodney Stark, The Churching of America, 1776–2005: Winners and Loses in Our Religious Economy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005). 3. New Institutionalism Theory John W. Meyer and Brian Rowan, ‘Institutional Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony’, American Journal of Sociology 83 (1977): 340–363.Paul DiMaggio and Walter W. Powell, ‘The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and the Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields’, American Sociological Review 48 (1983): 147–160.Philip Selznick, ‘Institutionalism “Old” and “New’’ ’, Administrative Science Quarterly 41 (1996): 270–277.Mark Chaves, Ordaining Women: Culture and Conflict in Religious Organizations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997). 4. Organizational Ecology Theory Michael T. Hannan and John Freeman, ‘The Population Ecology of Organizations’, American Journal of Sociology 83 (1977): 929–984.J. Miller McPherson, ‘An Ecology of Affiliation’, American Sociological Review 48 (1983): 519–532.Pamela A. Popielarz and J. Miller McPherson, ‘On the Edge or In Between: Niche Position, Niche Overlap, and the Duration of Voluntary Association Memberships’, American Journal of Sociology 101 (1995): 698–721.Nancy Tatom Ammerman, Congregation and Community (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997). 5. Resource Dependence Theory Richard Emerson, ‘Power‐Dependence Relations’, American Sociological Review 27 (1962): 31–41.Howard E. Aldrich and Jeffrey Pfeffer, ‘Environments of Organizations’, Annual Review of Sociology 2 (1976): 79–105.John P. Kotter, ‘Managing External Dependence’, The Academy of Management Review 4 (1979): 87–92.Roger Finke and Christopher P. Scheitle, ‘Understanding Schisms: Theoretical Explanations for their Origins’, 11–33 in Sacred Schisms: How Religions Divide, eds. James R. Lewis and Sarah M. Lewis (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2009).Seminar/project ideaAn Organizational Study of a CongregationMany religious studies courses have students visit a local congregation with the intent of learning about the theology or culture of a group. Such observational learning is valuable for students and likewise can be directed toward the organizational aspects of a congregation. Groups of students (either self‐selected or assembled by the professor) will study a local congregation for the semester. The study has two parts:

Congregational profile. Each group must describe the purpose, participants, and performance of their congregation. Purpose, participants, and performance represent core features of all organizations. In congregations, purpose/goals/mission often is shaped by denominational heritage. What is the purpose or mission of the congregation? Is it widely understood and agreed upon? Participants include leaders and laity. Who are they? Where did they come from? Why are they there? What do they do for the congregation? Performance involves what the congregation does and the outcome of such activity. What happens at worship services? What other programs does the congregation operate? And, most notably, is the congregation growing or declining?
Theoretical evaluation of current performance. Growth and decline in religious organizations are important outcomes for investigation. The final step of the group project is for students to apply one of the theories discussed in class to explain the growth or decline experienced in the congregation.

Answering these questions will require intensive investigative work. Group members should plan to attend the congregation's services and meetings, review relevant on‐line or print media from the congregation, and interview members and leaders.The semester‐long project will culminate with an oral presentation made in class and a written report submitted to the professor.(Final note to faculty: If possible, allow a day or two after all presentations have been made to discuss what groups’ research overall says about the religious ecology of the local community. What types of religious groups are most prevalent in the area (Evangelical Protestant, Mainline Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, Mormon, other)? Which are growing? Which are declining? How does this compare to national trends? And, of course, return to the question of why.)Note
* Correspondence address: Pennsylvania State University. Email: cps153@psu.edu and Kevin_Dougherty@baylor.edu.