bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The effects of dispositional empathy on emotional reactions and helping: A multidimensional approach
Authors: Davis Mark H. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractRecent research indicates that an affective state termed empathic emotion, and characterized by feelings of sympathy and compassion for another, is associated with altruistic responding. That is, persons experiencing high levels of empathic emotion offer help to another even when escape from the situation is easy. Persons experiencing high levels of another emotional state—personal distress—help much less when escape from the situation is easy. A study was conducted to test two related hypotheses. The first was that individual differences in empathy can influence empathic emotion and personal distress, above and beyond the influence of situational factors. The second hypothesis was that this effect of individual differences is due to variation in emotional and not cognitive empathy. The results provide support for both hypotheses. Regarding hypothesis 1, a significantly greater proportion of the variance in emotional reactions was accounted for when individual difference factors were included as predictors. Hypothesis 2 was also supported: It was found that a dispositional measure of emotional empathy was clearly related, and a dispositional measure of cognitive empathy was clearly unrelated, to these emotional reactions. The results provide support for a multidimensional view of empathy.
Conceptual differentiation, integration and empathic prediction
Authors: Neimeyer Robert A. , Neimeyer Greg J. , Landfield A. W. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractSeveral investigators have examined the relationship of a rater's cognitive complexity to accurate empathic prediction of a target's self‐concept or behavior, with mixed results. The present study sought to clarify this relation by considering both the conceptual differentiation (functionally independent construction) and integration (ordination) of both rater and target as they bear on predictive accuracy at early and later stages of acquaintance. Two sets of ten subjects participated in weekly self‐disclosure groups, and attempted to predict one another's self‐ratings on personal constructs after four and eighteen weeks of structured dyadic interaction. Results suggested that (a) the conceptual structure of the rater was unrelated to predictive accuracy, (b) high differentiated/low integrated targets were less accurately predicted at Time 1, (c) raters generally became more accurate predictors over time, and (d) conceptual structure was related to predictive accuracy at early, but not advanced stages of relationship. These findings were interpreted within an expanded theoretical framework emphasizing the multidimensional assessment of cognitive complexity as well as the stage of acquaintance at which social prediction takes place.
Cognitive style and relationship quality in married dyads
Authors: Sabatelli Ronald M. , Dreyer Albert , Buck Ross 
Published: April 2006

AbstractRecently, cognitive personality researchers have begun to explore the social and interpersonal relevance of cognitive individual difference variables. Embedded in these examinations, however, is a methodological issue that bears importantly on our understanding of the role of these cognitive orientations in social relations. Specifically, personality studies have typically employed experimentally created dyads which, by limiting the representativeness of the sample, potentially limits the generalizability of the findings to more enduring “real‐life” dyads. In the present study, field dependence/field independence was examined as a potential mediator of relationship quality in married dyads. Consistent with Witkin's theory of psychological differentiation, it was predicted that spouses with relatively field‐dependent partners and individuals from dyads with similar levels of differentiation would have fewer complaints. Results showed, contrary to the predictions, that husbands married to field‐dependent wives and wives from matched dyads had more complaints about their marital relationships. These findings suggest the need for a careful evaluation of the role of cognitive style in the domain of intimate interpersonal relationships. Apparently, it may not be sufficient to generalize about the role of personality in social relationships from the results of studies employing experimentally created dyads or groups to other, more enduring and real‐life types of social relationships.
The intuitive personologist revisited: A critique of dialectical person perception
Authors: Woody Erik Z. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractA critical examination of dialectical person perception as advanced by Lamiell, Foss, Trierweiler, and Leffel, (1983) reveals some important problems both in its empirical basis and in the underlying model of the intuitive personologist. The present article discusses these problems and suggests some alternative conceptions of the intuitive personologist.
Toward a further understanding of the intuitive personologists: Some critical evidence on the diabolical quality of subjective psychometrics
Authors: Conger Anthony J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractDespite significant advances over the past three decades in our understanding of the implicit dangers in ad hoc psychometric procedures, some important questions remain, particularly as regards the nature of the underlying reasoning process by which subjectively meaningful theoretical impressions are formulated and expressed. The present article seeks to address this issue, with particular attention being given to the distinction between demonstrative and dialectical reasoning. Evidence is offered to show that, at least under certain conditions, intuitive psychometricians formulate and express theoretical impressions on the basis of a reasoning process that is essentially dialectical in nature. Some major implications of this point of view for the study of personality theory are discussed. The limitations of the evidence presented, and the need for further research, are forgone.
Motivational interpretations of hindsight bias: An individual difference analysis
Authors: Campbell Jennifer D. , Tesser Abraham 
Published: April 2006

AbstractWhen individuals learn the outcome of an event or the correct answer to a question, they overestimate its prior predictability: that is, they tend to believe they “knew it all along.” Cognitive and motivational interpretations of hindsight bias are briefly reviewed and a study designed to test the motivational interpretation is reported. Specifically, it was hypothesized that individual differences in the strengths of two motives, a need for predictability and a self‐presentation motive, should be positively related to individual differences in the magnitude of hindsight bias. Sixty‐eight subjects completed a Dogmatism Scale and an Intolerance for Ambiguity Scale (the predictability motive) and the Marlowe‐Crowne Social Desirability Scale (the self‐presentation motive) before participating in a standard hindsight‐bias paradigm. Measures of both motives, as well as a self‐reported ego‐involvement measure, were positively associated with the amount of hindsight bias exhibited. Implications of this result for interpretations of hindsight and other conceptually related phenomena are discussed.
The egocentric bias: Seeing oneself as cause and target of others' behavior
Authors: Zuckerman Miron , Kernis Michael H. , Guarnera Salvatore M. , Murphy John F. , Rappoport Lauren 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe egocentric bias—the tendency to see oneself as both cause and target of another person's behavior—was examined in the context of a small group interaction. Pairs of subjects plus a confederate conducted a short discussion, their goal being to achieve consensus on a specific topic. The discussion was interrupted by the experimenter when the confederate summarized his/her opinion. It was found that subjects were more likely to see themselves as a cause as well as a target of the confederate's last statement compared to the way they were seen by other group members. Subjects were also more likely to exaggerate the amount of attention they received from the confederate. The overall egocentric bias scores were correlated with subjects' level of self‐esteem. Cognitive and motivational processes that may account for this bias were discussed.
Anticonformity aspects of depression in mild depressive states
Authors: Wallace Jean E. , Becker Joseph , Coppel David B. , Cox Gary B. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractControversial issues regarding the relation of conformity and anticonformity variants of dependency to depression and self‐esteem were examined. The Willis‐Hollander model of social influence and an experimental paradigm which permits differentiation of dependency responses into conformity and anticonformity subcategories were used. Ninety female college students who had been given the Beck Depression Inventory and a measure of self‐esteem engaged in a perceptual judgment task, with two degrees of social influence. Depression and self‐esteem were unrelated to independence and conformity. The main finding in the step‐wise regression analyses was that depression was significantly related (p < .001) to the anticonformity variant of dependency. The assumption that depression is related to dependency was supported, but the conventional position that such dependency consists of the conforming variant, involving compliance and approval‐ and guidance‐seeking, was not supported, at least within the range of depression sampled.
Field dependence and attitude change: Source credibility can alter persuasion by affecting message‐relevant thinking
Authors: Heesacker Martin , Petty Richard E. , Cacioppo John T. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe present study shows that for a personally relevant counterattitudinal issue, a highly credible source can alter persuasibility by increasing a subject's message‐relevant thinking. Previous failures to show this effect were probably due to the highly thoughtful nature of typical research subjects, when confronted with involving issues. In the present study, field‐dependent and field‐independent subjects heard convincing or refutable counterattitudinal speeches given by sources of high or low credibility. Results indicated that subjects who are typically low in differentiation of stimuli (field‐dependent subjects) showed differential persuasion to strong and weak arguments only when they were presented by a highly credible source. For subjects who are typically high in propensity to differentiate stimuli (field‐independent subjects), the arguments were differentially persuasive for both high and low credible sources. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that increasing source credibility can enhance message‐relevant thought for subjects who typically do not scrutinize message content.
Sex typing and the perception of body outlines
Authors: Lippa Richard 
Published: April 2006

AbstractDoes sex typing influence one's direct perception of gender from physical body cues? To answer this question, a study was conducted in which 47 female and 39 male subjects, after filling out the Bem Sex Role Inventory, viewed 24 body outlines varying in waist and shoulder width. Subjects were asked to indicate whether each body was female or male, or whether they were uncertain about its gender. Subjects also selected what they judged to be the most attractive and most typical female and male bodies from among the 24 body outlines. Finally, the actual shoulder, waist, and hip widths of 66 subjects were measured as a normative comparison to subjects' judgments of “typical” and “attractive” body proportions. Analyses indicated that sex‐typed subjects used the “uncertain” rating less than did non‐sex‐typed subjects, and that males used that rating less than females did. Thus, sex‐typed subjects and males showed a stronger tendency to classify stimuli by gender. Sex‐typed subjects also tended to nominate more physically divergent male and female bodies as attractive than did non‐sex‐typed subjects; however, there were no effects of assessed masculinity or femininity on nominations of typical male and female bodies. In addition, the data provide evidence that subjects judged there to be greater physical differences between the sexes than actually exist. The results are discussed in terms of recent research on gender schemas and prototypes in person perception.
Personality integration: A synthesis of the parts and wholes of individuality theory
Authors: Royce Joseph R. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractIndividuality theory views the total psychological system or personality as an organized complexity which is partitioned into six major systems—sensory, motor, cognition, affect, value, and style. Each of these systems is, in turn, describable in terms of its subsystems and their components. Individuality is captured via the concept of multivariate personality type, which includes both profile and temporal characteristics. Organism‐environment interactions are handled via the basic system circuit. This circuit involves an information input from the environment, a norm against which inputs are compared, and outputs which feed back into the external environment. Normative match refers to the degree of alignment between a specifiable norm (i.e., a psychological construction such as a goal or a purpose) and the environmental input. We refer to norm‐input matches as assimilation. In the case of mismatches, accommodation is required via feedback mechanisms. Whereas normative matching is focused on external interactions between the organism and the environment, template matching is focused on internal processes of the psychological suprasystem. Thus, template matching refers to the degree of alignment between the profile and temporal aspects of a specifiable situation and personality type. Template matching involves specifying the details of central processing—the integrative role of the style and value systems, the transformation processing of the cognitive and affective systems, and the coding role of the sensory and motor systems. Suprasystem functioning involves both internal (i.e., template matching) and external (i.e., normative matching) processing simultaneously. Thus, molar psychological constructions, such as worldview and life‐style, are the products or outcomes of the integrative processing of the style‐cognitive and value‐affective systems respectively. When suprasystem norms are functioning assimilatively we are describing periods of personality stability. When suprasystem norms are functioning accommodatively we are describing periods of personality change. The most encompassing indicator of personality integration at a given moment
Factors are fictions, and other comments on individuality theory
Authors: Revelle William 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThree of the assumptions in Royce's (1983) theory of personality integration are examined more closely. Royce assumes that: (1) The results from factor analysis are something more than convenient ways to summarize complex covariance structures; (2) it is useful to separate cognitive, affective, sensory, motor, style, and value systems from each other; and (3) it is useful to think of normative “setpoints.” These assumptions are challenged and evidence for alternative assumptions is discussed.
Low accuracy in judgments of others' psychological well‐being as seen from a phenomenological perspective
Authors: Kammann Richard , Smith Rosemary , Martin Carey , McQueen Malcolm 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe generally low degree of agreement between self‐ratings on personality traits and ratings by others may be interpreted from the viewpoint that self‐reports reflect people's experience of themselves but not necessarily their behaviors. A detailed analysis of self and other ratings on subjective well‐being as a central dimension of human experience is consistent with this phenomenological view. Ratings of well‐being were not significantly correlated with rated behaviors either in self‐ratings or in ratings by others. Screening subjects in terms of avowed consistency and observability on a trait did not improve self‐other agreement for well‐being, nor did it replicate the individual trait effects reported by Kenrick and Stringfield (1980). Judgments by others were found to have poor interjudge reliability and to reflect biases associated with projection of own well‐being and a halo effect organized around the subject's perceived friendliness or likability. It was demonstrated that pooling the judgments of several observers should not and does not lead to accurate prediction of the phenomenal personality, and that accuracy may generally depend on the level of self‐disclosure.
On knowing when to quit: Task failure, self‐esteem, advice, and nonproductive persistence
Authors: McFarlin Dean B. , Baumeister Roy F. , Blascovich Jim 
Published: April 2006

AbstractPast research has found the performance of persons with high self‐esteem to improve after failure, especially on tasks for which persistence correlates positively with performance. However, persistence may be nonproductive in some situations. Experiment 1 used a task for which persistence and performance were uncorrelated; subjects high in self‐esteem persisted longer but performed worse than did those with low self‐esteem, particularly after prior failure feedback. Experiment 2 tested whether differential sensitivity to advice about the efficacy of persistence mediates nonproductive persistence. High self‐esteem subjects who received explicit advice against nonproductive persistence on a puzzle‐solving task still tended to persist longer on unsolvable puzzles than did low self‐esteem subjects. The implications of high self‐esteem subjects' tendency to engage in nonproductive persistence are discussed.
Self‐expectancies and reactions to evaluations of personal performance
Authors: Moreland Richard L. , Sweeney Paul D. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractA field study tested whether college students' reactions to evaluations of their performance on an important examination were based primarily on self‐consistency or self‐enhancement needs. All students (N= 166) completed two questionnaires, one a week before and the other a week after the examination. The first questionnaire measured general self‐expectancies (self‐esteem), as well as expectancies specific to the upcoming examination. The second questionnaire measured six separate phases of the students' reactions to their performance evaluations (cf. Shrauger, 1975), each phase being primarily cognitive or affective in nature. The results showed a strong general preference for positive rather than negative performance evaluations among the students, regardless of their self‐expectancies. Self‐enhancement effects emerged more clearly than did self‐consistency effects, and most effects of both types tended to involve general rather than specific self‐expectancies. Finally, there was some support for Shrauger's claim that cognitive reactions to performance evaluations are influenced by self‐consistency needs, whereas affective reactions are influenced by self‐enhancement needs.
Actual and stereotyped speech tempos of extraverts and introverts
Authors: Feldstein Stanley , Sloan Barbara 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe study examined the actual speech tempos of extraverts and introverts and stereotyped notions about the tempos of extraverts and introverts. Forty‐six female undergraduates were divided on the basis of the Eysenck Extraversion Scale into equal groups of extraverts and introverts. Each was asked to talk in a natural manner about $$ TAT pictures, to talk as if she were an extravert or an introvert, and to speak rapidly or slowly. The results indicate that the actual speech tempo of extraverts is faster than that of introverts and suggest that the stereotypes of the speech rates of extraverts and introverts somewhat exaggerate their actual rates.
Development of Children's perceptions of internal locus of control: A cross‐sectional and longitudinal analysis
Authors: Sherman Lawrence W. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractElementary school children between the ages of eight and thirteen were administered the Children's Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale annually for three years. As predicted, children's mean locus of control scores were found to be significantly different from one age group to the next (cross‐sectional analysis) as well as from one year to the next (longitudinal analysis). Older children had significantly more internal scores than did younger children, and the same 97 children demonstrated significant increases in internal perceptions over each succeeding year. No significant sex differences were observed in this generally linear developmental trend. The study supports the hypothesis that increases in internal perceptions are associated with growing older. The data are explained using a confluent theoretical perspective drawing upon cognitive as well as behavioral theory.
Females in charge: Effects of sex of subordinate and romantic attachment status upon self‐ratings of dominance
Authors: Snodgrass Sara E. , Rosenthal Robert 
Published: April 2006

AbstractFemale, male, and mixed‐sex dyads in which one member was assigned the leader role interacted and rated their own dominance throughout the interaction. The effects of gender and romantic attachment status (whether one has an exclusive dating partner or is “unattached” and free to go out with someone new) upon these self‐ratings of dominance within the interaction were examined. The results showed that both leaders and subordinates perceived female leaders to be less dominant than male leaders.In addition, members of mixed‐sex pairs rated themselves as less dominant than did those in same‐sex pairs. Female leaders paired with males rated themselves least dominant and unattached female leaders interacting with males rated themselves least dominant of all. Female subordinates rated themselves as less dominant when with male leaders than when with female leaders, while the effect of the gender of the leader was insignificant for male subordinates. The results are discussed as evidence of a role conflict created by the contradictory roles of “dominant” leader and “subordinate” female, roles described by the sex role stereotypes prevalent in our culture.
Leaders as eponyms: Individual and situational determinants of ruler eminence
Authors: Simonton Dean Keith 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe eponymic theory of leadership maintains that the eminence of rulers depends on their utility as historical labels without regard for their personal attributes. The explanatory scope of this interpretation was tested, for methodological reasons, on a sample of 342 European hereditary monarchs. In support of eponymic theory: (a) About two‐thirds of the variance in leader eminence can be ascribed to the number of significant events occurring during the leader's tenure in office; (b) events with positive and negative social valence carry approximately equal and positive weight; (c) events over which the leader exerts considerable control have about the same weight as those over which personal control is virtually nonexistent; and (d) the effects of epochcentric bias and reign span are mediated by the number of significant events. But qualifying eponymic theory: (a) Eminence is not determined solely by the event tabulations (e.g., leader frame is a J‐curve function of intelligence and a U‐curve function of morality); (b) the number of events is not exclusively accounted for by reign span; and (c) reign span is not solely a function of life span (e.g., reign span is a positive linear function of assessed leadership). The results endorse a form of the theory in which some provision is made for intellectual and personality factors.