bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Poor but Rational?
Authors: Duflo Esther 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
When theoretical work made it clear that being poor meant being cut off from many opportunities that were available to others, the task of empirical economics shifted to providing evidence for market inefficiencies and the potential of economic policies to alleviate them. A new paradigm, “poor but neoclassical”, helped define an empirical agenda and structure a vision of the world, even though it often remained implicit in empirical work. While the poor (and the rich) are all perfectly rational, the markets, left to themselves, may not produce an efficient outcome. In turn, many of the predictions of this body of work have been substantiated by the data. But there are also some fundamental facts for which this view of the world does not account. This essay explores this agenda using two classic examples, which have been very fertile ground for research in development economics: insurance and agricultural investment.
Better Choices to Reduce Poverty
Authors: Mullainathan Sendhil 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A growing number of researchers are studying how to integrate psychological insights into economic reasoning. In this perspective, people sometimes make bad choices, ones that they themselves would like to improve on. This perspective is opening up new ideas, such as how good institutions might help people improve their decisions. This essay discusses these insights using a few choice examples. The goal is to provide a glimpse of how radically different policy suggestions might be in 10 or 20 years as the integration of psychology and economics deepens.
Nonmarket Institutions
Authors: Munshi Kaivan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The pervasiveness and persistence of nonmarket institutions in developing economies demand an explanation from economists. This essay describes what has been learned about these institutions: why they emerge, why they persist, the inefficiencies that are associated with their presence, and how the presence of these institutions might affect the design of development policy. These institutions serve a useful purpose when markets function imperfectly. At the same time, the restrictions on individual behavior within these institutions may leave the community ill equipped to respond to a changing world. This, in turn, suggests a role for policy. How external interventions can help move the community out of its traditional equilibrium when the economic environment changes is discussed.
Racial Stigma: Toward a New Paradigm for Discrimination Theory
Authors: Loury Glenn C. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This essay examines interconnections between “race” and economic inequality in the United States, focusing on the case of African Americans. It is crucially important to distinguish between racial discrimination and racial stigma in the study of this problem. Racial discrimination has to do with how blacks are treated, while racial stigma is concerned with how black people are perceived. It is argued that a so-called reward bias (unfair treatment of persons in formal economic transactions based on racial identity) has become a less significant barrier to the full participation by African Americans in U.S. society than a so-called development bias (restricted access to resources critical for personal development but available only via informal social transactions that are difficult to regulate because they do not take place in a market context).
Aspirations, Poverty, and Economic Change
Authors: Ray Debraj 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This essay discusses a particular aspect of poverty: its close and brutal association with a failure of aspirations. This is not an assertion about individuals who are poor; it is a statement about the condition of poverty itself. Poverty stifles dreams, or at least the process of attaining dreams. Thus, poverty and the failure of aspirations may be reciprocally linked in a self-sustaining trap. This essay seeks to draw out various aspects of this theme and, in the process, to introduce and discuss an aspirations-based view of individual behavior.
Pluralism and Ambivalence
Authors: Wong David B. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe case for pluralistic relativism begins with discussing a discomforting kind of moral disagreement that gives rise to moral ambivalence: this is not simply disagreement in which both sides run out of reasons that are persuasive to the other, but is also a disagreement in which coming to understand the other side brings along an appreciation of its reasons. The root of moral ambivalence is the existence of plural and irreducible moral values (e.g., special duties to particular people and groups, rights, utility, perfectionist ends or values, commitment to one’s own projects and undertakings, and attunement to the world) and our coming to understand how others could have made choices different from the ones we make in the face of conflicts among these values. Moral ambivalence poses difficulties for universalism. A case in point is ambivalence in the face of conflict between personal values (special duties, commitment to one’s own projects) and impersonal values (rights possessed by everyone, utility).
Community and Liberal Theory
Authors: Wong David B. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter argues for the crucial role of intermediate associations in the promotion of effective moral agency. Communitarians often criticize liberal ethical theory as neglecting this role, and moreover, argue that liberal theory (e.g., Rawls’ theory of justice) is ill suited to the nature and moral qualities of some of the most crucial associations such as the family. It is argued here that liberal theory does tend to neglect the role of intermediate associations and to gloss over moral conflicts between loyalties to these associations and loyalties to the larger society. However, it is also argued that liberal conceptions of justice are not so much ill suited to families but provide incomplete normative perspectives on them, and that values of care and communitarian conceptions of justice need to be brought into play along aside the liberal conceptions.
Coping with Moral Difference
Authors: Wong David B. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis final chapter returns to practical problems arising from accepting a plurality of true or justified moralities: (1) problems about how to have confidence in one’s moral commitments while recognizing that different commitments are equally justified, and (2) problems about how to act toward others who have those different commitments and about how we might learn from others. Regarding (1), it is suggested, following Zhuangzi, that we can strive to make our moral commitments broader and more inclusive, trying to incorporate what we appreciate in others’ commitments. With regard to (2), approaches embodying the value of accommodation are advocated: accept that serious disagreement is a pervasive, inescapable fact of our moral lives, strive to maintain constructive relationship toward those with whom one disagrees, remain open to compromise, to joining forces with them on other issues, and to working on those parts of one’s moral projects that more likely to gain consensus. Particular issues such as abortion and substantial inequality in income and wealth, and the alleged divisiveness of multiculturalism are discussed. Finally, a conception of ritual derived from Confucianism is applied to the problem of how one might regard voting in elections as a means to promote the spirit of accommodation.
The Plague of Dissent
Authors: Beneke Chris 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The story opens in the first three decades of the 18th century when dissenters were still treated as political subversives and unorthodox doctrines still compared to contagious diseases. This chapter briefly summarizes the long history of persecution in Europe and America, emphasizing the ideal of religious uniformity and the practice of religious localism. It then traces the emergence of toleration and the limits of the “divine right of private judgment”. The chapter concludes with an account of an early religious controversy involving Benjamin Franklin to underscore the relationship between the growth of the print trade and the expansion of religious autonomy.
Partial Judgments and Divided Churches
Authors: Beneke Chris 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the disruptive religious revivals of the 1740s and 1750s, known as the First Great Awakening. It explores how the impressive mobility and astonishing popularity of itinerant ministers gave new meaning to the right of private judgment. It also documents the rash of revival-inspired church separations, which broadened the range of religious alternatives and undermined traditional religious authority. The travails of a humble minister named Ebenezer Parkman dramatize the sometimes painful consequences of religious diversity, as well as its liberating possibilities.
“None Are Tolerated”
Authors: Beneke Chris 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter details the end of exclusive religious establishments and the birth of a more civil religious climate in America. As the Revolution neared, the ideal of “religious liberty” assumed prominence. At the same time, the traditional ideal of toleration was rejected by those whose ancestors would have gladly received it. Voluminous newspaper and pamphlet disputes over a colonial Anglican bishop and the campaigns for religious liberty in Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania revealed the contours of a new cultural environment. In the integrated religious setting of pre-revolutionary America, harsh language itself could seem like a violation of religious liberty. With a much larger range of groups participating freely in the discussion of public problems, the scope of injury was widened to include the intangible slights that once would have gone unnoticed. The end of toleration left revolutionary-era Americans with the challenging task of articulating their differences through inoffensive rhetoric.
Globalization and Labor Conditions
Authors: Flanagan Robert J. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis book explains how the three main mechanisms of globalization — international trade, international migration, and international capital flows — alter working conditions (particularly wages, work hours, and job safety) and labor rights (freedom of association, nondiscrimination, and the elimination of forced and child labor). An important sub-theme is the relative importance of international markets and international regulation in providing improvements in labor conditions around the world. The book presents evidence on how labor conditions changed during the late 20th-century globalization, and on how economic growth, international trade, migration, and multinational companies influence labor conditions around the world. Drawing on analyses of an international database on labor conditions prepared for this study and on numerous research studies, the book finds a general improvement in labor conditions during the late 20th century and documents the positive influence of economic development on those conditions. Chapters on the role of trade, migration, and multinational companies find that each mechanism of globalization is associated with the improvements in working conditions and with improvements in most labor rights. In contrast, the evidence does not support the view that increasing economic integration initiates an international race to the bottom that produces sweatshop labor conditions. The book also considers the influence of national and international labor regulations on working conditions and labor rights around the world. The evidence indicates that in contrast with trade, migration, and international capital flows, labor standards regulation has had a limited role in advancing labor conditions. The book concludes by showing how several policies that create opportunities for targeted worker groups show promise for supplementing the positive effects of globalization on labor conditions.
Introduction
Authors: Flanagan Robert J. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter contrasts the predictions of globalization skeptics with international economic analysis regarding the effect of globalization on labor conditions. Skeptics argue that globalization encourages sweatshop labor conditions and increases world poverty and inequality, while economic analysis predicts that international competition produces a convergence of working conditions that reduces world inequality. The chapter makes a key semantic distinction between labor conditions (the actual working conditions and labor rights that workers experience) and labor standards (policy objectives or legal requirements regarding the treatment of labor). The chapter concludes by explaining the questions addressed in the rest of the book.
Labor Conditions around the World
Authors: Flanagan Robert J. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter introduces the measures of working conditions and labor rights that are the focus of the book and shows how labor conditions changed in the late 20th century. The key working conditions are pay, hours of work, and workplace health and safety. The four key labor rights (emphasized in policy discussions by international organizations) are freedom of association, nondiscrimination, abolition of forced labor, and reduction of child labor. Evidence presented in this chapter shows that measures of these working conditions and labor rights improved during the late 20th century, a period of increased international economic integration. The data also show that countries that are open to international trade have superior labor conditions.
International Migration and Labor Conditions
Authors: Flanagan Robert J. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter shows the powerful role of international labor market competition in narrowing differences in labor conditions between countries that remain open to migration flows. International migration produced a large convergence in real wages between Europe and the New World during the transatlantic migrations of the late 19th century. Concerns about the impact of immigration on workers in destination countries resulted in policies that significantly limited international migration during much of the 20th century and gave rise to significant illegal immigration. Dropping these policy barriers would increase world output and significantly reduce inequality between the richest and poorest nations of the world. The chapter also considers whether the emigration of skilled workers (brain drain) harms poor countries, weighing the loss of skills against remittances and other offsetting factors.
Jewish Babylonia between Persia and Roman Palestine
Authors: Kalmin Richard 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Babylonian Talmud was compiled in the 3rd through 6th centuries CE, by rabbis living under Sasanian Persian rule in the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. What kind of society did these rabbis inhabit? What effect did that society have on important rabbinic texts? This book offers a re-examination of rabbinic culture of late antique Babylonia. It shows how this culture was shaped in part by Persia on the one hand, and by Roman Palestine on the other. The mid 4th century CE in Jewish Babylonia was a period of particularly intense “Palestinianization,” at the same time that the Mesopotamian and east Persian Christian communities were undergoing a period of intense “Syrianization.” The book argues that these closely related processes were accelerated by 3rd-century Persian conquests deep into Roman territory, which resulted in the resettlement of thousands of Christian and Jewish inhabitants of the eastern Roman provinces in Persian Mesopotamia, eastern Syria, and western Persia, profoundly altering the cultural landscape for centuries to come. The book also offers new interpretations of several fascinating rabbinic texts of late antiquity. It also demonstrates how Babylonian rabbis interacted with the non-rabbinic Jewish world, often in the form of the incorporation of centuries-old non-rabbinic Jewish texts into the developing Talmud, rather than via the encounter with actual non-rabbinic Jews in the streets and marketplaces of Babylonia.
Roman Persecutions of the Jews
Authors: Kalmin Richard 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter examines ancient rabbinic accounts of Roman interference with the practice of Judaism during the first few decades of the 2nd century CE. Sources attributed to Tannaim in the Bavli are compared to those attributed to Tannaim in Palestinian compilations. It is shown that Babylonian portrayals tend to emphasize Roman prohibition of Torah study, while Palestinian portrayals do so only rarely, if at all. This will be the first of many respects in which Babylonian rabbis place greater stress on Torah study than do Palestinian rabbis, which is easily explicable according to the claim that the universe of experience of Babylonian rabbis, more so than of Palestinians, tended not to extend beyond the four walls of the study house.
Jewish Sources of the Second Temple Period in Rabbinic Compilations of Late Antiquity
Authors: Kalmin Richard 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter further exemplifies the claim regarding the Bavli's tendency to depict the most powerful groups and the major institutions of the distant past as controlled by rabbis, as opposed to the tendency of Palestinian rabbis to acknowledge the prominent role played by nonrabbis. It also supports the claim that the nonrabbinic Jewish world penetrated the walls of the Babylonian rabbinic study house in the form of literary traditions deriving from Roman Palestine, and perhaps from elsewhere in the Roman provincial world. It is shown that the rabbis domesticated these traditions by supplying them with a rabbinic veneer that transformed them into fit objects of Torah study. Several pre- and nonrabbinic traditions have been incorporated into the Tosefta, the Yerushalmi, and the Bavli, and all have been subjected to varying degrees of editorial revision and distortion. Palestinian rabbis emended these stories less radically than Babylonian rabbis, for reasons discussed in the previous chapter. This finding is significant, since it means that if we are able to correct for the distortions, rabbinic literature is a fruitful repository of nonrabbinic thought, belief, behavior, and gossip.
Gemstone of Paradise
Authors: Murphy G. Ronald 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The story of the Grail, usually identified as some kind of mystical vessel, has gripped the imaginations of millions since it first appeared in several medieval romances. Of these, Wolfram von Eschenbach's Middle High German Parzival (c. 1210) is generally recognized as the most complex and beautiful. Strangely, in Parzival, the Grail is identified as a stone rather than a cup or dish. This oddity is usually seen as just another mystery, further evidence of the difficulty of discerning the true sources of the Grail legend. This book seeks to illuminate this mystery and to enable a far better appreciation of Wolfram's insight into the nature of the Grail and its relationship to the Crusades. The Grail, container of the sacred body and blood of Christ, Wolfram was saying, was where God said it would be: on the altar at the consecration of the Mass. Wolfram's “sacred stone” was none other than a consecrated altar, precious by virtue of the sacrament but also, this book argues, by virtue of the material from which it was made: a green gem, one of the precious stones associated with the rivers of Paradise. The book explores what it signifies for the Grail to be a translucent gemstone and an altar made portable only by a woman. Wolfram's stone is a sacramental reference to the stone the Crusaders fought to obtain — the Holy Sepulchre. Parzival, the book states, was intended as an argument against continued efforts by Latin Christians to recover the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem by force of arms. In Wolfram's story, warring Christian and Muslim brothers are brought together in peace by the power of Wolfram's Holy Grail.
Prologue: In the Beginning
Authors: Murphy G. Ronald 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter begins with a brief discussion of the earliest written accounts about the Grail. It then lays out the theoretical foundations of this book. The first is to address the question of the nature and profound meaning of the stone that Wolfram calls the Grail within Parzival, and the second is to approach the challenging mystery of whether or not Wolfram's actual stone Grail could still exist and be found.
The Grail in the Inner Story
Authors: Murphy G. Ronald 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter argues that Wolfram modifies Chrétien's story in accordance with his interpretation of this journey and of the nature of its goal, the Holy Grail. It is impossible to detail every change he makes, nor would it be desirable to attempt to do so in the case of an author who constantly attempts to connect everything to everything. However, it is useful to see if the poet's conception of the holy Grail stone is present by its effects, as it should be, as Wolfram transforms the tale. As in the case of most quests, what is sought is already there. It is just that the seeker, a homo viator, slowly wise, takes a while to realize it.
The Paradise Altar of Bamberg
Authors: Murphy G. Ronald 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the (Bamberg) Paradise Altar. It is believed to be the stone that Wolfram was thinking of, or inspired by, when he came to his realization about the true nature of the Grail. The altar has the small size and proportions of an average medieval portable altar: it is 24.7 centimeters (9.8 inches) long, 15.5 centimeters (6.2 inches) wide, and about 14.9 centimeters (5.9 inches) high. It is dated to the second half of the 12th century, and thus was in use at the time (c. 1202-1210) Wolfram was composing his Parzival.
Ignorance and Imagination
Authors: Stoljar Daniel 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis book advances a novel way to resolve the central philosophical problem about the mind: how it is that consciousness or experience fits into a larger naturalistic picture of the world. The correct response to the problem, it is argued, is not to posit a realm of experience distinct from the physical, nor to deny the reality of phenomenal experience, nor even to rethink our understanding of consciousness and the language we use to talk about it. Instead, we should view the problem itself as having its origin in our ignorance of the relevant physical facts. This change of orientation is shown to be well motivated historically, empirically, and philosophically, and to have none of the side effects it is sometimes thought to have. The result is a philosophical perspective on the mind that has a number of far-reaching consequences: for consciousness studies, for our place in nature, and for the way we think about the relationship between philosophy and science.
Error from Ignorance
Authors: Stoljar Daniel 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter takes up the conditional thesis that if the ignorance hypothesis is true, the logical problem is solved. The defense of this thesis begins from the idea that there are a number of distinctive ways that a modal argument can go wrong — a number of standard mistakes. The philosophical challenge presented by the modal arguments that are constitutive of the logical problem is that it is hard to see in these cases that we are making any of these standard mistakes. On the other hand, if the ignorance hypothesis is true, it becomes immediately plausible to suppose that we are making one of (or a combination of) these mistakes. This suggests in turn that E1 is true: if the ignorance hypothesis is true, the logical problem is solved.