bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lithotripsy
Authors: Weizer Alon Z. , Preminger Glenn M. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractShock wave lithotripsy (SWL) is a noninvasive method for the treatment of stones within the urinary tract. Since its clinical introduction over 25 years ago, SWL has revolutionized the way in which renal and ureteral stones are managed. Despite the wide array of currently available lithotripters, all rely on the same fundamentals of acoustic physics. Shock waves (i.e., high pressure sound waves) consisting of a sharp peak in positive pressure followed by a trailing negative wave are generated extracorporeally and passed through the body to fragment stones. Ultrasound or fluoroscopy are used to focus the shock wave on the stone inside the patients’ body. When the shock wave encounters the kidney stone, the force generated in the plane of the shock wave places stress on the imperfections within the stone resulting in compression‐induced tensile cracking. In addition, shock waves can cause microbubble formation on the surface of the stone. As the shock wave passes, these bubbles collapse releasing secondary shock waves or microjets impinging against the stone that result in stone destruction. While these mechanisms result in stone fragmentation, they may also be responsible for kidney injury, by primarily damaging small blood vessels within the kidney. Modifications to the design of the original lithotripter (Dornier HM3, Dornier MedTech America, Inc., Kennesaw, GA) resulted in improved patient comfort, but inferior stone fragmentation. Better understanding of the mechanisms of stone fragmentation and tissue injury caused by SWL have resulted in modifications to lithotripters that make the current machines safer and more effective.
Liver Transplantation
Authors: Gaglio Paul J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractLiver transplantation is the treatment of choice for appropriately selected patients with end‐stage liver disease. Over the last several decades, significant advances in surgical technique and immunosuppression, selection of appropriate donors, grafts, and recipients, as well as improved therapies to prevent and treat postoperative complications have greatly improved posttransplantation outcomes. Enhanced posttransplantation survival has led to the emergence of complications associated with patient longevity, including nonhepatic disease, complications of immunosuppression, infections, neoplasia, and recurrence of the primary disease for which the liver transplantation was indicated. This article will outline the history of and indications for liver transplantation, delineate short‐ and long‐term complications associated with the procedure, and discuss the role of immunosuppressive therapy, intrinsic to the long‐term success of the procedure.
Lung Sounds
Authors: Loudon Robert G. , Murphy Raymond L. H. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractIn this article, the medical devices and instruments that have been applied to the study of lung sounds, including the traditional acoustic stethoscope are reviewed. This survey will include sound transducers and their placement, methods, and equipment used for the recording and analysis of lung sounds, results obtained by the use of these techniques, and their clinical meaning.
Medical Education, Computers in
Authors: Hasman Arie 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Computers are used in medical education in several ways. They can support life‐long learning by providing access to the literature; they can be used for simulating patients; for managing the learning process, etc. Since computers are used in medical practice students should also learn the benefits and limitations of using these information systems. These latter subjects concerns the field of medical informatics that is introduced to. Finally the possibilities of electronic patients and the use of Internet are discussed
Medical Engineering Societies and Organizations
Authors: Johnson Arthur T , Horner Patricia I 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Medical engineering societies and organizations trace their roots to events early in the twentieth century, but they grew greatly in the second half. Today, opportunities in medical and biological engineering are burgeoning, and the number, as well as the interest areas, of these organizations, are expanding greatly. This article relates historical events, definitions, and contact information for many of these organizations.
Microbial Detection Systems
Authors: Dolan Patricia L. , Harper Jason C. , Brozik Susan M. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Infectious diseases accounted for 25–33% of the estimated 54 million deaths worldwide in 1988, of which more than half are attributed to tuberculosis, malaria, chronic hepatitis B, diarrheal diseases, and human immunodeficiency virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS). Additionally, the first known cases of human influenza caused by the avian influenza virus, N5N1, were identified in Hong Kong in 1997. To address rising national and worldwide public health needs, it is desirable that a sensitive, specific, fast, and simple‐to‐operate device be employed to detect infectious agents. Microbial detection systems that attempt to meet this need have been commercially available from the late 1970s and have progressed significantly with the molecular biotechnology revolution. Contemporary microbial detection systems or biosensors typically consist of a selective biorecognition molecule connected to a transducer that converts a biochemical interaction into a measurable signal. In the near future, biomedical science can realize the integration of all laboratory equipment used in molecular biology on a chip‐based platform arrayed to detect large numbers of pathogens in a high throughput, portable device.
Monitoring in Anesthesia
Authors: Lipping Tarmo , Jäntti Ville , Yli‐Hankala Arvi 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe past decade has seen an explosive increase of interest in neurophysiological monitoring during surgical anesthesia, in the Intensive Care Unit, and in the Emergency Department. A significant number of methods for the assessment of anesthetic depth have been developed. This article gives an overview of the algorithms applied in commercially available depth‐of‐anesthesia monitors and to provide some background for understanding anesthesia. In addition, several new parameters, proposed recently for the assessment of adequacy of anesthesia, are mentioned.
Monoclonal Antibodies
Authors: Laster Brenda H. , Gopas Jacob 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
From the time that Kohler and Milstein first published their technique of using a hybridoma to produce monoclonal antibodies (Mabs), a major and rapid progression occurred in the field of medicine, specifically immunology. Mabs began to be used as tools for diagnosing and treating disease and have proven to be valuable agents in the research laboratory. When tagged with fluorescent dyes, radioactive or heavy atoms (gold), enzymes or toxins, they help identify molecules of biological and medical importance. They can be used with microscopic techniques to identify structures or molecules within a cell. Mabs are being tested experimentally to inhibit transplant rejection, to alleviate and suppress autoimmune disease, and to detect and treat cancer. For example, Mabs can be used to remove undesirable lymphocytes from donor bone marrow cells prior to transplantation to avoid Graft versus Host disease. However, the use of Mabs produced by the mouse hybridoma can interfere with the effectiveness of the antibodies or cause allergic reactions in humans. Thus, new strategies are being explored for the construction of Mabs that can better penetrate the target tissue and are not recognized as foreign by the human immune system. Among these approaches is the cloning of human antibodies, or the placing of human antibody genes into the genome of mice that have been bred without an antibody‐producing mechanism of their own. Mabs are being used in both the diagnosis and treatment of cancer because many of the same cancer types present in different patients were shown to have similar cell surface molecules. Mabs, tagged with chemotherapeutic agents or radioactive atoms, when targeted to these tumor antigens, have the potential to destroy tumor cells. Studies are being conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of Mabs to block growth factors or receptors on tumor cells; to target specific tissue components of the tumor or its blood vessels; to interfere with cell signals; or with apoptosis (programmed cell death). When labeled with radioactive isotopes, Mabs can also be used in the diagnosis of disease in nuclear medicine procedures. They are being used in the food industry to identify either contaminating molecules, or the presence of harmful bacteria. They are also being used to create strategic reserves of vaccines and antibodies for infectious agents that could be used in biowarfare.
Ocular Motility Recording and Nystagmus
Authors: Dell’Osso Louis F. , Abel L. A. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe accurate recording of eye movements for the study of ocular motor mechanisms (normal or abnormal) or for the diagnosis and treatment of ocular motor disorders requires a reliable, easy‐to‐use recording system; proper monocular calibration and linearization paradigms; and, in subjects with nystagmus or other ocular motor oscillations, knowledge of the foveation portions of the eye‐movement waveforms. In this chapter, the different types of eye movements generated by the ocular motor system, the advantages and disadvantages of commonly used recording systems, the requirements for accurate calibration of those systems, and the use of eye‐movement recordings in basic research, including clinical settings, are described.This work was supported in part by the Office of Research and Development, Medical Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs.
Orthopedic Devices, Materials and Design for
Authors: Bandyopadhyay Amit , Bose Susmita 
Published: April 2006

AbstractMusculoskeletal disorders are recognized as among the most significant human health problems that exist today, costing society an estimated $254 billion every year, and afflicting one out of seven Americans. It is expected that the number of individuals with musculoskeletal disorders will increase over the coming years, as our population ages. Among the various options to treat musculoskeletal disorders, use of orthopedic devices is becoming a routine, where the number of annual procedures approaching five million in the United States alone. This article reviews materials and design issues of orthopedic devices. It describes how technological advancements in computer aided design and flexible manufacturing like rapid prototyping are reshaping current and future needs in orthopedic devices.
Pacemakers
Authors: Murray Alan 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe primary function of a cardiac pacemaker is for the treatment of bradyarrhythmias, when the heartbeat stops or responds too slowly. The clinical condition can be intermittent or permanent. If permanent, the pacemaker will control the heart continuously. If temporary, the pacemaker will respond only when necessary, avoiding competition with the heart’s own natural response. As these devices are battery powered, allowing the pacemaker to pace only when necessary conserves pacemaker energy, extending its lifetime and reducing the frequency of replacement surgery.Over half a million new patients worldwide receive a pacemaker each year.A pacemaker refers to all components necessary for a complete clinical pacing device. There will always be at least two components. They are the pulse generator and the lead. There may be more than one lead, such as for dual‐chamber pacing, in both the atria and the ventricle.When pulse generators were first used in the early 1960s, they were simple devices with a battery power supply, and a circuit to produce a regular pulse rate with a defined pulse voltage and pulse‐width output. Modern pulse generators are much more complex, with sensing and output control. Special electronic circuitry has been developed, often with sophisticated microprocessor control. Battery technology has also developed significantly.The lead has four main features. It needs a connector to connect it to the pulse generator, a long flexible wire, a biocompatible sheath over the wire, and at least one electrode to make contact with the heart.Pacing will continue as an essential therapeutic technique, saving lives and bringing some normalit to patients with abnormal physiological heart rate control.
Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS)
Authors: Madnani Anju , Madnani Sanjay , Cark Randall , Wells Jason 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis article provides a review of pain, its definition, types, and physiology. It provides background information and theories surrounding the mechanism of analgesic action of TENS and the development of electroanalgesia. It discusses the usage, design, applications, and warnings surrounding TENS.
Peripheral Vascular Noninvasive Measurements
Authors: Schmitz Christoph H. , Graber Harry L. , Barbour Randall L. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractAssessment of physiological and pathological parameters of the peripheral vasculature is important for the diagnosis and monitoring of vascular diseases, many of which can evolve into severe or even life‐threatening conditions. There is great desire for noninvasive measurement methods as alternatives or adjuncts to available invasive techniques, which often are limited in their use because of patient risk, operating complexity, or cost. The first part of the article gives a broad overview of existing noninvasive techniques for the evaluation of vascular parameters such as pressure, flow, and compliance. For each method, a general introduction is given followed by the theoretical framework of signal generation and device implementation. This is complemented by descriptions of signal analysis and clinical applications. The second part of the article briefly reviews of how available imaging‐based methods relate to the evaluation of the vasculature, including a number of advanced techniques that are presently in development or are undergoing clinical or preclinical trials.
Photography, Medical
Authors: Chan Jackie K. , Fung Edward K. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractMedical photography involves taking pictures for the documentation and treatment of diseases. Traditional and digital photography techniques are used in many areas of medicine for clinical and research purposes. In ophthalmology, fundus cameras take photographs of the posterior segment of the eye. The retinal images are examined for the detection of pathologies. Some camera operations, image acquisition, and enhancement techniques, as well as image analysis will be illustrated and discussed. The system of telemedicine, brought about by digital photography, bridges the gap between patients and specialized care‐givers. Photomicrography in biomedicine is the creation of images of tissues or culture samples at magnification.
Porous Materials for Biological Applications
Authors: Park Grace E. , Webster Thomas J. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Porous materials have received much attention in the scientific community because of their ability to interact with biological ions and molecules not only at their surfaces, but also throughout their bulk. Because of this intrigue, traditional applications of porous materials have involved catalysis, bioseparations, adsorption of select species, and ion exchange. As the tissue engineering field has emerged due to the continuous need for better implantable materials, porous materials have also found their niche in regenerative medicine. Specifically, porous materials have been employed as implants for various parts of the body (e.g., bone, cartilage, vasculature, central and peripheral nervous systems, bladder, and skin) either as stand‐article alone regenerative devices or as drug delivery vehicles to promote tissue growth. This article will discuss such applications of porous biomaterials focusing on events at their surfaces that can promote cell functions leading to tissue regeneration. This article will also emphasize one particularly promising research direction to improve the role of porous biomaterials in tissue engineering involving nanotechnology (or the creation of nanoscale surface features on porous materials).
Positron Emission Tomography
Authors: Kontaxakis George 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET) is a powerful diagnostic imaging modality that depicts the biological basis of function in the organs and systems in a living body, in a unique manner that cannot be obtained by other methods. This article reviews in brief the physical principles of the technique, presents a short historical review from its first appearance until the latest developments of the technology, lists the major areas of clinical applications of PET, and refers to the current status and future prospects of the technologies related to PET, including the current PET/CT hybrid multimodality cameras and special‐purpose systems, like high‐resolution PET scanners for imaging of laboratory animals.
Pulmonary Physiology
Authors: Demenkoff John 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Present day pulmonary function testing is available in all hospitals and in a less sophisticated form in many physicians’ offices. Such was not the case until the 1940s, when the fruits of physiological research dating back 150 years blossomed on the heels of World War II. This so‐called golden age of pulmonary physiology spurred many of the currently available lung function tests which are used for diagnosis and treatment of existing lung disease; screening for early pulmonary disease; evaluation of respiratory symptoms such as cough and shortness of breath; performance of disability evaluations; preoperative assessment of thoracic and other surgical patients; determination of level of cardiopulmonary fitness; monitoring of adverse pulmonary effect of certain drug therapies.
Over the years, many have contributed to an understanding of the lung and how it works in health as well as in disease. These discoveries have provided building blocks of knowledge, which form the basis of current modern pulmonary function testing. This article reviews the history, principles, and applications of pulmonary function testing.
Radiotherapy Accessories
Authors: Purdy James A. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractPrecise radiation therapy depends on apparatus and devices that help to accurately position the patient’s target volume(s) relative to the treatment machine’s radiation beams on a daily basis. Such devices aid in tumor localization and treatment simulation, patient setup and restraint/repositioning, shaping of field aperture, shaping of the dose distribution, and treatment verification and quality assurance. Precision radiation therapy is necessary as clinical and experimental results show that tumor control and normal tissue response can be a very steep function of radiation dose, and the prescribed curative tumor doses are often, by necessity, close to the doses tolerated by the normal tissues. This article presents a review of the various devices that have been designed to help achieve the high degree of precision and accuracy needed in the planning and delivery of radiation treatments to the cancer patient. Devices used for the both the two‐dimensional approach to planning therapy, i.e., conventional x‐ray simulator, and also the three‐dimensional approach, i.e., virtual simulation using a CT‐simulator, are discussed.
Recorders, Graphic
Authors: Vermarien Herman 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Graphic recorders are essentially measuring instruments that produce in real‐time graphic representations of (biomedical) signals, in the form of a permanent document intended for visual inspection. Recorded data are thus fixed on a two‐dimensional (2D) medium that can simply be called “paper”. Real‐time paper recordings have the benefit of direct visual access to signal information, allow immediate examination (and re‐examination) of trends (as long strips of paper can be used), present better graphic quality than most screens and can be used as a document for scientific evidence. Two primary aspects describing the performance of the graphic recorder are the properties of the instrument as a recorder of information (measuring accuracy and the ability to display additional information) and the quality of graphics, implying the clearness of the tracings and the overall graphic layout (including identification of the curves by color difference) in relation to ergonomics in visual examination. Secondary aspects are, in general, ease of control of the apparatus, maintenance, costs and service life, and, specifically, input amplification and signal conditioning facilities, waveform monitoring, digital processing, data storage and communication possibilities. In general, recorders use a transducer that converts electrical signal information into a position on the paper. This can be achieved by moving the writing element to the specific position (analog transducers) or by activating the correct point in a large array of stationary, equally spaced writing elements (digital transducers). In most applications the graphic transducer, not the electronic signal conditioning hardware, is the crucial stage in the measuring chain. In the technique of analog transducing, there are essentially two methods: The direct method and the servomethod. Positioning of the writing device can be accomplished by a rotation act (corrected to a translation) or a translation act. The time axis is generated by pulling a strip of paper at constant velocity or in small identical increments. Translational pen servorecorders are used for slow varying signals (bandwidth 0–5 Hz typically), galvanometric pen recorders can handle faster signals (bandwidth 0–100 Hz). Thermal array recorders are digital recorders, which can record higher frequencies in real time with the aid of memory facilities and, evidently, from memory as well with an appropriate paper speed. Nowadays, the borderline between digital graphic recorders, digital oscilloscopes, data‐acquisition systems and PC based virtual measuring instruments becomes less clear. Measurements where immediate visualization of the tracings on a long strip of paper is not required and data are to be digitally analyzed and stored, can be performed by PC with virtual instrument software and printer; Nowadays the majority of data collection is accomplished using digital PC approaches.
Rehabilitation, Orthotics in
Authors: Latta Loren 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Infectious diseases accounted for 25–33% of the estimated 54 million deaths worldwide in 1988, of which more than half are attributed to tuberculosis, malaria, chronic hepatitis B, diarrheal diseases, and human immunodeficiency virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS). Additionally, the first known cases of human influenza caused by the avian influenza virus, N5N1, were identified in Hong Kong in 1997. To address rising national and worldwide public health needs, it is desirable that a sensitive, specific, fast, and simple‐to‐operate device be employed to detect infectious agents. Microbial detection systems that attempt to meet this need have been commercially available from the late 1970s and have progressed significantly with the molecular biotechnology revolution. Contemporary microbial detection systems or biosensors typically consist of a selective biorecognition molecule connected to a transducer that converts a biochemical interaction into a measurable signal. In the near future, biomedical science can realize the integration of all laboratory equipment used in molecular biology on a chip‐based platform arrayed to detect large numbers of pathogens in a high throughput, portable device.