bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Economic Outcomes and Political Support for British Governments among Occupational Classes: A Dynamic Analysis
Authors: Hibbs Douglas A. ,   Nicholas Vasilatos
Published: May 2006

The first section of the article establishes the political salience of macroeconomic issues to the British electorate, reviews the distributional consequences of macroeconomic outcomes, and suggests that unemployment outcomes in particular have strong class-related distributional effects.The second part presents a dynamic model of how rational voters evaluate the governing party, based on the idea that voters evaluate the cumulative performance of the governing party relative to the prior performance of the current opposition. Since the present relevance of prior outcomes decays over time, voters weight current performance more heavily than past performance informing contemporaneous political judgments.The empirical analyses in the third section include measures of nominal economic performance (inflation and exchange rate movements) and real economic performance (unemployment and real income fluctuations). The regression results indicate that the responses of political support among the occupational classes to macroeconomic changes are sizeable, and that the cross-class variations are consistent with the distributional consequences reviewed at the beginning of the article.The concluding section develops the electoral implications of the empirical results and presents a novel interpretation of trends in class-related political support for the parties. The evidence shows that the argument that there has been a persistent decline of class-based political alignments in Britain is erroneous.
A New Theory of Congressional Compromise
Authors: Enelow James M. 
Published: May 2006

A new model of congressional compromise is constructed in which leadership, faced with a bill whose prospects are uncertain, is forced to compromise. Leadership has policy preferences of its own and seeks a compromise that will minimize its expected loss.A reasonable expression for the probability of each outcome is assumed, and the form of the optimal compromise is derived based on two simple parameters. The solutions are quite revealing and support the expectation of compromises close to a 50-50 split under a broad range of conditions.
Defending Liberalism
Authors: Galston William 
Published: May 2006

The much-discussed contemporary revival of political theory in the Anglo-American intellectual community has for the most part been a revival of liberal theory. This should not have come as a great surprise. Most Anglo-Americans are, in one way or another, liberals; all are deeply influenced by the experience of life in liberal societies. Liberal polities have come under attack from within as well as from without, giving those who think them worthy of defense both the motive and the occasion to clarify the grounds of their partisanship.It is less often remarked that in one decisive respect, the revival of liberal theory remains rooted in the climate of moral skepticism that it has supplanted. Most contemporary liberal theorists are deeply mistrustful of what John Rawls has called “perfectionism”—the philosophic attempt to identify superior ways of life or traits of character and, once having identified them, to use them as the goals of political life. Contemporary liberal theory consists in the attempt to combine this skepticism about theories of the good life with the belief in philosophically defensible principles that regulate relations among individuals.It is my thesis that this defense of liberalism is fundamentally misguided. No form of political life can be justified without some view of what is good for individuals. In practice, liberal theorists covertly employ theories of the good. But their insistence that they do not reduces the rigor of their theories and leaves the liberal polity unnecessarily vulnerable to criticism.
The Political Structure of the Federal Reserve System
Authors: Reagan Michael D. 
Published: May 2006

Public policy is not self-generating; it emerges from institutions. Foremost among the institutions charged with monetary and credit policy formation—an area, like fiscal policy, that has not received from political scientists the attention accorded to micro-economic regulation of particular firms or industries—is the Federal Reserve System. The purpose of this paper is to examine the “fit” of the System's formal structure to (1) the policy functions and the informal policy-forming mechanisms of the “Fed,” and (2) the pattern of interests and values affected by monetary policy. Its thesis is that a substantial gap has developed between these elements.A brief sketch of the formal structure of authority and the historical development of System functions is needed to begin with; this is followed by analysis of the formal and the effective roles of each component of the System along with the internalized interest representation at each level. Then the linkage between the Federal Reserve System and general economic policy is explored. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the findings and suggests briefly how formal structure and policy functions might be brought into closer, more effective alignment.
Peer Group and School and the Political Socialization Process
Authors: Langton Kenneth P. 
Published: May 2006

The role of education as a significant political socialization process is widely accepted among social scientists and educators. Numerous studies point to positive correlations between education level and political cognition and participation. But beyond this point agreement ends. While many studies have demonstrated with varying degrees of certitude the formal role of curriculum and the teacher in the socialization process, the inconclusive and contradictory nature of the findings has led many students of socialization to a closer examination of the less formal environment of the school. Yet only a few studies have examined the influence of the informal school environment upon political socialization.The purpose of this paper is to examine empirically the impact of the class climate in peer groups and schools upon the reinforcement or resocialization of political attitudes and behavior patterns.
A purely topological form of non-Aristotelian logic
Authors: Hempel Carl G. 
Published: May 2006

1. The problem. The aim of the following considerations is to introduce a new type of non-Aristotelian logic by generalizing the truth-table methods so far employed for establishing non-Aristotelian sentential calculi. We shall expound the intended generalization by applying it to the particular set of pluri-valued systems introduced by J. Łukasiewicz. One will remark that the points of view illustrated by this example may serve to generalize quite analogously any other plurivalued systems, such as those originated by E. L. Post, by H. Reichenbach, and by others.2. J. Łukasiewicz's plurivalued systems of sentential logic. First of all, we consider briefly the structure of the Łukasiewicz systems themselves.As to the symbolic notation in which to represent those systems, we make the following agreements: For representing the expressions of the (two- or plurivalued) calculus of sentences, we make use of the Principia mathematica symbolism; however, we employ brackets instead of dots. We call the small italic letters “p”, “q”, “r”, … sentential variables or elementary sentences, and employ the term “sentence” as a general designation of both elementary sentences and the composites made up of elementary sentences and connective symbols (“~”, “ν” “.”, “⊃” “≡”).Now, the different possible sentences (or, properly speaking, the different possible shapes of sentences, such as “p”, “p∨q”, “~p.(q∨ r)”, etc.) are the objects to which truth-values are ascribed; and just as in every other case one wants a designation for an object in order to be able to speak of it, we want now a system of designations for the sentences with which we are going to deal in our truth-table considerations.
On complete atomic proper relation algebras
Authors: Harary Frank 
Published: May 2006

The object of this note is to classify the isomorphism types of all complete atomic proper relation algebras. In particular we find that the number of abstractly distinct complete atomic proper finite relation algebras of 2m elements is equal to the number of distinct partitions of the positive integer m into summands which are perfect squares.A relation algebra is called complete atomic if its Boolean algebra is complete atomic. A proper relation algebra is a relation algebra whose elements are relations. Lyndon has recently proved, by constructing an appropriate finite relation algebra, that not every complete atomic relation algebra is isomorphic to a proper relation algebra.Henceforth, let us consider a complete atomic proper relation algebra. The atoms {〈a, b〉}, {〈c, d〉} will be called connected if and only if {a, b} ⋂ {c, d} is not empty. Let the relation of connectedness over the set B of all atoms be denoted by ~. For brevity let B = {b1,b2, …}. The relation ~ is obviously reflexive and symmetric. But ~ is not transitive, since a, b, c, d distinct implies {〈a, 0〉} ~ {〈b, c〉}, {〈b, c〉} ~ {〈c, d〉}, and {〈a, b〉} ≁ {〈c, d〉}.
Sur les types des propositions composées
Authors: Pólya G. 
Published: May 2006

Il s'agit d'un problème combinatoire de logique formelle, formulé par Jevons; il sera expliqué en détails dans ce qui suit (voir no. 1). Jevona luimême n'a traité le problème que dans les cas les plus simples (n= 1, 2, 3); un cas plus difficile (n= 4) a été traité par Clifford; le cas général (nquelconque) a été à peine abordé.Le but de ce travail est de faire remarquer que ce problème de Jevons et de Clifford est contenu comme cas particutier dans un problème combinatoire général que j'ai traité ailleurs. La méthode générale ramène le problème présent à l'étude d'un certain groupe de permutations d'ordren!2n, étroitement lié au groupe symétrique d'ordren!. J'ai fait les calculs nécessaires pourn= 1, 2, 3, 4. Mes résultats numèriques sont complètement en accord avec les résultats de Jevons, mais ils ne s'accordent qu'en partie avec les résultats de Clifford.Une proposition peut être vraie ou fausse. On peut exprimer la même chose en disant que nous pouvons attribuer à une proposition l'une ou l'autre des deux “valeurs logiques” qui s'excluent mutuellement: la “vérité” et la “fausseté.”
Simplest normal truth functions
Authors: Nelson Raymond J. 
Published: May 2006

In [1] Quine has presented a method for finding the simplest disjunctive normal forms of truth functions. Like the tabular methods of [2] and [3], Quine's method requires expansion of a formula into developed normal form as a preliminary step. This aspect of his method to a certain extent defeats one of the purposes of a mechanical method, which is to secure simplest forms in complicated cases (perhaps by using a digital computer) [4]. In the present paper we develop a method for both disjunctive and conjunctive normal truth functions which is in some respects similar to Quine's but which does not involve prior expansion of a formula into developed normal form. Familiarity with [1] is presupposed.We use the notations and conventions of [1] with the following exceptions and additions. ‘Φ’ names any formula, ‘Ψ’ any conjunction of literals, and ‘χ’ any disjunction of literals. Any disjunction of conjunctions of literals is a disjunctive normal formula and is designated by ‘ψ’; any conjunction of disjunctions of literals is a conjunctive normal formula and is designated by ‘X’. Note that we do not make use of Quine's notion of fundamental formulas. A formula Ψ occurring in a disjunctive normal formula ψ, provided it is a disjunct of ψ, is a clause; similarly for χ. We use ‘≠” for logical equivalence of formulas and ‘=’ for identity of formulas to within the order of literals in clauses and the order of clauses in normal formulas.
Recursive well-orderings
Authors: Spector Clifford 
Published: May 2006

Cantor's second ordinal number class is perhaps the simplest example of a set of mathematical objects which cannot all be named in one language. In this paper we shall investigate a system of names for a segment of the first and second number classes in relation to decision problems. The system, except for one minor difference, is the one studied by Markwald in [12]. In our system ordinals are named by natural numbers from a set W via recursive well-orderings of subsets of the natural numbers.The decision problems will be related to the hyperarithmetical hierarchy of Davis [2], [3] and Kleene [8]. This hierarchy is indexed by ordinal notations from Kleene's system S3 [4], [6], [9], in which ordinals are named by natural numbers from a set O, partially well-ordered ([12] p. 138) by a relation a≤Ob; O and ≤O are defined inductively by applications of the successor and limit operations. As results of this investigation, we shall (i) answer negatively Markwald's question [12] Theorem 12 whether his set “W” is arithmetical by showing that it is not even hyperarithmetical, (ii) obtain a new proof of the main result of Kleene [10] that every predicate expressible in both the one-function-quantifier forms of [8] is recursive in Hα for some aεO, (iii) answer affirmatively the question raised by Davis [2], [3] whether all the Church-Kleene constructive ordinals are uniqueness ordinals, and (iv) solve the function-quantifier analog of Post's problem [15]. Strong use will be made of the well-orderings that can be constructed from one-function-quantifier predicates as in [9].
Nicht konstruktiv beweisbare Sätze der Analysis
Authors: Specker Ernst 
Published: May 2006

Nach allgemeiner Ueberzeugung können gewisse Sätze der Analysis nicht konstruktiv bewiesen werden. Man denke etwa an den folgenden Satz: Eine monotone und beschränkte Folge a(n) von rationalen Zahlen konvergiert, d.h. es gibt eine solche ganzzahlige Funktion k(m), daßUnter einem konstruktiven Beweis dieses Satzes hätte man etwa die Angabe eines Verfahrens zu verstehen, das gestattet, die Funktion k(m) auf Grand der Folge a(n) rekursiv zu definieren. Wenn ein solcher Beweis vorläge, wäre insbesondere gezeigt, daß es zu einer rekursiv definierten Folge a(n) mit den verlangten Eigenschaften stets eine rekursiv definierbare Konvergenzfunktion k(m) gibt.Es soil nun im folgenden von einigen grundlegenden Sätzen der reellen Analysis gezeigt werden, daß sie nicht konstruktiv bewiesen werden können—konstruktiv in dem Sinn, der eben angedeutet wurde. Wir stützen uns dabei auf die Begriffe der rekursiven und der berechenbaren Funktion; rekursive und berechenbare Funktionen sind zahlentheoretische Funktionen. Unter einer rekursiven Funktion möge vorläufig eine primitiv rekursive Funktion verstanden werden (vgl. etwa D. Hilbert und P. Bernays [3], S.286); berechenbar meint berechenbar im Sinne von A. Church [1], S. C. Kleene [4], A. M. Turing [6]. Der Begriff der “konstruktiv definierten Funktion” wird durch die Bestimmung als “rekursive Funktion” eher eng, durch die Bestimmung als “berechenbare Funktion” eher weit gefaßt.Definition I. Eine Folge rationaler Zahlen Φ(n) heißt rekursiv,(berechenbar), wenn es solche rekursiven (berechenbaren) Funktionen ϕ{n), ψ(n) und χ(n) gibt, daß χ(n) ≧1 und.Definition II. Eine Folge Φ(n) von rationalen Zahlen heißt rekursiv (berechenbar) konvergent, wenn es eine solche rekursive (berechenbare) Funktion v(m) gibt, daßWir werden zeigen (Satz I): Es gibt eine rekursive, monotone und beschränkte Folge rationaler Zahlen, die nicht berechenbar konvergiert. Bei unserer Auffassungsweise ist darin enthalten, daß der zu Beginn erwähnte Satz nicht konstruktiv bewiesen werden kann.
A test for the equality of truth-tables
Authors: Kalicki Jan 
Published: May 2006

In this paper the symbolism, definitions and results of my two papers, namely A test for the existence of tautologies according to many-valued truth-tables (hereafter referred to as ET) and Note on truth-tables (hereafter referred to as TT) will be presupposed.The problem whether two arbitrary truth-tables with finite number of elements are equal or not was reduced in TT to the question of equality of two identical tables in which different elements have been designated. However, no general method for testing the equality of truth-tables was given there, although some cases were discussed for which such a method is available. In the present paper we shall describe a general method using the considerations of ET and TT.
A derivation of number theory from ancestral theory
Authors: Myhill John 
Published: May 2006

Martin has shown that the notions of ancestral and class-inclusion are sufficient to develop the theory of natural numbers in a system containing variables of only one type.The purpose of the present paper is to show that an analogous construction is possible in a system containing, beyond the quantificational level, only the ancestral and the ordered pair.The formulae of our system comprise quantificational schemata and anything which can be obtained therefrom by writing pairs (e.g. (x; y), ((x; y); (x; (y; y))) etc.) for free variables, or by writing ancestral abstracts (e.g. (*xyFxy) etc.) for schematic letters, or both.The ancestral abstract (*xyFxy) means what is usually meant by ; and the formula (*xyFxy)zw answers to Martin's (zw; xy)(Fxy).The system presupposes a non-simple applied functional calculus of the first order, with a rule of substitution for predicate letters; over and above this it has three axioms for the ancestral and two for the ordered pair.
Coherence and the axioms of confirmation
Authors: Shimony Abner 
Published: May 2006

It has been pointed out by Carnap that ‘probability’ is an equivocal term, which is used currently in two senses: (i) the degree to which it is rational to believe a hypothesis h on specified evidence e, and (ii) the relative frequency (in an indefinitely long run) of one property of events or things with respect to another. This paper is concerned only with the first of these two senses, which will be referred to as ‘the concept of confirmation,’ in order to avoid equivocation.We may distinguish a quantitative and a comparative concept of confirmation. The general form of statements involving the former isThe degree of confirmation of the proposition h, given the propositione as evidence, is r (where r is a real number between 0 and 1).In this paper the notation for a statement of this form isThe general form of statements involving the comparative concept is The proposition h is equally or less confirmed on e than is the proposition h′ on e′,which may be symbolized asThe following abbreviations will also be used in discussing comparative confirmation:The former of these two abbreviations means intuitivelyThe proposition h is less confirmed on evidence e than h′ is on e′. The latter meansThe proposition h is confirmed on evidence e to the same degree that h′ is on e′.
Formal development of ordinal number theory
Authors: Orey Steven 
Published: May 2006

In this paper we shall develop a theory of ordinal numbers for the system ML, [6]. Since NF, [2], is a sub-system of ML one could let the ordinal arithmetic developed in [9] serve also as the ordinal arithmetic of ML. However, it was shown in [9] that the ordinal numbers of [9], NO, do not have all the usual properties of ordinal numbers and that theorems contradicting basic results of “intuitive ordinal arithmetic” can be proved.In particular it will be a theorem in our development of ordinal numbers that, for any ordinal number α, the set of all smaller ordinal numbers ordered by ≤ has ordinal number α; this result does not hold for the ordinals of [9] (see [9], XII.3.15). It will also be an easy consequence of our definition of ordinal number that proofs by induction over the ordinal numbers are permitted for arbitrary statements of ML; proofs by induction over NO can be carried through only for stratified statements with no unrestricted class variables.The class we shall take as the class of ordinal numbers, to be designated by ‘ORN’, will turn out to be a proper subclass of NO. This is because in ML there are two natural ways of defining the concept of well ordering. Sets which are well ordered in the sense of [9] we shall callweakly well ordered; sets which satisfy a certain more stringent condition will be calledstrongly well ordered. NO is the set of order types of weakly well ordered sets, while ORN is the class of order types of strongly well ordered sets. Basic properties of weakly and strongly well ordered sets are developed in Section 2.
Corrections to two papers on modal logic
Authors: Fitch Frederic B. 
Published: May 2006

The two following papers are in need of certain corrections: Modal functions in two-valued logic and Note on modal functions. I became aware of the need for these corrections while comparing these earlier papers of mine with J. C. C. McKinsey's paper, On the syntactical construction of systems of modal logic.The first of the two papers should be corrected in such a way that the system of two-valued logic there employed becomes “complete” in the sense that either p or ∼ p is in Τ for every Κ-symbol Τ. This could be achieved by use of an additional axiom that postulates the required completeness. (I mistakenly supposed that the original set of axioms guaranteed this completeness.)
Concatenation as a basis for arithmetic
Authors: Quine W. V. 
Published: May 2006

General syntax, the formal part of the general theory of signs, has as its basic operation the operation of concatenation, expressed by the connective ‘⌢’ and understood as follows : where x and y are any expressions, x⌢y is the expression formed by writing the expression x immediately followed by the expression y. E.g., where ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’ are understood as names of the respective signs ‘α’ and ‘β’, the syntactical expression ‘alpha⌢beta’ is a name of the expression ‘αβ’.Tarski and Hermes have presented axioms for concatenation, and definitions of derivative syntactical concepts. Hermes has also related concatenation theory to the arithmetic of natural numbers, constructing a model of the latter within the former. Conversely, Gödel's proof of the impossibility of a complete consistent systematization of arithmetic depended on constructing a model of concatenation theory within arithmetic.
Zusammenhang der mehrfachen und transfiniten Rekursionen
Authors: Péter Rózsa 
Published: May 2006

Es ist bekannt, daβ man aus den Funktionen 0 und n + 1 ausgehend, die in der elementaren Zahlentheorie benutzten Funktionen durch eine endliche Kette von Substitutionen und “primitiven Rekursionen” der Form(α(a1, …, ar) und β(n, a1, …, ar, ar+1) bereits eingeführte Funktionen) definieren kann. Aber die “mehrfache Rekursion”, wobei die Rekursion gleichzeitig nach mehreren Variablen läuft, führt aus der so entstehenden Klasse der “primitiv-rekursiven Funktionen” hinaus. Die sogenannten “mehrfachen”, und zwar “k-rekursiven” Funktionen (zu welchen als Spezialfall auch die primitiv-rekursiven Funktionen gehören) lassen sich von gewissen Ausgangsfunktionen ausgehend durch eine endliche Kette von Substitutionen und “k-fachen Rekursionen” (wobei die Rekursion gleichzeitig nach k Variablen läuft) einer gewissen Normalform aufbauen. Die k + 1-fache Rekursion führt für ein jedes k aus der Klasse der k-rekursiven Funktionen hinaus. Das kann mit Hilfe des Diagonalverfahrens bewiesen werden. Das Diagonalverfahren auf sämtliche mehrfach-rekursive Funktionen angewandt (auch wenn man sich auf Funktionen von einer gegebenen Variablenanzahl beschränkt) würde als Beispiel einer nicht mehrfachrekursiven Funktion eine Funktion ergeben, bei der es vom ersten Argument abhängt, wievielstellig die Funktion ist.Man sagt allgemein, daβ eine Funktion durch irgendeine Rekursion definiert wird, wenn ihr Wert an gewissen Anfangsstellen angegeben, und an einer anderen Stelle aus Werten aufgebaut wird, welche die Funktion an vorherigen Stellen angenommen hat. Es kann aber verschieden vorgeschrieben werden, welche Stellen als Vorgänger einer gegebenen Stelle zu betrachten sind.