bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ames/
Salmonella
Assay: A Bacterial Test for Mutagens
Authors: Felton James S , Wu Rebekah W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The Ames/
Salmonella
mutation assay is the most widely used test to determine whether chemicals can cause genetic changes (mutations) potentially leading to cancer. Chemicals related to industry, farming, foods, drugs and the environment have been discovered to be mutagens with this simple assay.
Bacterial Fermentation
Authors: Müller Volker 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Under anaerobic conditions, in the dark and in the absence of electron acceptors, organic compounds are catabolized by strictly anaerobic or facultatively anaerobic bacteria by internally balanced oxidation–reduction reactions, a process called fermentation. In fermentation, the organic compound serves as both electron donor and acceptor, and adenosine triphosphate is synthesized by substrate level phosphorylation.
Tumours: Targeting of Monoclonal Antibodies for Imaging and Potential for Therapy
Authors: Mach Jean‐Pierre 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies directed against tumour‐associated antigens labelled with radioisotopes localize specifically into tumour after intravenous injection. This property is used for diagnostic tumour imaging by immunoscintigraphy and in some clinical situations for radioimmunotherapy.
Immunity: Experimental Transfer
Authors: Claësson Mogens H , Hald Jesper 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Transfers of biological reagents, cellular or humoral, have been a central theme in experimental immunology, including many areas of tumour immunology. Such transfers include lymphokine‐activated killer (LAK) cells, tumour‐infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and antigen‐specific cytotoxic T‐cell (CTL) lines and clones, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and cytokines.
Chromosome Preparation and Banding
Authors: Moore Charleen M , Best Robert G 
Published: September 2006

AbstractReliable techniques have been developed to produce large numbers of mitotic cells and to collect them at metaphase in order to visualize individual chromosomes. After cell culture and spreading of the metaphases onto slides, the chromosomes are stained to produce unique banding patterns or to reveal specialized structures. Molecular techniques have been developed to identify submicroscopic rearrangements and to compare karyotypes of different species.
Chromosomal Syndromes and Genetic Disease
Authors: Luthardt Frederick W , Keitges Elisabeth 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The normal human chromosome complement consists of 46 chromosomes comprising 22 morphologically different pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Variation in either chromosome number or structure frequently results in significant mental and/or clinical abnormalities. Chromosomal syndromes are associated with specific chromosomal abnormalities.
Human Chromosome Evolution
Authors: Holmquist Gerald P , Wienberg Johannes 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
During mammalian genome evolution, nuclear DNA content remained more or less unchanged and the chromosomal banding pattern was maintained with the exception of occasional chromosomal rearrangements. Chromosomal rearrangements occur frequently in individuals but only occasionally are they fixed into the common karyotype of a new species. The fixed rearrangements are passed on during evolution and unambiguously reveal how mammalian species are related to each other.
Deafness
Authors: Petit Christine , Weil Dominique 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Hearing loss is the most frequent of the sensory defects. 30% of the cases are syndromic (deafness is accompanied by other symptoms). The nonsyndromic forms can be due to environmental or genetic factors. A variety of genes can be responsible for deafness, among them several connexins, unconventional myosins, and mitochondrial genes.
Lesch–Nyhan Syndrome
Authors: Gregorio Laura De , Nyhan William L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Lesch–Nyhan syndrome is a severe X‐linked condition caused by deficiency of the purine‐salvage enzyme hypoxanthine–guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT), leading to hyperuricaemia and different manifestations of neurological abnormality.
Y‐chromosome‐linked Traits
Authors: Graves Jennifer A Marshall 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Male mammals have a single X and a Y chromosome. The Y chromosome is small, containing a lot of repeated sequences and few active genes, but carries a sex‐determining factor, which determines maleness, as well as other male‐specific functions such as steps in spermatogenesis. Molecular work suggests that the Y is best understood in terms of its evolutionary history.
Plant Bioenergetics
Authors: Grace Stephen C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cellular energy metabolism drives the biochemical processes essential for the growth and survival of all organisms. Nearly all forms of life depend on the photosynthetic activity of plants to provide electron‐rich substrates to fuel metabolism. Despite an overall low efficiency of conversion, the trapping of solar energy by photosynthesis is the only source of free energy used to sustain life.
Environmental Carcinogens and Mutagens
Authors: Loechler Edward L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Environmental agents (chemicals, radiation and viruses) can be carcinogens (cancer‐causing substances) and mutagens (substances that alter DNA). The steps from mutagen/carcinogen to tumour involve mutagen/carcinogen activation by metabolism, reaction with DNA to give a DNA adduct and DNA replication of the adduct, resulting in a mutation; a mutation in a cancer gene may result in enhanced growth potential, and ultimately in tumour growth.
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
‐mediated Transformation of Plant Cells
Authors: Binns Andrew , Campbell Angela 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Agrobacterium tumefaciens
is a Gram‐negative soil bacterium that causes plant tumours by transferring a portion of DNA from a resident ‘tumour inducing’ (Ti) plasmid into plant cells where it is integrated into a plant chromosome and expressed. This bacteria's capacity for DNA transfer is the basis of most current plant genetic engineering and make it a model system for the study of pathogenic bacteria that transfer virulence factors to any eukaryotic cell.
Caenorhabditis elegans
Embryogenesis: Genetic Analysis of Cell Specification
Authors: Edgar Lois G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Cell fate in some early embryonic blastomeres of
C. elegans
is specified cell autonomously (mosaic development), by proteins localized by cytoskeletal machinery controlled by the
par
gene products, and in others by cell‐to‐cell signalling (regulative development), using either the APX‐1–GLP‐1 (Notch‐like) or the Wnt signalling pathway.
Drosophila
Embryo: Homeotic Genes in Specification of the Anterior–Posterior Axis
Authors: Rogers Bryan T 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The products of the homeotic genes of
Drosophila melanogaster
are a set of transcription factors, each with its own unique expression
pattern and battery of target genes. It is the combination of these two
features by which, as a group, the homeotic genes are capable of specifying
the collections of cell types characteristic of different regions of the
animal body.
Universal Tree of Life
Authors: Brown James R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The universal tree of life represents the proposed evolutionary relationships among all cellular life forms (thereby excluding viruses). Gene sequence data has moved the focus of the universal tree away from emphasizing metazoan diversity to encompassing the greater genetic diversity found in prokaryotes and single‐cell eukaryotes. Presently, the conical universal tree includes three main urkingdoms or domains called the Archaea (archaebacteria), Bacteria (eubacteria) and Eukarya (eukaryotes) with the rooting in the Bacteria such that Archaea and Eukarya are sister groups. However, the evolutionary relationships among these three groups, and even the status of the Archaea, are still hotly debated among evolutionary biologists.
Agnatha (Lampreys, Hagfishes, Ostracoderms)
Authors: Janvier Philippe 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Agnathans are an ensemble of jawless (non‐gnathostome) vertebrates, some of which are more closely related to the gnathostomes than others. Living agnathans fall into two groups, hagfishes (Hyperotreta) and lampreys (Hyperoartia), united into a higher group, the cyclostomes (Cyclostomi).
Amphibia
Authors: Oldham Robert S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Amphibia includes the well‐known frogs, toads, salamanders and newts. They are ectothermic, quadrupedal vertebrates with a glandular skin, and a life cycle, in modern species, characterized by the metamorphosis of an aquatic larva into a terrestrial adult. They evolved from lobe‐finned fish in the Devonian and early amphibians are the ancestors of the amniotes.
Anura (Frogs)
Authors: Dundee Harold A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The order Anura is a widespread group of over 4000 species of frogs and toads, forming part of the class Amphibia. Adult anurans have a short vertebral column, no tail, stout forelimbs and long, webbed hindlimbs used for swimming and leaping. Most species have an aquatic larval stage, the tadpole.
Gymnophiona (Caecilians)
Authors: Milner Andrew R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The order Gymnophiona (also sometimes called Apoda or Caecilia) is a group of highly specialized tropical fossorial (burrowing) amphibians. Because most are burrowers, they are rarely seen and, until the last two decades, little was known of their biology. They have no widely used common names and are generally called caecilians. They are found in tropical South America, Africa, the Seychelles, the Indian subcontinent and parts of southeast Asia, but are absent from Madagascar and Australasia.
Synapsida (‘Mammal‐like Reptiles’)
Authors: Sues Hans‐Dieter 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In the phylogenetic system, the Synapsida include Mammalia and all other amniotes more closely related to Mammalia than to Reptilia. Nonmammalian synapsids form an extensive series of taxa that are successively more closely related to mammals and are often collectively referred to as ‘mammal‐like reptiles’. This vernacular term alludes to the superficially ‘reptilian’ appearance of many primitive synapsids. It has become scientifically meaningless because Synapsida and Reptilia are now interpreted as two entirely distinct evolutionary lineages of Amniota.
Palaeognathae (Flightless Birds)
Authors: Dyke Gareth J 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThere are two broad subdivisions within living birds represented by the neognathous birds (Neognathae) and palaeognathous birds (Palaeognathae). The palaeognaths are characterized by a primitive internal skull morphology and the absence of a keel on the sternum (they are, therefore, flightless). Palaeognathae comprises a number of well‐known flightless birds: the ostrich, rhea, emu, cassowaries, kiwis and tinamous.
Mammalia
Authors: Shoshani Jeheskel 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Mammalia is a monophyletic taxon whose diagnostic features include a dentary bone in its lower jaw (for living and extinct members), hair (for living and some extinct members), and mammary glands (for living taxa). Earliest mammals lived in the late Triassic period (Mesozoic era) coexisting with dinosaurs; they were small (rat‐size), nocturnal, insectivorous, plantigrade, possessing a muscular prehepatic diaphragm (inferred), had developed senses of hearing and smell, enlarged brains, and were endotherms (inferred).
Scandentia (Tree Shrews)
Authors: Beard Chris 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Tree shrews constitute an order of placental mammals known as Scandentia, represented by about 18 living species native to southern and southeastern Asia. Roughly similar in appearance to squirrels, tree shrews are scansorial omnivores that are equally adept on the ground and in the trees. Although tree shrews have often been considered the nearest living relatives of primates, this distinction may belong to dermopterans instead.
Chiroptera (Bats)
Authors: Jones Kate E 
Published: September 2006

AbstractBats are the second largest order of placental mammals after rodents, consisting of over 900 species in at least 17 families and 177 genera. They are unique among mammals as they are the only group to have evolved truly powered flight. Bats have a worldwide distribution with extremely diverse ecologies, life histories, morphologies and unique sensory adaptations.
Perissodactyla (Odd‐Toed Ungulates Including Horses, Rhinoceroses and Tapirs)
Authors: Prothero Donald R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The mammalian order Perissodactyla, or ‘odd‐toed’ ungulates, includes the living horses, rhinoceroses and tapirs, and two extinct groups, the brontotheres and chalicotheres. Over their 55 million years, they evolved into an amazing variety of forms, and about 40 million years ago, they were the dominant hoofed mammals on the planet. Since then, they have been largely replaced by the even‐toed artiodactyls, and today most wild perissodactyl species are on the brink of extinction.
Tubulidentata (Aardvarks)
Authors: Shoshani Jeheskel 
Published: September 2006

AbstractTubulidentata is the only mammalian order that contains a single living species, the aardvark,Orycteropus afer. It has been called a ‘living fossil’ because it exhibits primitive anatomical characters that have shown little or no morphological change over about 20 million years. The ordinal name Tubulidentata is derived from tiny dentinal tubules found in the chewing surfaces of its teeth. Tubulidentata probably originated in Africa and has its roots in a group of extinct archaic ungulates known as the condylarths.
Kinorhyncha
Authors: Kristensen Reinhardt Møbjerg 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The kinorhynchs (mud dragons) are a small phylum of microscopic, free‐living, segmented acoelomate or pseudocoelomate invertebrates belonging exclusively to the marine meiofauna. Some 150 species have been described from polar to tropical environments. The kinorhynchs have their phylum, but they are related to the phyla Loricifera and Priapulida. Cambrian microfossils may belong to the stemgroup of both Kinorhyncha and Priapulida.
Loricifera
Authors: Kristensen Reinhardt Møbjerg 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The loriciferans are a group of newly discovered microscopic marine animals with a complex life cycle and worldwide distribution. Despite their small size, they have complex alimentary, reproductive, excretory, nervous and muscle systems. The head of the adult can have more than two hundred appendages, and the larvae always have terminal toes. The loriciferans have their own phylum, which is related to the phyla Kinorhyncha and Priapulida.
Nematomorpha (Horsehair Worms)
Authors: Poinar George 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The phylum Nematomorpha, the hairworms, are parasitic worms that occur worldwide. While one genus,
Nectonema
, is marine, all of the remaining species occur in fresh or brackish water as adults, and as parasites of aquatic or terrestrial invertebrates during their developmental stage.
Entoprocta
Authors: Nielsen Claus 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe entoprocta are a small phylum of minute, solitary or colonial, sessile, aquatic animals. About 150 species have been described worldwide, with only one species occurring in freshwater. The colonial species encrust stones, shells and algae, and species have been described from all oceans. The solitary species are mostly associated with water‐current‐producing hosts, such as polychaetes, sponges and bryozoans; these species are not conspicuous and most of the reported distributions reflect specialists' searches.
Chelicerata (Arachnids, Including Spiders, Mites and Scorpions)
Authors: Shultz Jeffrey W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Chelicerata is the group of arthropods that includes the marine sea‐spiders and horseshoe crabs and the terrestrial arachnids (spiders, mites, scorpions and their relatives). They have two main body regions, and the arachnids typically have eight walking legs. They are covered by a jointed exoskeleton and grow by periodic moulting. Chelicerates are typically predaceous and most terrestrial forms ingest only liquefied food. Next to insects, they are the most diverse and numerous animals.
Pentastomida
Authors: Riley John 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Pentastomids comprise an ancient taxon of about 110 species of vermiform endoparasites which attain maturity in the respiratory tracts of terrestrial tetrapods. About 85% of species inhabit the lungs of reptiles. Life cycles usually involve an intermediate host, although a few are direct. An unprecedented fossil record, dating from the late Cambrian, indicates a long association with vertebrates.
Onychophora (Velvet Worms)
Authors: Wright Jonathan C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The phylum Onychophora, also known as ‘peripatus’, ‘velvet worms’, or ‘walking worms’, comprises over 100 described species. Long believed to be an evolutionary ‘missing link’ between annelids and arthropods, they are now usually classified within the Arthropoda. Onychophorans are exclusively terrestrial, but are susceptible to desiccation and are restricted to humid microsites. The majority of species inhabit tropical forest litter.
Brachiopoda (Lamp Shells)
Authors: Cohen Bernard L 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMembers of the phylum Brachiopoda are predominantly sessile, filter‐feeding marine invertebrates with a bivalved shell that, in adult life, is functionally divided into inhalant and exhalant chambers by a ciliated, tentaculate curtain‐like feeding organ or lophophore. One subphylum is commonly known as ‘lamp‐shells’.
Neogene Time Scale
Authors: Berggren William A 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe Neogene Period/System (approximately the past 24 million years) is the younger of a twofold subdivision of the Cenozoic Era which includes as its lower component the Palaeogene Period/System (65–24 Ma). It includes the Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene (and in some sources Holocene) Epochs/Series.
Molecular Palaeontology
Authors: Waggoner Ben 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe traces that organisms of the past have left are not restricted to their bones, shells, imprints, and tracks; biogenic macromolecules may also survive in the fossil record. As techniques for studying fossil macromolecules have expanded, information from molecules has complemented and expanded our knowledge of the history of life as derived from other types of fossils.
Continental Drift
Authors: Prothero Donald R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The old notion that continents have drifted apart over geological time was revived by the scientific revolution of plate tectonics in the 1960s. Geologists now believe that the Earth's crust is made up of about 20 tectonic plates which are constantly shifting with respect to one another at a rate of centimetres per year. These plate motions and interactions are responsible for most of the Earth's volcanoes, earthquakes, mountain belts, and many other geological phenomena.
Mesozoic Marine Revolution
Authors: Gregory F John 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Mesozoic is characterized by a dramatic diversification of marine invertebrates and vertebrates. This affected both the existing marine ecosystems and the modern ecosystems that subsequently developed. Causes of the diversification include the end‐Permian and Early Triassic mass extinctions, continental break‐up, oceanic partitioning and sea‐level fluctuations.
Extinction
Authors: MacLeod Norman 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Extinction is the act or process of dying‐out for a species or evolutionary lineage. It is one of the most common of all ecological/evolutionary processes and represents the inevitable corollary of natural selection. Information on extinction comes from many sources, including laboratory experiments, field studies, and the fossil record. The causes of short‐term extinctions involving few species can, in principle, be well understood. But the causes of long‐term extinction events, such as those preserved in the fossil record, remain controversial.
Extinction: End‐Triassic Mass Extinction
Authors: Wignall Paul B 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe end of the Triassic period, roughly 201 million years ago, was marked by one of the biggest mass extinction events in the history of life. Estimates of magnitude vary, but recent compilations suggest that it may have been one of the greatest extinction events of the fossil record. It has been estimated that nearly 70 terrestrial families and 60 marine families disappeared at the end of the Triassic, corresponding to 23% and 18% extinction, respectively.
Extinction: K–T Mass Extinction
Authors: MacLeod Norman 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The K–T mass extinction event occurred at the end of the Cretaceous System (K, for kreta or chalk, a common Cretaceous rock type) and the beginning of the Tertiary System (T), when approximately 60–80% of marine invertebrate species became extinct as a result of climate changes brought about by a sharp fall in global sea level, a major episode of continental flood basalt volcanism, and a large bolide (asteroid or comet) impact.
Origin of Novelties
Authors: Carroll Robert L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The term ‘novelty’ in evolutionary biology is applied to structures or processes that evolve within groups without obvious precursors among their probable ancestors. The genetic system that enables the generation of novelties in multicellular animals evolved in the late Precambrian and Early Cambrian. Continuing change within the elements of this system explains how novelties have arisen within the metazoan phyla over the last 600 million years.
Tiering in the Sea – Reefs and Burrows (Late Palaeozoic)
Authors: Wood Rachel A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Ancient reefs in the Late Palaeozoic were dominated by microbial communities, together with a variety of calcified algae and suspension‐feeding metazoans. Tiering in epafaunal communities increased significantly in the Ordovician, but infaunal tiering developed slowly, with occupation of deeper depths being achieved only by the Lower Carboniferous.
Plant Cell: Overview
Authors: Doris Fiona , Steer Martin 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Although plant cells share the same eukaryotic ancestor cells as animal cells, and hence bear strong resemblance to one another, there are many differences between the two. These differences reflect the distinct structural, developmental and environmental pressures which plant cells experience and include the presence of cell walls, differences in membrane structure and changes to the endomembrane system and structures associated with cell division.
Plant Golgi Apparatus
Authors: Hawes Chris , Satiat‐Jeunemaitre Béatrice 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The plant Golgi apparatus exists as a number of discrete units
known as Golgi bodies distributed in the cytoplasm. Its primary role is the
glycosylation of secretory proteins, the construction of complex cell wall
polysaccharides and the packaging and targeting of such products either to the
vacuole or to the cell surface.
Plant Exocytosis, Endocytosis and Membrane Recycling in Turgid Cells
Authors: Battey Nicholas H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In plant cells growth is dependent on cell wall building and plasma membrane growth; secretion of proteins is vital for cell function and cell–cell communication. The fusion of secretory vesicles at the plasma membrane (exocytosis) is a key mechanism because it delivers proteins, wall polysaccharides and membrane; endocytosis retrieves excess membrane. The balance of exocytosis–endocytosis is therefore crucial to plant development, is highly regulated, and is an intriguing subject for future research.