bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
9 UN‐led reconstruction following US‐led military intervention: Afghanistan
Authors: del Castillo Graciana 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
Following US-led military intervention and regime change, Afghanistan's reconstruction, unlike Iraq's, was largely UN-led. The new government made executive decisions but was highly aid-dependent. By channeling aid outside control of the government, donors failed to strengthen and legitimize it. Efforts to eliminate poppy plantations without a viable economic alternative have increased conflict and strengthened the Taliban, rather than being a peace-supporting strategy. This chapter critically analyzes whether the reconstruction strategy in a country with such limited resources, weak institutions, and low capacity to absorb aid requires the sophisticated legal, institutional, and regulatory framework that the IFIs, USAID, and the US Treasury supported and helped design. Furthermore, with few exceptions, such framework largely ignored national preferences or cultural idiosyncrasies and was inflexible enough to detract from efforts at rehabilitation and social policies. These would have facilitated peace consolidation in the short run by improving the welfare of the population.
14 Macroeconomic policymaking
Authors: del Castillo Graciana 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
Ongoing economic policy debates at specific times have affected economic reconstruction in countries coming out of war, from the period following the two World Wars to the post-Cold War experiences. These debates have naturally influenced the way sovereign governments and the international community plan for reconstruction and have been a major determinant of the international assistance and the conditionality imposed by donors. The general policy debate and the particular constraints to policymaking in post-conflict contexts should affect policymaking in the macro- and microeconomic areas; the required institutional arrangements; the policy mix; and in particular, the role of the state and the markets in economic reconstruction. This chapter analyzes the debate, the policy choices, and the policy constraints, and focuses on the need for a minimalist macroeconomic framework. The choice between flexible and fixed exchange rates; monetary and fiscal policies; fiscal federalism; and the real and external sectors are also addressed.
Introduction
Authors: O'Connell Sean 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This introductory chapter outlines the themes that the book addresses, situating them within the existing historiography on credit and debt. The central importance of neighbourhood networks and the personal relationships established by agents (often female) in working class borrowing is outlined. It explains how the 19th-century tallymen became identified with debt and the county courts. The strategies adopted subsequently by borrowers and creditors to chart their way through the moral maze that surrounded the issue of debt are delineated. The oral history aspect of research is outlined, explaining how the social memory surrounding the topic was probed. Borrowers and the businesses that provided credit sought to portray their actions within the norms of respectability. The gendered nature of working class money management and its place in social memory is probed. The use of business sources and the National Archives is related, as are changing historical attitudes towards consumer credit.
The moneylender unmasked
Authors: O'Connell Sean 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter examines parliamentary investigations of moneylending, explaining the often unintended consequences of legislation and offering insights for contemporary anti-debt debates. The Moneylenders Act 1900, aimed largely at the alleged misdemeanours of Jewish moneylenders, encouraged the registration of thousands of female lenders who provided small, expensive loans to female neighbours. Though labelled ‘she usurers’ by anti-debt campaigners, borrowers offered more ambivalent, less price-sensitive perspectives on their role in reciprocal networks. The gendered and localized nature of lending is explored via oral evidence gathered in Belfast. The Moneylenders Act 1927 increased registration fees and capped interest rates at 48%. Licensed lenders reduced markedly and the sector stagnated until the 1950s. However, numerous small-scale moneylenders retreated to the subterranean illegal market. Evidence from Glasgow suggests that violence against debtors increased as a result, although repayment was usually ensured via reliance on borrowers' sense of obligation or low level harassment.
Conclusion
Authors: O'Connell Sean 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter rejects the notion that low-income consumers were feckless. Such statements emanated from a model of the rational middle-class consumer and frequently made little sense in the context of the choices available to the working-classes. The extent to which low-income consumers demonstrated agency is highlighted. It is noted that the operational model of Victorian tallymen continues to work for modern doorstep moneylenders. This is despite recent accusations, by the New Economics Foundation, that their business was amongst the worst excesses of the free market. However, the Department and Trade and Industry concluded that their existence limited the scale of the illegal sector, which is much larger in France and Germany (where interest rate ceilings have prevented the development of a legal sub-prime sector). Different European approaches to sub-prime lending are discussed, as is the possibility of an effective not for profit mutual engagement with low-income borrowers.
Fidelity to Promises and the Peculiar Act of the Mind
Authors: Cohon Rachel 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter considers the artificial virtue of fidelity to promises and contracts. The problem with fidelity is that if we understand it as a natural rather than a conventionally created virtue, we have to pretend that the obligation of a promise is the result of some mysterious (and indeed impossible) mental act. It is argued that an analysis exactly parallel to the one that allows us to explain what Hume says about honesty explains his remarks about fidelity. It shows why the paradox arises about the ‘peculiar act of the mind’ in the case of fidelity to promises, and how Hume proposes to handle it. The solution emerges from understanding fidelity as another prosthetic virtue whose conventional status is covered up by our tendency to assimilate it to natural virtues.
Human Rights Transformed
Authors: Fredman FBA Sandra 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This book moves beyond the artificial boundary between socio-economic and civil and political rights and instead focuses on the positive duties to which all rights give rise. Human rights have traditionally been understood as protecting individual freedom against intrusion by the State. This book argues that human rights are based on a far richer view of freedom, going beyond absence of coercion and focussing on the ability to exercise such freedom. This requires positive action to facilitate freedom, and substantive equality. It also recognizes the essentially social nature of human beings, and the crucial role of social interaction in advancing freedom. Drawing on political theory and social policy, as well as comparative experience from India, South Africa, the European Convention on Human Rights, the EU, US, Canada, and the UK, the book aims to create a theoretical and applied framework for understanding positive human rights duties. The first part focuses on creating an analytic framework for understanding positive duties. Chapter 1 aims to refashion the underlying values of liberty, equality and solidarity to yield the rich understanding of human rights argued for in this book. Chapter 2 focuses on the State, examining the role of positive human rights duties in furthering democracy, and in respect of globalization and privatization. Part II aims to fashion a democratic role for courts as well as examining alternative compliance methods, while Part III applies the analysis to specific rights, firstly equality, and then the traditional socio-economic rights to housing, education, and welfare.
Introduction
Authors: Fredman Sandra 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of how human rights give rise to ‘negative’ duties of the State, preventing it from interfering with individuals, rather than requiring the State to take positive action. It then identifies some of the dichotomies arising from the distinction between duties of restraint and positive duties, focusing on socio-economic rights. It argues that infringements of basic socio-economic rights has been tolerated at a level which would never have been acceptable for breach of civil and political rights. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Kant's transcendentalism
Authors: Maddy Penelope 
Published: January 2009

AbstractKant provides the first example of a recurring methodological contrast that sets the Second Philosopher's approach into high relief. In his effort to explain the source of our a priori information about the world — that the world consists of causally interrelated spatiotemporal objects — he proposes that space, time, and the categories are cognitive functions that shape the matter of experience to form the empirical world. The Second Philosopher will naturally ask for his evidence that spatiotemporal objects aren't fully objective, to which Kant responds that for her empirical purposes they are; his idealism is transcendental. From a second-philosophical point of view, this is mystifying: over and above her empirical studies, there is another, transcendental inquiry, pursued for reasons that elude her (she doesn't believe geometry is a priori, for example, so she has no need to explain this) and with methods that aren't made clear, let alone convincingly defended (transcendental analysis). For Kant, there are two distinct levels of inquiry; for the Second Philosopher, there is only one.
Kant on logic
Authors: Maddy Penelope 
Published: January 2009

AbstractFor Kant, logical truth arises from the structure of the discursive intellect (i.e., an intellect that relates to objects indirectly, by means of concepts). Discursive cognition necessarily involves application of the categories, so we know a priori that the world as experienced by the discursive knower will consist of objects-with-properties standing in ground-consequent relations. This means that logical truths count as (roughly) analytic in Kant's famous dichotomy of analytic/synthetic, but the analytic truths involved aren't trivially definitional, but deep, contentful truths uncovered by delicate ‘exposition’ that's subject to error and often incomplete. Furthermore, just as the a priori truths of geometry are true only of the world as experienced by discursive cognizers with our spatiotemporal forms of intuition, likewise the a priori truths of logic are true only of the world as experienced by any discursive cognizer whatsoever. Thus logic is also, in a sense, transcendentally ideal.
Second philosophy of science
Authors: Maddy Penelope 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter returns to the compare-and-contrast approach of Part I, focusing this time on van Fraassen's constructive empiricism. The constructive empiricist holds that no evidence can support the claim that unobservable entities exist, which seems to deny the force of the accepted scientific evidence for the existence of atoms. In a move familiar from Kant, Carnap, and Putnam, van Fraassen agrees that the Second Philosopher's evidence is valid for her purposes, but posits another level of inquiry — philosophical or epistemological inquiry — where the existence of atoms can never be confirmed. As before, the Second Philosopher sees this other inquiry as unmotivated and its methods unclear, but this doesn't ally her with van Fraassen's opponents, the scientific realists, who join him in thinking the ordinary evidence needs some kind of supplementation. The chapter closes with an examination of Worrall's anti-naturalism.
Mathematics in application
Authors: Maddy Penelope 
Published: January 2009

AbstractTurning now to the role of mathematics in natural science, this chapter takes up a number of themes. First, the Quine/Putnam idea that the indispensability of mathematics for much of science confirms the existence of mathematical objects: from a second-philosophical point of view, this argument ignores the fine-structure of scientific justifications (in favor of superficial holism) and the idealizations and simplifications involved in the use of mathematics. If indispensability arguments are rejected, then what does the evidence tell us about the mathematical structure of the world? The KF-structure already detected is enough to support elementary arithmetic, but based on a return to the developmental studies prominent in §III.5, the Second Philosopher argues that as soon as we reach the infinitary ‘and so on’ of number theory, we've entered the realm of idealized, abstract theorizing. The chapter concludes by applying the lessons of Diaconis's statistical work on coincidence to argue that Wigner's ‘miracle’ of applied mathematics is less miraculous than it might seem.
Second methodology of mathematics
Authors: Maddy Penelope 
Published: January 2009

AbstractGiven that natural science no longer dictates the course of mathematical development and that no curtailment of the free flowering of pure mathematics seems prudent, what are the appropriate methods to use? This chapter argues that those methods are not properly based in extra-mathematical metaphysics, that internal mathematical ends and values should carry the day. The various branches of mathematics aim at different goals, which explains why set theorists strive for a single unified theory of sets while geometers and algebraists embrace a variety of structures. Set theory's foundational role requires that its fundamental axioms form a unified list and that they be as generous as possible. These desiderata count against an axiom candidate like the Axiom of Constructibility (V=L).
1 Concerning Some Philosophical Reasons to Believe in Hyperspace
Authors: Hudson Hud 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter contains an extended discussion of two different philosophical (as opposed to physics-based) reasons to believe in the hypothesis of hyperspace. The first examines the phenomenon of incongruent counterparts, paying special attention to the curiously neglected topic of temporally incongruent counterparts and to the popular argument from incongruent counterparts to substantivalism. The second presents a fine-tuning argument for hyperspace, both considering the case for defense of the premises and responding to a range of serious and philosophically interesting objections, which arise in the theistic and multiverse fine-tuning literature.
2 Receptacles: Hosts and Guests
Authors: Hudson Hud 
Published: January 2009

AbstractA receptacle is a region of space possibly exactly occupied by a material object. This chapter defends the Liberal View of Receptacles, according to which absolutely every region is a receptacle, regardless of its dimensionality or topology. With the assistance of certain principles of composition, recombination, and simplicity, three prominent rival theories (theories according to which necessarily, all material objects are topologically open or topologically closed or at least three dimensional) are contested.
Paradise Lost: The Rise of the Night-time High Street
Authors: Hadfield Phil 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter looks in detail at the ways in which the night-time economy in Britain has developed since the late-1980s, from a context of repression and marginality to its current position of centrality to the political economy of British cities. In particular, it traces key shifts in the governance of urban spaces after dark and in nightlife cultures. The chapter documents the emergence of a new ‘night-time high street’ and its increasing dominance by the branded pub chains who exploited legal loopholes in the pre-2003 licensing system to acquire prime locations. This entrepreneurial agenda is contrasted with the repression of unlicensed ‘rave’ events and the repackaging of ‘dance music culture’ by the drinks and leisure industries, linked to the creation of new alcoholic drinks products and lifestyle branding, targeted at the young adult consumer.
Social Security, the Government Budget, and National Savings
Authors: Diamond Peter 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the implication of overlapping generation models on government policies. The government can choose a higher tax rate than the ‘pay as you go’ rate, to increase the baby boomer contribution to the social security fund. The impact of this approach on overlapping generations will depend on the state of the rest of the government budget and people's reaction to such policies. The chapter discusses ways to link the social security and non-social security budges. It analyzes the impact of the 1983 Social Security Reform by Congress through a model that considers a one-period rise in payroll taxes to permanently increase the trust fund. When the model reaches its asymptotic steady state marked by the end of the initial period, all the persons in the initial period will die, and as production technology is linear, capital will be larger in the end when compared to that in the initial period.
Revealed Preference
Authors: Varian Hal R. 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter emphasizes the utility maximization of Samuelson's Revealed Preference Theory. It looks for consistency, form, forecasting, and recoverability criteria within the theory. It concludes that the strong axiom is necessary and sufficient for utility maximization, as well as rich in empirical content. The logic of the strong axiom runs as follows: If A reveals itself to be ‘better than’ B, and if B reveals itself to be ‘better than’ C, and if C reveals itself to be ‘better than’ D, and so on, then the theory of revealed preference is formulated. Furthermore, say that A can be defined to be ‘revealed to be better than’ Z, as the last in the chain. In such cases, it is postulated that Z must never be revealed to be better than A.
Samuelson's “Dr. Jekyll and Mrs. Jekyll” Problem: A Difficulty in the Concept of the Consumer
Authors: Pollak Robert A. 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter describes a rich number of cases in which Samuelson distinguishes between the individual and the family as the consuming agent. The idea that the family demand function can be consistent with axioms of revealed preference is rendered difficult to achieve. Part of the problem involves giving a spouse rather than the family or household a utility function. Then the problem arises as to how the individual demand function is aggregated for the family. On the theoretical side, the chapter considers a Bergson–Samuelson type of social welfare utility function, with implications for Arrow's impossibility theorem. On the application side, the chapter features Becker's ‘rotten kid’ model problem, holding out the possibility of a solution with a family member as a possible dictator.
Paul Samuelson as a “Keynesian” Economist
Authors: Klein L. R. 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter traces the development of Keynesian economics in the US from the early days. Although Keynesian economics came into the US in fragments, Samuelson views it as a unifying principle. One of Samuelson's first attempts in Keynesian economics is the simple mathematical formulation expressed as GDP, in terms of consumption and investment, consumption as dependent on income, and investment as fixed. This chapter characterizes the development of Paul Samuelson as a Keynesian economist and appraises the econometric foundation of Keynesian economics. Samuelson was able to expand and articulate the Keynesian paradigm, through a connection to equilibrium analysis of the demand and supply type. The stage for estimating aggregate models was then set and the author of this chapter was a pioneer in the specification and estimation of the Keynesian model.
Paul Samuelson's Contributions to International Economics
Authors: Rogoff Kenneth 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter evaluates Samuelson's trade contributions such as the Stolper–Samuelson and factor-prices equalization theorems, as vital in today's globalization debate. The ideas that gain from trade can be modeled through side-payment, that Samuelson added intuitive understanding and easy testing of the Stolper–Samuelson Theory, and that the simple ‘iceberg-cost’ metaphor helped our understanding of transit cost and friction in trade, are very active in the modern scientific and development views of modern trade theory. This chapter spans a wide range of thought from the ‘iceberg-cost’ concepts to a Ricardian ‘continuum of goods’ trade model. In between are financial analysis models, such as the Harrod–Balassa–Samuelson Theorem, according to which the exchange rate increases faster for growing countries, and which has led to the development of the Heston–Summer database for world comparison of income and prices. The chapter also presents a contribution to the transfer problem.
Samuelson and the Factor Bias of Technological Change: Toward a Unified Theory of Growth and Unemployment
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter takes account of a simple model Samuelson enunciated over forty years ago on the liberalization of the capital markets. It appraises the capital liberating model first from the traditional equilibrium points of view, and then from his new paradigm of disequilibria or market imperfection points of view. In the equilibrium version, some ambiguity exists as to how technological progress would augment capital or labor. Kaldor's stylized facts approach had assumed away the problem. The standard Harrod–Domar model did not include the effect of technological change, and when added, the disequilibria between exogenous labor, and adjusted warranted growth rate became clear. Solow's modification did improve the analysis by making capital and effective labor grow at the same rate, but at the price of diminishing the concept of a job.
Samuelson and Investment for the Long Run
Authors: Markowitz Harry M. 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter examines a debate with Samuelson regarding which criteria the long-run investor should maximize in their portfolio. It provides the example of receiving either 6% per year with certainty or a lottery with an equal chance of 200% gain or 100% log of 1 plus the returns is negative infinity (-∞). Therefore, the investor would choose the certain prospect. The chapter considers whether the long-run investor should follow the arithmetic mean or the log arithmetic (geometric mean) criteria in maximizing its portfolio. It also makes the case for the log model, although Samuelson has argued that because a prospect offers an almost certain probability that does not mean that it must yield a better expected value of utility.
The first Advocate General, Maurice Lagrange
Authors: Greaves Rosa 
Published: January 2009

AbstractMaurice Lagrange was appointed Advocate General in 1953 and retired in 1964. He delivered over 60 Opinions in a period of 10 years, covering a wide range of issues. This chapter focuses on the Opinions delivered by Advocate General Lagrange on the admissibility of direct actions before the European Court of Justice brought by undertakings, and on the scope of new procedures introduced by the EC Treaty which have played a significant role in creating and sustaining a uniform Community legal order (Article 226 action and Article 234 preliminary ruling).