bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A sociolinguistic approach to the use of entonces (so) in the oral narratives of young bilinguals in the United States
Authors: Said-Mohand Aixa 
Published: July 2008

The main objective of this study was to assess the impact of English in the Spanish spoken by young Spanish heritage speakers with regard to the use of the Spanish connector entonces(so). The sociolinguistic variables of Spanish language competence and generational adscription were taken into account. The data stem from 56 semi-formal interviews with Spanish heritage language students at the University of Florida. All occurrences of Spanish entonces and English so were codified according to their functions to later correlate those functions with the sociolinguistic variables mentioned above. The results revealed that entonces is used to mark primarily narrative progression, consequence and conclusion while so is used to express consequence and conclusion, as reported in previous studies (Torres, 2002; Aaron, 2004). While both so and entonces share those functions, so never is used to mark temporality. With respect to the social variables, the most significant one is participants’ Spanish level of proficiency. The general results indicate that Spanish dominant speakers tend to use more entonces and fewer so, in contrast to those least proficient in Spanish. Also, for the English dominant speakers so triggers a code-switch from Spanish into English, and for the Spanish-dominant speakers the insertion of so is considered an integrated borrowing.
Riding the Tide: Indigenous Knowledge, History and Water in a Changing Australia
Authors: Goodall Heather 
Published: July 2008

Abstract
Indigenous people's knowledge of their environments, often called Traditional Environmental Knowledge [TEK], is widely invoked today in many arenas of environmental analysis and natural resource management as a potential source of beneficial approaches to sustainability. Indigenous knowledge is most often discussed in this literature and practice as if it were a static archive of data, largely unchanging since the point of colonisation and/or modernisation in the area under study. This paper discusses the contested and relational nature of indigeneity and challenges the ahistorical conceptualisation of indigenous knowledge. It does so by drawing on the work of historians and anthropologists to argue that indigenous knowledge, about environmental and other matters, should be seen as a process rather than an archive. This approach offers a way to understand how indigenous knowledge of environments might continue to be meaningful and relevant in conditions of rapid environmental change. A case study of one such situation is the upper Darling River region in Australia, colonised by the British from the 1840s. Water courses, springs and water holes have been critically important both in the conservation of indigenous environmental knowledge and in shaping the way it has developed in interaction with the long and challenging conditions of colonisation. Tracing the historical changes in indigenous knowledge offers the possibility not only of identifying continuing viable alternatives to western agricultural or conservation strategies but also of identifying environmental change over the time of colonisation, particularly in relation to areas associated with the passage and use of water.
LACAN, THE PLAGUE
Authors: Roudinesco Elisabeth 
Published: July 2008

Le 7 novembre 1955, à l'invitation du professeur Hans Hoff, qui dirige la Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Universitätsklinik, Jacques Lacan donne une conférence qu'il intitule ‘Le sens du retour à Freud en psychanalyse’. On ne connaît pas la version originelle de ce texte publié pour la première fois en 1956 et repris avec quelques variantes en 1966 sous le titre ‘La chose freudienne ou Sens du retour à Freud en psychanalyse’. Dans cette intervention intitulée ‘Lacan, la peste’, présentée à Vienne en 2005, lors de la célébration du cinquantenaire de la conférence de Lacan, Elisabeth Roudinesco montre comment celui-ci fonde – à travers l'idée que Freud aurait apporté la peste lors de son voyage aux Etats-Unis en 1909 – le mythe d'une représentation révolutionnaire de la théorie freudienne qui colle avec ce qu'elle nomme ‘l’exception française'. La France est en effet le seul pays au monde où, avec les surréalistes, puis avec l'enseignement de Lacan, la doctrine de Freud a été regardée comme une pensée subversive, irréductible à toute forme de psychologie adaptative, au point d'être assimilée à une ‘épidémie’, semblable à ce qu'avait été la Révolution de 1789. At the invitation of Professor Hans Hoff, Director of the Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Universitätsklinik, Jacques Lacan gave on 7 November 1955 a lecture entitled ‘The meaning of the return to Freud in psychoanalysis’. The original version of this paper is unknown though it was published for the first time in 1956 and reprinted in 1966, with some variants, with the title: ‘The Freudian Thing or the meaning of the return to Freud in psychoanalysis’. In a conference entitled ‘Lacan, The Plague’, held in Vienna in 2005, Elisabeth Roudinesco shows how Lacan – through the idea that Freud would have brought the plague with him on his 1909 trip to America – created the myth of a revolutionary representation of Freudian ideas related to ‘the French exception’. France is indeed the only country in the world where – after Surrealism and Lacan' teaching – Freud's doctrine have been seen as a subversive theory, irreducible to any forms of adaptive psychology and assimilated to an epidemic like the French Revolution.
Epistemics for Forensics
Authors: Koppl Roger G. , Kurzban Robert , Kobilinsky Lawrence 
Published: July 2008

ABSTRACTForensic science error rates are needlessly high. Applying the perspective of veritistic social epistemology to forensic science could produce new institutional designs that would lower forensic error rates. We make such an application through experiments in the laboratory with human subjects. Redundancy is the key to error prevention, discovery, and elimination. In the “monopoly epistemics” characterizing forensics today, one privileged actor is asked to identify the truth. In “democratic epistemics,” several independent parties are asked. In an experiment contrasting them, democratic epistemics reduced the rate at which biased observers obscured the truth by two-thirds. These results highlight, first, the potential of “epistemic systems design,” which employs the techniques of economic systems design to address issues of veracity rather than efficiency, and second, the value of “experimental epistemology,” which employs experimental techniques in the study of science.
Testimony as a Natural Kind
Authors: Michaelian Kourken 
Published: July 2008

ABSTRACTI argue, first, that testimony is likely a natural kind (where natural kinds are accurately described by the homoeostatic property cluster theory) and that if it is indeed a natural kind, it is likely necessarily reliable. I argue, second, that the view of testimony as a natural kind and as necessarily reliable grounds a novel, naturalist global reductionism about testimonial justification and that this new reductionism is immune to a powerful objection to orthodox Humean global reductionism, the objection from the too-narrow induction base.
Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and Other Categories of Glucose Intolerance
Authors: Zimmet Paul , Cowie Catherine , Ekoe Jean‐Marie , Shaw Jonathan 
Published: July 2008

AbstractAccurate and appropriate classification of a disease is vital to its study and treatment. The classification of diabetes and other states of glucose intolerance has undergone a number of changes over the last few decades, reflecting progress in the understanding of the condition. The most recent update by the World Health Organization and American Diabetes Association has changed the classification from one based on treatment to one based on underlying pathological processes. Impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose are included within this framework, recognizing the importance of these conditions as risk factors for both cardiovascular disease and future diabetes. This chapter details the changes made, and discusses the implications of the new classification.
Development and Life Cycle of a β‐Cell
Authors: Serup Palle , Nielsen Jens Høiriis 
Published: July 2008

Abstract

The understanding of the molecular biology of the pancreas β‐cell began 25 years ago with the cloning of the insulin cDNA, followed by the determination of the genomic organization and the identification of multiple
cis
‐ and
trans
‐acting elements in the 5′‐flanking region. The developmental biology of the pancreas started earlier but was put on hold until the molecular biological technology allowed approaching the questions raised some 30 years ago. A major breakthrough happened 8 years ago when disruption of the gene for an insulin gene transcription factor was found to ablate the development of the pancreas. This has greatly stimulated the search for new transcription factors and their regulation by growth and differentiation factors in order to understand the basal molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of the pancreas β‐cell and the perspectives for prevention, treatment, and cure of diabetes. The maintenance of an appropriate β‐cell mass depends on neogenesis from progenitor cells, proliferation of existing β‐cells, and β‐cell death. The balance between these processes is regulated by a complex interaction of metabolites, hormones, and growth factors. Under normal conditions there appears to be a close correspondence between insulin demand and the functional β‐cell mass. The function of the β‐cell is not only under acute regulation by nutrients following a meal but is also subject to regulation by chronic changes in the insulin demand as in pregnancy or obesity, which result in adjustment of the β‐cell number.
The Role of Energy Expenditure in the Regulation of Energy Balance
Authors: Ravussin Eric , Kozak Leslie P. 
Published: July 2008

Abstract
Throughout evolution, humans and animals have evolved redundant mechanisms promoting accumulation of fat (minimal energy expenditure and maximal food intake) during periods of feast to survive periods of famine. With the recent abrupt change in environmental conditions in which high fat food is constantly available and in which there is little need for physical activity (the current “pathoenvironment” or “toxic environment”), obesity has reached epidemic proportions in both industrialized countries and in urbanized populations around the world. Obesity results from a chronic imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. Hyperphagia, a low metabolic rate, low rates of fat oxidation, and an impaired sympathetic nervous activity characterize animal models of obesity. Similar metabolic factors have been found to characterize humans susceptible to weight gain. Despite the discovery of leptin more than 8 years ago and an unprecedented expansion of research efforts, our knowledge about the molecular mechanisms underlying obesity remains rudimentary. The cloning of genes corresponding to several mouse monogenic obesity syndromes and the subsequent characterization of the pathways involved have however shed some light, mostly on the regulation of food intake but much less on energy metabolism. This chapter will first state the premises of the regulation of energy balance, then review the variability of physiological mechanisms underlying the variability in energy balance, and finally summarize some of the important recent discoveries of the molecular mechanisms of energy expenditure.
Pancreas Transplantation
Authors: Robertson R. Paul 
Published: July 2008

AbstractPancreas transplantation was first begun for the treatment of type 1 diabetes in humans in 1966. Not many procedures were performed up to 1978 because of the low rates of graft survival. Thereafter, important improvements in immunosuppressive therapy developed, most notably the use of anti‐T‐cell agents and cyclosporine. These new drugs, combined with new surgical techniques and the selection of healthier recipients, led to a much greater use of pancreas transplant for therapeutic intervention. By the year 2000, over 14 000 pancreas transplantations had been performed worldwide. Successful pancreas transplantation restores normal glycemia and glucagon and symptom responses to hypoglycemia as well as stabilizes neuropathy and macrovascular disease. It can also reverse structural damage in kidneys. Quality‐of‐life studies demonstrate excellent acceptance of the procedure by patients.
Effect of Intensive Glycemic Control on Macrovascular Events in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus
Authors: Al-Harthi Abdulaziz R. , Herman William H. 
Published: July 2008

AbstractHyperglycemia is associated with cardiovascular disease. In patients with diabetes, cardiovascular disease is common and represents the major cause of morbidity and mortality. While there is strong evidence that intensive glycemic control reduces the risk of microvascular complications in patients with diabetes, its impact on cardiovascular disease is less clear. Meta‐analyses of randomized, controlled, clinical trials in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes have generally failed to demonstrate a statistically significant impact of intensive glycemic control on cardiovascular events. Unfortunately, none of the trials included in the meta‐analyses was designed to assess the impact of treatment on cardiovascular disease. It is possible that if the differences in HbA1clevels between treatment groups had been greater, the trials had been larger, and the follow‐up had been longer, the trials might have demonstrated cardiovascular benefit. It is also possible that hyperglycemia itself does not cause cardiovascular disease. The association between hyperglycemia and features of the metabolic syndrome, including abdominal obesity, insulin resistance, hypertension, hypertriglyceridemia, and low high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol, suggest many alternative causal pathways.
Arterial Hypertension in Diabetes: Etiology and Treatment
Authors: Bakris George L. , Tarif Nauman , Black Henry R. 
Published: July 2008

AbstractHypertension is highly prevalent among people with diabetes, especially those with type 2 diabetes. While the genesis of hypertension in diabetes is multifactorial, it is clear that early dysfunction of the vasculature, related, in part, to abnormalities in modulation of vascular tone by nitric oxide, heralds development of hypertension in such individuals. Presence of hypertension substantially increases the risk of adverse outcomes with regard to both the CV and renal systems. Once nephropathy becomes manifest, i.e. elevation in serum creatinine and macroalbuminuria, lowering of blood pressure to the recommended guideline goals slows kidney disease progression and reduces CV risk to a greater extent than does glucose control. Based on recent guidelines if systolic blood pressure is >15–20 mmHg above the goal, two drugs should be started, one of which should to be a diuretic. Clearly, angiotensin‐converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers have also demonstrated benefits in these patients when used in concert with diuretics. The positive outcomes with diuretics relates clearly to their ability to lower blood pressure, especially in volume‐expanded individuals, which is true of virtually all people with diabetes because of the effects of insulin on proximal tubular sodium reabsorption.
The Organization of Diabetes Care: Western Pacific Region (China and Hong Kong as Examples)
Authors: Chan Juliana C.N. , Cockram Clive S. 
Published: July 2008

Abstract
Asia is at the forefront of a global epidemic of diabetes. The region is receiving a double hit from a rising prevalence of young‐onset diabetes and from an aging population. The burden of diabetes and its complications threatens to overwhelm health care systems in the region, which contains 25% of the world's population. In this chapter, the need for new approaches and for the evolution of health care delivery from a predominant focus on treatment of acute illnesses to management of chronic diseases and health maintenance are discussed, using Hong Kong and China as examples. The problems are discussed as are some possible solutions that can be applied without major increase in public‐funding provision. Collaboration, both multidisciplinary and intersectoral, is emphasized.
The Economics of Diabetes Care: The Americas
Authors: Songer Thomas J. , Barcelo Alberto 
Published: July 2008

Abstract
Economic issues in diabetes care are garnering great attention throughout the world today. This attention has been particularly pronounced in recent years. Cost issues in diabetes are of interest now because of three current and significant influences that have long‐term implications. The first influence is the recognition that diabetes is a significant disease and one that is increasing. The second influence affecting diabetes economics is the advent of several new treatments and intervention strategies in diabetes care. Both pharmaceutical manufacturers and researchers have recognized the emerging epidemic of diabetes as an opportunity for change. Tremendous advances in diabetes research and care have been the result. The third influence is not specific to diabetes, but characteristic of the general prevailing winds affecting health care today. It is the worldwide push to implement health care reform. Over the last century, remarkable advances in life expectancy have been observed. As the priorities for health care have shifted from communicable diseases to noncommunicable diseases, expenditures for medical care have risen throughout the world.
Diabetes Cost: Sub‐Saharan Africa Perspective
Authors: Mbanya Jean Claude 
Published: July 2008

AbstractDiabetes mellitus is emerging as a major health problem in sub‐Saharan Africa. The economic burden of diabetes mellitus on the patient, family, community, and nation is enormous. The gross national product varied from US$483 in Tanzania to US$3040 in South Africa, with the percentage of gross domestic product spent on health care ranging from 0.7% in Nigeria to 7.15% in South Africa. Theper capitaexpenditure is relatively low in international terms. It follows from these figures that the region has limited resources to invest in diabetes care. The limited availability of private medical insurance and the absence of a free national health service in most countries of the region mean that the burden of diabetes care is on the patient or the family. There is limited information on the economics of diabetes care in sub‐Saharan Africa. In Tanzania, about US$4 million would have been required to take care of all patients with diabetes in the year 1989–1990, which translates to US$138 per patient per annum. This sum is equivalent to 8.1% of the total budgeted health expenditure for that financial year and well above the allocated per capita health expenditure in Tanzania of US$2 for the year 1989–1990. In Cameroon, the average direct medical cost of treating a patient with diabetes in 2001 was US$489, with 56% of this cost spent on hospital admissions, 33.5% on antidiabetic drugs, 5.5% on laboratory tests, and 4.5% on consultation fees. The direct medical costs for treating all diabetic patients in Cameroon represented about 3.5% of the national budget for the 2001–2002 financial year. A rough estimate (published from Tanzania) of indirect cost of diabetes calculated as healthy life days lost by a diabetic patient because of premature death, disability before death, chronic disability, and acute illness due to diabetes was 4100 days per patient, of which 69% was due to premature mortality. There is a need for well‐targeted studies on the economic burden of diabetes from sub‐Saharan Africa. In a region with limited resources and where every decision should be seen in terms of cost and outcomes, the use of cost‐effectiveness and cost–benefit studies to evaluate the economic efficiency of diabetes treatment, interventions, and programs should be encouraged.
Prevention of Type 1 Diabetes
Authors: Harrison Leonard C. , Fourlanos Spiros , Every Alison L. , Honeyman Margo C. , Steptoe Raymond J. , Martinez Nathan R. , Jensen Kent P. , Funda David P. , Mannering Stuart I. , Colman Peter G. , Narendran Parth 
Published: July 2008

AbstractIncreasing knowledge of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of autoimmune pancreatic β‐cell destruction, together with proof‐of‐principle for therapeutic interventions in the nonobese diabetic mouse model, provides a platform for the prevention of type 1 diabetes in humans. The concept of prevention extends to people with clinical diabetes, not only to preserve residual β‐cell function but to prevent recurrent autoimmune disease after therapeutic β‐cell replacement or regeneration.Primary prevention awaits the identification of environmental agents that trigger or promote disease on a background of genetic susceptibility. The last two decades have, however, witnessed clinical trials of a range of candidate agents for secondary prevention, predominantly in people with recently diagnosed diabetes. It can be argued that intervention is likely to be more effective in those at risk, identified by the presence of circulating islet antibodies. Strategies for secondary prevention encompass nonspecific immune suppression, nonspecific immune stimulation, nonspecific immune regulation, antigen‐specific immune regulation, and β‐cell protection. The shift has been away from nonspecific immunosuppressive drugs to more specific immunoregulatory agents. Preservation of C‐peptide secretion in the first year after diagnosis has been demonstrated in some randomized trials, but has not been sustained. Autoantigen‐induced immune regulation, which is safe and effective in animal models of autoimmune disease, requires further evaluation in at‐risk humans. The need for better surrogate immune and metabolic response markers, especially islet antigen‐reactive T‐cells, remains pressing. The prevention of type 1 diabetes will most likely occur incrementally, with increasingly specific and targeted agents being evaluated according to disease stage and risk, analogous to the evolving treatment regimens for cancer or HIV. This chapter describes the rationale and current approaches to the prevention of type 1 diabetes.
Active
X
Authors: Erenshteyn Roman 
Published: July 2008

Abstract
The chapter presents a review of ActiveX technology, a popular and efficient tool for the Internet community. ActiveX is a somewhat fuzzy term. It can be considered a brand name, and technologies grouped under this term are generally related to the Internet and the Web in some way, but it also can be included in almost all applications that require user interface. An ActiveX Control is a class, which is an effective way to create code that can be easily reused in future by the original developer or others. With ActiveX, a developer can design a complex control made out of others. As is true of other class, ActiveX Controls contain class members with defined properties, methods, and events. Historically, ActiveX grew of Object Linking and Embedding, a Microsoft technology. Today ActiveX technologies are usually built using Microsoft's Component Object Model. The interest in this topic has grown dramatically since 1995, mostly because of the development of advanced technologies for Web design. Technologies used for the development and implementation of e‐business and e‐commerce include VB‐scripting (Visual Basic), Java‐scripting, XML (extensive markup language), and Active Server Pages.