bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Commercial Development of Offshore Marine Phosphates
Authors: Manderson M.C. 
Published: October 2008

1. Purpose
The objective of this paper is to portray the current and longer range status of the world phosphate rock industry in such a way as to allow individuals or groups who are knowledgeable in underwater mining technology to better assess the near term commercial prospects for recovering phosphate minerals from subsurface offshore deposits. To assist the reader in making this assessment, particularly as to the approximate time frame when subsurface recovery of phosphorite nodules may become attractive, this discussion examines the intermediate and long range supply-demand outlook for presently known commercial grade deposits along with related mining costs, quality of reserves and approximate delivered costs to reach major world markets.

II. World Phosphate Demand vs. Reserve Availability

A. Present Situation
In 1970 world phosphate rock consumption ranged between 75 and 80 million long tons. Consumption was divided as follows: 30% was consumed in North America, 50% in eastern and western Europe (including the USSR), 10% in Asia, and the remaining 10% in Oceania and Africa (combined). The breakdown in consumption by area is shown in Table 1.
Current world production of phosphate rock is presented in Table 2, by major producing areas. The United States accounts for about 40% of total world production; most of the balance is supplied about equally from North Africa and the Soviet Union, each with 20-25% of the world total. The remaining 10% is produced in Asia and Oceania, with the most important production occurring on the three Southeast Asian islands of Nauru, Ocean, and Christmas.
Approximately 50% of total world rock production now moves in international trade, or J5-40 million tons per year. Table 3 shows the approximate export tonnage in 1970 from each of the major exporting areas. The United States accounts for about 30% of international trade, and North Africa accounts for 40-50% of international movements. The remaining 20-30% is supplied jointly from Russia and from the three phosphate producing islands of Ocean, Nauru, and Christmas.
Figure 1 presents the current pattern of international trade. A large majority of Europe's supply comes from North Africa and to a lesser extent from West Africa, the United States and from the Kola Peninsula in Russia. A large new source of North African rock production will be forthcoming soon from the Spanish Sahara. Spanish output will also be oriented principally to markets in Europe.
The United States exports about equal volumes of phosphate rock eastward to Northern Europe and westward to the Pacific Basin area, in which its major market is Japan. Rock production from the three aforementioned Southeast Asia islands is dedicated almost entirely to New Zealand and Australia.

B. Future Situation

1. World-Wide
One of the pivotal questions affecting the commercialization timetable for undersea phosphate sources relates to the relationship between future phosphate demand and the known reserves of commercial grade rock from deposits on land.
Fast Track FPSO's for Deepwater and Ultra-Deepwater
Authors: Wyllie Michael W.J. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
SBM has recently added three Brazilian FPSO's to its lease fleet: the Espadarte FPSO, FPSO Brasil and FPSO Marlim Sul, all operating in the Campos Basin. These projects involved many challenges, including deepwater and ultra deepwater conditions, fast track schedules and large topside processing facilities. This paper describes the technical features of the vessels, along with the methods adopted to meet these challenges, and focuses specifically on the evolution of the design to incorporate lessons learned.

INTRODUCTION
Single Buoy Moorings Inc (SBM), a member of the IHC Caland Group, owns and operates three deepwater Floating Production, Storage and Offloading (FPSO) vessels that are currently operating in the Campos Basin, offshore Brazil. These units, which are leased to our client, Petroleo Brasileiro S.A. (Petrobras), are:Espadarte FPSO, operating in 800m water depth on the Espadarte field since 2000.FPSO Brasil, operating in 1300m water depth on the Roncador field since 2002.FPSO Marlim Sul, soon to start operation in 1200m water depth on the Marlim Sul field. These three world-scale FPSO projects faced technical challenges due to deepwater and ultra deepwater locations, and project execution challenges due to the ambitious fast track schedules. The strategy on these projects was to use preengineered proven building blocks to deliver fit-for purpose FPSO's on fast track schedules. This approach has also been used recently by SBM to deliver a 'generic' series of 3 large leased FPSO vessels to ExxonMobil for projects in West Africa.
This paper provides a general overview of the 3 Brazilian FPSO projects, highlights some of the factors contributing to their success, and describes some of the methods adopted to meet the above challenges. The evolution of design of these three vessels, to incorporate lessons learned, is also discussed.

GENERAL
The three SBM owned and operated FPSO's in the Campos Basin look rather similar, and have benefited from synergy to achieve fast track schedules. However, they do differ in many ways, and each has been tailored to match specific project requirements.
The Espadarte FPSO serves a number of deepwater fields, in addition to Espadarte. Production from the nearby Marimba Leste field may also be tied in to this vessel. The FPSO has therefore been designed to be flexible in terms of its ability to process a range of crude oils from 18 to 29° API, and has provision for future Electric Submersible Pumps (ESP's) in up to 4 wells.
The water depth at the originally selected location for this FPSO was 1000m. This location was changed at a late stage of the project to accommodate new field data, and the FPSO was finally moored in 800m.
Single Point Mooring System for an Offshore LNG Import Terminal
Authors: Krekel M.H. , Leeuwenburgh R. , Bishop W.M. , Davis J.F. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
The paper describes the conceptual design of an offshore LNG import terminal based on the 'Bishop Process', sited on Vermilion, block 179, offshore Louisiana. It clarifies the Basis of Design for the complete terminal and describes the design and verification process followed for the Single Point Mooring ystem for offloading of LNG. The work done to date confirms the technical and economical feasibility of the concept. Although new in configuration, most of the individual components have been in use for LNG terminals and SPM systems for a long time.

Introduction
The US is currently by far the world's largest gas market. Of the current supply 85% is produced within the US, and 15% is imported; 98% from Canada and only 2% in the form of LNG. Whereas US demand is expected to grow with 2% per annum, the current U.S. gas production shows an increasing intrinsic decline rate and more undiscovered gas reserves are needed each year to keep up with demand. E&P operations in new frontier areas (e.g. the Alaskan North slope) are unlikely to be allowed in the near future and gradually the realization is dawning that only large scale LNG imports can meet the expected demand and stabilize the price of natural gas. In its annual outlook for 2004 the US Energy Information Administration predicts that LNG imports will grow from a modest 0.2 tcf in 2002 to 4.8 tcf or 15% of expected total supply by 2025[1]. Although new liquefaction projects for gas are being sanctioned, community concerns, congested ports, security and cost considerations are seen to frustrate the development of significant increases in capacities to receive LNG in the US but also in Europe.
This paper describes the conceptual design for an offshore LNG import terminal based on the 'Bishop Process', which is developed as part of a research project sponsored by the US Department of Energy's National Energy Technology Laboratory. Ten companies, ranging from operators, mid stream companies, contractors and equipment vendors are participating in this project. The objective of this cooperative research is to design, construct, field test and evaluate the performance of key components of a salt cavern based LNG receiving facility and to describe their application in LNG receiving facilities in the Gulf coast and North-East US.
Salt cavern based LNG import terminals have material advantages over tank design terminals in capital costs, operating costs, volume of storage, send out rates, security, and acceptance by the community[2]. As a consequence of the abundant appearance of salt formations found in the Gulf region in combination with hydrocarbon accumulations, the concept has very high potential in this region: not only is the connecting infrastructure to the US gas distribution system in place, it is also underutilized because of declining production and thus there is capacity available to handle large volumes of LNG imports.
The Peaking of Oil: Reality or Simply a Myth?
Authors: Simmons Matthew R. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
The world's 120 largest oilfields produce close to 33 million barrels of oil a day, almost 50% of the world's crude oil supply. The 62 smallest "giant fields" account for 12% of the world's daily oil supply. In contrast, the fourteen largest fields, whose average age is 43.5 years, account for over 20%!
With production from giant fields providing such a significant share of the world's oil supply, it seems important to understand the decline rates each of these fields now experience and to determine what future decline rates are likely to be. Unfortunately, there is little publicly available data for even the most visible of these giant fields to even make an educated guess at this important statistic.
There is ample data showing that giant oilfields do ultimately peak and then begin to decline. All the giant fields of Texas are classic illustrations of this. Prudhoe Bay, Cusiana, or the entire population of the North Sea's true giant fields also demonstrate not only that large fields decline but also that production declines rapidly once it peaks.
In 1956, M. King Hubbert predicted that U.S. oil production would peak in the early 1970's. At the time, Hubbert was widely criticized by some oil experts and economists, but M. King Hubbert's oil prediction is coming to pass in most of the world's existing oil basins.
Saudi's Ghawar field, by far the largest producing oilfield the world has ever known, might last another 100 years. But, the field might also have already peaked. That no public data is available to shed any light on this issue places a giant question mark over the supply from this field. Someday even a field as large as Ghawar will begin its decline. If its decline rate comes close to those experienced by the North Sea fields or Prudhoe Bay, it would take a global drilling boom to find enough smaller fields merely to replace lost Ghawar oil supply.
Sooner or later, most of the world's current population of giant fields will all be in decline. If the world's future supply needs to result from new fields that are getting progressively smaller, it could require over 3,000 new oilfields to be found and developed over the next 10 years compared to just over 400 named new oilfields that were discovered in the past decade.
Until there is far better transparency on the world's giant oilfield production and decline rates, the world can only guess at its future oil supply. There is an urgent need for better data on all these key fields as the welfare of the world's economy depends on it!

Manuscript
The argument of energy resource adequacy has been debated for close to a century. The simple fact that the world now uses over 80 million barrels a day of oil and another 35 million barrels of oil equivalent of natural gas is proof to many skeptics of the peaking concept that this will be a problem worthy of serious analysis in 2004 or beyond.
Timing is Everything: The Information Crisis on Future Oil Supply
Authors: Williams Bob 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
This paper will examine the highly polarized debate over the prospect of an imminent peak and precipitous decline in global oil production, which has seen a sharp resurgence in the petroleum industry in recent years. Coming from a journalist's standpoint of neutrality, this paper will assess the impacts of both the depletionist and antidepletionist scenarios for future oil supply on the petroleum industry and on global society.

Introduction
The highly polarized debate over the prospect of an imminent peak and precipitous decline in global oil production has seen a sharp resurgence in the petroleum industry in recent years.
This is no longer a mere academic exercise, as it has been in the past. The claims of those who believe in an imminent peak-oil scenario are gaining greater credence among media and government circles, pulling the debate into the mainstream of society. In this latest incarnation of the debate, the depletionist school is garnering wider attention because of the debate's currently topical linkages to the volatile geopolitics of war and terrorism and concerns over the postulated catastrophic climate change caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases.
Energy security and environmental issues for decades have been significant drivers of government policymaking affecting the oil and gas industry in major ways. Thus it is apparent that the peak-oil debate will factor into future decisions by government bodies and by the public at large in ways that could have extreme impacts affecting even the future viability of the petroleum industry.
Therefore, it is critical to assess the impacts, in terms of public acceptance, of both the depletionist and antidepletionist scenarios for future oil supply on the petroleum industry and on society overall.
However, there is nothing approaching consensus on the peak-oil debate, as was ascertained in a series of articles this author developed on the theme of Future Energy Supply in the Oil & Gas Journal in summer 2003.1 While there is a spectrum even among centrist positions, the debate remains highly polarized and even rancorous at times.
Unfortunately, as the debate seeps into the mainstream consciousness, it is exactly this sort of polarization that has tremendous appeal to the mainstream media and to political idealogues. It is possible that crucial decisions on this issue will be made by policymaking entities and by consumers that will have a tremendous bearing on the industryâ??s prospects, much as was the case in the wake of the 1970s oil price spikes and the environmental disasters involving the 1969 Santa Barbara Channel oil spill and the 1989 Exxon Valdez tanker oil spill. Given the apocalyptic scenarios offered by the peakoil theory proponents, however, these choices could entail much more far-reaching impacts on the industry, including its very survival.
So it follows that it is imperative that the petroleum industy places a top priority on arriving at some sort of consensus on the peak-oil issue-sooner rather than later.
Seismic Reservoir Surveillance in the Alba Field, UK North Sea
Authors: Nevill Peter , Condon Patrick , Mattson Paul 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
The feasibility of a time-lapse seismic response to production was identified early on in the life of the Alba field, UK North Sea. The reservoir rocks and fluid properties (oil and water), were conducive to a change in seismic properties in response to water encroachment. The acquisition of appropriate seismic data took longer to obtain, due in part to the vintage of the 3D baseline survey (acquired in 1989) and the focus on lithology identification in a subsequent repeat survey (acquired in 1998), shot using ocean bottom cable. The acquisition differences between the two surveys made it difficult to extract more than the simplest 4D response from the surveys.
In 2002, the Britannia coventurers acquired a long offset survey in response to their subsurface requirements. This data provided an opportunity to revisit the overlying Alba 4D response, using a more recent baseline survey and monitor and more similar acquisition geometries.
The intepretation of this more recent baseline and monitor pair showed that the amplitude of the direct hydrocarbon indicator (representing the oil water contact) was reduced by production. The contact was no longer a flat surface near active producers and the Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator (DHI) was seen to be tilted. This was probably in response to the production as the effect was not observed in the vicinity of abandoned producers. Comparison of the observed response to forward modeling of the seismic response from the reservoir simulator confirmed that the effect was water coning under the producers. The forward modeling also identified the possibility for amplitude changes at the top of the reservoir. These areas are being evaluated along with production and reservoir simulation to identify infill producer and injector locations.

Introduction
The Alba Field is located in Block 16/26 in the UK North Sea (Figure 1). The reservoir is a high net-to-gross, unconsolidated Middle Eocene sand interval averaging 100m in thickness at an average depth of 2000m. The reservoir is thought to be the result of high-density turbidity currents depositing large volumes of sand into pre-existing erosional features1. Sands have a porosity of 35%, and permeabilities of 3500mD. The field is closed by pinchout of the sands to the west and east and dip of the sands from north-west to southeast. Local pinchout cause the sands to be compartmentalized into three producing areas known as: the "Main Area,", "15 Area" and "12 Area". The field has produced over 250mmbbls of 19–20 API since January 1994 and in 2003 had a daily average production rate of 82,700 bopd from 30 horizontal producers. Crude oil in Alba has a viscosity of 8.8 cp and is considered to be moderately viscous when compared to other heavy oil fields. Prior to August 2002, pressure is maintained by water injection from 5 injector wells, one in the 15 Area, and four in the center of the Main Area. Production is processed through the Alba Northern Platform.
Magnetometer Compass
Authors: Burt Wayne E. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
A ship or other craft is acted upon by earth's magnetic lines of force. These lines enter and leave the earth at differing angles depending on the ship's location on the earth. The ship's relation to the magnetic lines of force is in three magnetic vectors which are a trigonometric function of the angle of the lines of force.
The ship's relation to these lines is:Horizontal with respect to ship's longitude (HL);Horizontal with respect to athwart ship (HA); and
Vertical (Z). Magnetic north (He) with respect to this navigating ship, is obtained by resolving pythagorean theorem:(Mathematical equation available in full paper)
But, navigation with a magnetic compass is not quite that simple. The ship is continually rolling and pitching. The values of HL and HA are continually changing. Also, the vertical magnetic component (Z) enters the equation. Navigation by the commonly known magnetic compass minimizes these influences by placing the compass bowl on gimbals for stabilization with respect to vertical, placing the compass card in a dampening liquids and using permanent magnets that seek magnetic north (He). Other magnetic techniques are also employed. The advantages and disadvantages of magnetic compasses are well known.
A magnetic compass has been made in which a three-axis magnetometer is permanently fixed to the craft and the stabilization is achieved by roll and pitch accelerometers. Analog computers are employed to seek magnetic North by performing the following trigonometric computations:(Mathematical equation available in full paper)
This is a unique navigating device. It has never been marketed. However, the comprizing components and subassemblies have been proven by service use. This compass overcomes many of the disadvantages of similar devices in that it is simple, compact, static, accurate, and facilitates readout at any location.

INTRODUCTION
The original magnetic compass has been improved and refined; it is hardly recognizable when viewing today's model. Today's models work so well because horizontal orientation of the sensing magnets is maintained by mounting the compass bowl in a gimbal system. Gyroscopic and other mechanical compasses are now employed as supplements and substitutes for the magnetic compass. These mechanical compasses have enjoyed varying degrees of success and acceptance. The most widely used are large and require special power and ancillary equipment for their operation.
Many ships are required to have two magnetic compasses, a standard and a steering. Often, however, the navigation spaces are too confined to accomodate a suitable steering magnetic compass.
Precise navigation is demanded of some small boats. To obtain this needed accuracy, the bulky gyroscopic compass with its ancillary hardware is sometimes employed, or less than precise navigation is accepted.
An accurate, reliable, and small magnetometer compass will answer the needs described. The magnetometer compass will also make a mechanical compass with in the cost reach of the pleasure craft owner. It will assure him of accurate dependable navigation.