bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Viscosity of Food: Measurement and Application
Authors: Rao M.A. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The measurement of viscosity and viscoelastic behavior of fluid foods are reviewed. The role of factors such as rate of shear, temperature, and concentration of soluble and insoluble solids on the viscosity of food is covered. Two important areas in food technology, sensory assessment of viscosity and role of viscosity in pipe flow, are discussed.
Vitamins Analysis in Food
Authors: Ye Lin , Eitenmiller Ronald R. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractVitamin assay of biological materials represents a large and rapidly expanding area. Methods now rely heavily on high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). However, microbiological assay of the water‐soluble vitamins is still routinely used for food analysis owing to the sensitivity and specificity of the methods. An extensive table on physical properties of the vitamins is provided. Such information is dispersed widely in the literature and is often not at the analyst's fingertips when needed. This article concentrates on providing the reader with current HPLC approaches to vitamin analysis of food. Tables are provided that give method summaries referenced to the original work. Because of the scope of the area, recent text references are provided for readers requiring more in‐depth knowledge.
Ion Mobility Spectrometry in Forensic Science
Authors: Karpas Zeev 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The ion mobility spectrometer (IMS) is a device used primarily for detection, identification, and monitoring of trace amounts of gases or vapors. Generally, sample introduction, ionization, ion separation, and detection all take place at ambient pressure, so that elaborate vacuum systems are not required. IMSs are typically small (portable, hand‐held or even pocket‐sized) and respond within seconds to part per billion (ppb), or even part per trillion (ppt) concentration levels. The IMS is not a universal detector and is not suitable for all compounds. It has a limited dynamic range due to its finite reservoir of charge, and may suffer from matrix effects which could interfere with the ionization or ion separation processes and cause spectral interferences. These drawbacks have limited the application of IMS technology to a few fields that require high sensitivity and rapid response, such as the detection of chemical warfare agents (CWA), explosives, and illicit drugs, and the identification and monitoring of toxic gases or vapors.
The array of field and laboratory instruments available today have become useful tools in the prevention of illicit use of contraband substances and in the rapid identification of these and other toxic substances. This article describes the principle of operation of IMSs and the basic gas‐phase ion chemistry underlying the technology. The proven experience, both in the field and in the laboratory, of IMSs for forensic science applications is also described, and the merits and shortcomings of present‐day IMS technology, and future trends, are discussed.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy for the Detection and Quantification of Abused Drugs
Authors: Dawson Brian 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy provides the forensic analyst with an extremely powerful tool for the detection and quantification of abused drugs. A whole range of one‐dimensional (1‐D) and two‐dimensional (2‐D) NMR techniques is available for performing the required analyses. These NMR methods may be used for routine purposes, such as to confirm the identity of a drug or quantify the amount of illicit substance present in a police exhibit. However, the area where NMR stands out as an analytical tool is in the identification of unknown compounds, such as “designer drugs”. NMR is also used in police intelligence work, as it can provide clues to the synthetic route used to prepare the drug. This is done by impurity profiling or by determining the drug's optical purity. Although NMR has been used for many years to analyze abused drugs, even the most modern spectrometers lack the sensitivity obtainable by other techniques such as mass spectrometry (MS) or high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). However, NMR is a nondestructive technique which provides essential structural information which cannot be obtained from these other methods. NMR also has the distinct advantage of not requiring reference standards for the identification of unknowns.
Polymerase Chain Reaction in the Forensic Analysis ofDNA
Authors: Strom Charles M. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis article summarizes the theory behind the uses of DNA analysis for identification purposes. Various techniques are summarized and their strengths and weaknesses are contrasted. The theoretical basis of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and various types of PCR reactions are introduced. A table is provided with loci that can be used for the forensic analysis of DNA. The availability of kits is summarized. Finally, a discussion of mitochondrial DNA analysis is performed.
Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography in Forensic Science
Authors: Blackledge Robert D. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Pyrolysis (as the term is used by analytical chemists) is the breakdown of organic molecules by the application of heat in the absence of oxygen. Because oxygen is absent, combustion (which would produce primarily carbon dioxide and water vapor) does not occur, and the pyrolysis products are characteristic of their parent molecules. Pyrolysis is most often applied to characterize polymeric materials or other samples that cannot normally be vaporized without undergoing decomposition. In pyrolysis gas chromatography (PY/GC) the carrier gas (usually helium or nitrogen) sweeps the pyrolysis products onto a gas chromatography (GC) column.
X‐Ray Fluorescence in Forensic Science
Authors: Roux Claude , Lennard Chris 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis article describes the applications of X‐ray fluorescence (XRF) as an analytical tool in forensic science, including limitations and practical aspects. The use of XRF is specifically discussed for the forensic analysis of materials of forensic interest such as metals, gunshot residues (GSR), paint, glass, soil, fibers, plastic and general polymers, and miscellaneous types of evidence. Recent developments such as micro XRF and total XRF are also described. These specialized techniques have highly desirable characteristics for the elemental profiling of a wide range of forensic samples, and hence it can be anticipated that they will find increasing use in forensic laboratories in the future.
Chromatographic Techniques in Industrial Hygiene
Authors: Hahne Rolf M.A. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractChromatographic techniques in industrial hygiene are defined as those separation and analysis techniques which rely on the separation of multiple chemical constituents by taking advantage of the differential adsorption, absorption, mobility, or affinity of the components in a system with a stationary phase (solid, liquid coated on solid, reactive substituent attached to solid surface, ion exchange resin, etc.) and a mobile phase (gas or liquid) which transports the separated constitutents to a detector for immediate identification and possible quantitation or to a collector for later identification and possible quantitation.By industrial (occupational) hygiene is meant that science and art which is the anticipation, identification, assessment, and control of chemical and physical hazards in the workplace (meant to include offices, places of business, retail establishments, and schools) and home. Included among those methods that make possible the identification and assessment of such hazards are those methods which are used to determine the concentration of airborne and surface chemical contaminants, as well as those which assess levels of exposure to chemical contaminants by the analysis of exhaled breath, blood, urine, or other biological samples.
Parent and Progeny Compounds in Exhaled Breath, Determination of
Authors: Que Hee Shane S. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Breath analysis is the sampling and analysis of an analyte in the exhaled breath of living animals, and the subsequent interpretation of the results.
1
Breath sampling is noninvasive of the body as is urine sampling, unlike blood sampling. All three modes of biological monitoring can be very useful and often are necessary. Breath sampling is especially useful for chemically inert volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

The related branches of scientific endeavor include:

Pulmonary function testing is the measurement of pulmonary parameters to diagnose pulmonary disorders.
2

Pulmonary toxicology is the study of adverse effects of inspired toxicants on the respiratory system.

Inhalation toxicology is the study of adverse effects of inspired toxicants on body target organs and tissues. Pulmonary toxicology is thus a subset of inhalation toxicology. The health consequences of “sniffing” chemicals and “poppers” are included. Many scientists use inhalation toxicology as a term to describe animal experimentation.

Anesthesiology is the intentional exposure of anesthetics in nonadverse doses to humans to aid medical operations where pain would be excessive.

Taste and odor science is the investigation of taste and odor in inspired breath and oral ingestion from natural sources (decaying vegetation, decomposing bodies, and environmental odors) and synthetic sources (food, drink, drugs, cosmetics, perfumes, toiletries, wine tasting and bouquet, beer taste and odor, sewer headspaces and emissions, pesticide applications, garbage and waste sites, natural and potable waters), and environmental and indoor air quality situations. Often taste and odor panels are a part of the evaluation of such phenomena. When used for risk assessment purposes, taste, odor, and other aesthetic considerations are called organoleptic criteria.

This article will focus on human exhaled breath analysis, except where specified otherwise.
Sensors in the Measurement of Toxic Gases in the Air
Authors: Groves William A. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe use of sensors to measure toxic gases and vapors in air has increased rapidly due to several factors, including a growing public awareness of the hazards associated with many airborne chemicals, increasing regulatory requirements for industries using hazardous chemicals, and continuous advancements in the technology and instrumentation available to measure these compounds. The principal advantage of sensor systems for toxic gases and vapors relative to traditional sampling and analytical methods, is the ability to measure chemicals over short time periods, that is, in a matter of seconds or minutes, thus providing the information necessary to protect workers from acute health effects. Modern sensor‐based instrumentation provides many options for processing and storing measurements, thereby allowing extreme flexibility in evaluating exposures to toxic gases and vapors relative to ceiling limits, short‐term exposure limits (STELs), or longer term average concentrations based on user selectable time periods. This extreme range of options for processing data makes sensors an attractive, and in some cases, the only alternative for measuring toxic gases and vapors in air. Most of these devices can be broadly categorized as: (1) electrochemical sensors which constitute the vast majority of devices currently available for detection of toxic gases and vapors; (2) mass sensors that are based on piezoelectric materials including surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices; or (3) optical sensors that rely on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with an analyte, resulting in some alteration of the properties of the radiation. The most common applications of sensors for measuring toxic gases and vapors in air include industrial hygiene monitoring, confined space monitoring, process emission monitoring, and leak detection.
Surface and Dermal Monitoring
Authors: Ness Shirley A. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Skin contamination can produce the same types of toxic effects as inhalation if a chemical can significantly penetrate the skin. Surface contamination can be ingested orally, create airborne exposures when surface buildup is disturbed, and be transferred into other areas, including from the workplace into the home. When used to determine the potential for dermal exposure, methods are often categorized as indirect or direct. Indirect methods involve the use of filters, gauze pads, or swabs to wipe surfaces; the use of instruments to “sniff” surfaces for volatile compounds; and the use of vacuum methods and adhesive tape to lift dust off surfaces. Direct methods measure exposure to the body and include the use of gauze, cellulose, or charcoal pads for dosimetry; analysis of clothing, skin wipes; washing the skin with solvent; and monitoring for skin color change and fluorescence.
Current sampling strategies emphasize air exposures and overlook the contribution of dermal exposures and surface contamination. Integration of surface and dermal monitoring techniques into sampling strategies is important so that a better estimation of exposures and therefore controls to protect against them are developed.
Genome Physical Mapping UsingBACs
Authors: Altmann Thomas 
Published: September 2006

AbstractA physical map of a region or the entirety of the genome of an organism is a representation of the genome providing information on the relative order and the arrangement of physically defined entities. For most physical maps, these entities are cloned genomic DNA fragments propagated in cosmids, bacteriophage P1, bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs), P1‐derived artificial chromosomes (PACs), or yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs). The various cloning systems differ in the sizes of the cloned DNA fragments and the fidelity of DNA structure maintenance. Owing to its excellent properties, the BAC system is the premier system for this purpose. Several different, highly efficient procedures have been developed and applied successfully to identify overlaps between the DNA fragments represented in different clones. The procedures are based on different experimental techniques, including nucleic acid hybridization, DNA amplification through polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA restriction fragment analysis, and DNA sequencing. Applied separately or in combination, these procedures have been used successfully to generate extensive physical maps of human, animal, and plant genomes.
Capillary Electrophoresis of Nucleic Acids
Authors: Kawamura Kunio 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Capillary electrophoresis (CE) is a powerful and relatively new technique for nucleic acid mapping, and can be used along with conventional slab electrophoresis and high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). There are several types of separation techniques of CE, for instance capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE), micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC), capillary gel electrophoresis (CGE), and capillary affinity gel electrophoresis (CAGE), all of which are capable of being used for quantification and qualification of nucleic acids. CZE and MEKC are suitable for the separation of bases, nucleoside and nucleotide monomers, and short nucleic acids. Although the sensitivity of ultraviolet (UV) detection is not as high as HPLC, since the light path length of CE is more than 100 times smaller than that of HPLC, a laser‐excited fluorescence detection system enables highly sensitive detection of nucleic acids. CGE and CAGE, in which electrophoresis is performed in molecular sieving materials of polymer gels, are used rather than HPLC and slab gel electrophoresis (SGE) for sequencing of large nucleic acids for several reasons: high‐resolution power, high‐speed sequencing, ease of automation, and small sample volume. Combining the advantages of CGE and laser fluorescence detection with a four‐ or two‐color labeling method enables sequencing of more than 1000 bases within 1 h. Moreover, recent improvements in capillary array electrophoresis (CAE) with high‐throughput and high‐speed sequencing systems contribute to an expansion of the sequence analysis of DNA fragments in order to achieve the goal of the Human Genome Project (HGP).
Comparative Genomics: Differential Display and Subtractive Hybridization
Authors: Smith Cassandra L. , Bouchard Joseph , Surdi Gregg , Nguyen Giang , Pimpis K. , Tolstoi Linda G. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAn understanding of genome function within the context of human cells requires new methodology. This article describes comparative approaches that are used for genomes and genes in situ. However, the major focus of the article is on differential display (DD) and subtractive hybridization (SH) because these two methods are most accessible to a large number of researchers. The basic principles of these methods are described along with some fundamental reminders about the important factors that must be kept in mind for successful experiments.
DNAStructures of Biological Relevance, Studies of Unusual Sequences
Authors: Wang Yuh‐Hwa 
Published: September 2006

AbstractDNA molecules with unusual structures can have significant consequences in many DNA metabolic processes. This article summarizes structural studies of DNA molecules containing bulged and mismatched bases and trinucleotide repeating DNAs. Extra base bulges and mismatches in double‐stranded DNA can arise from replication errors or imperfect recombination. If these lesions escape the repair system, they would subsequently cause mutagenesis. Using a combination of gel electrophoresis, electron microscopy (EM), chemical modification, and probing with RecA protein, the structure of bulged and mismatched DNAs was examined and factors such as base composition and flanking base sequence have been shown to influence the overall structure of these molecules.Expansion of trinucleotide repeats is a major cause of several inherited neurodegenerative diseases. Described here are findings that show, by in vitro nucleosome assembly assay, that the expanded CTG triplet sequences derived from myotonic dystrophy (DM) patients form the most stable naturally occurring nucleosomes that are known. In contrast, long tracts of repeating CCG triplets (expanded in fragile X syndrome (FraX) patients) resist nucleosome assembly. This information could provide critical clues about how these unusual DNAs cause harmful biological effects in living cells.
Mass Spectrometry of Nucleic Acids
Authors: Gross Julia , Hillenkamp Franz 
Published: September 2006

AbstractNucleic acids are prone to fragmentation in the ionization process of mass spectrometry (MS). The cause can be found in the polar nature of this analyte class. Following the introduction of the so‐called soft‐ionization techniques of electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix‐assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) at the end of the 1980s, mass spectrometric analysis of nucleic acids has gained broader applicability. In combination with further developments of the associated instrumentation and optimized preparation and purification methods, a dramatic enhancement of the mass range, detection sensitivity, and resolution became possible – in routine analysis oligonucleotides up to a length of 50 nucleotides are accessible. At present the necessary quantity of sample is in the subfemtomole range.This article describes the fundamentals of mass spectrometric analyses of nucleic acids and common applications, such as the analysis of noncovalent complexes, mixture analysis, different sequencing strategies and clinical diagnostics. The focus is on MALDI/MS (matrix‐assisted laser desorption ionization/mass spectrometry).
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Nucleic Acid Structures
Authors: Eriksson Magdalena 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is one of the most important and widely used techniques for studying nucleic acid structure. With modern techniques, including isotope labeling and multidimensional spectroscopy, structures of large molecules – nucleic acids alone or in complexes, for example with proteins or ligands – can be determined. Here is given an overview of experimental NMR methods for nucleic acids studies, complemented by illustrative examples of DNA, RNA and PNA structures.
Nucleic Acid Structural Energetics
Authors: Hardin Charles C. , Moon Andrea F. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The general relations between structure and energetics of nucleic acids are described. A detailed, multileveled definition of the structures adopted by one, two, three and four strands is presented, with emphasis on the chemical functionalities of the structural subcomponents. Descriptions include results from studies of the thermodynamics of transformations and structures (e.g. double helix formation, superhelical coiling). Different aspects of this large array of problems have been determined using X‐ray diffraction and spectroscopic techniques, such as ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) absorption, circular dichroism (CD), Raman scattering and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Interactions, within one strand or between two or more strands, with cations, buffers, aromatic chemicals and proteins are all described. Methods include spectroscopy, calorimetry and computational approaches (statistical mechanics, molecular mechanics, dynamics, quantum mechanics). A Further Reading section is included to provide an idea of the vast scope of this area.
Sequencing and Fingerprinting
DNA
by Hybridization with Oligonucleotide Probes
Authors: Drmanac Radoje , Drmanac Snezana , Little Deane 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Sequencing by hybridization (SBH) determines the sequences of DNA or RNA targets using hybridization data obtained from sets of overlapping oligonucleotide probes of known sequence. SBH shares interesting parallels with computer‐based keyword searches of text files. In SBH, chemically synthesized short oligonucleotides (usually 4–25 bases in length) are hybridized to the target under conditions that predominantly allow formation of fully complementary probe/target hybrids. An oligonucleotide hybridization search is effectively a highly parallel molecular computation process with fully random access to the polynucleotide chain “input data”. The target sequence is assembled by aligning sequences of the subset of positively hybridizing oligonucleotides. Probe sequence overlap allows indirect assignment of which of four bases corresponds to each position in the analyzed DNA chain, without performing any actual positional measurements on the sample. The fundamental characteristics of the SBH process confer unique opportunities for miniaturization and parallel analyses (currently in the form of high‐density arrays), leading to rapid, cost‐effective DNA sequencing. A unique advantage of SBH is its ability to analyze in a single reaction complex DNA or RNA samples that may be thousands of bases long. Hybridization of smaller selected subsets of probes provides a very efficient way of partially sequencing and fingerprinting samples. A very important advantage of SBH is that in a single reaction each base is “read” by multiple overlapping probes. To achieve these advantages, hybridization reactions are miniaturized and coupled with automated data acquisition and efficient computational analyses that can process data sets containing both false‐positive and false‐negative probe scores. Successful assembly of long target sequences involves synthesis and hybridization of a large number of long probes, due to the higher probability that given short oligonucleotide sequences will be repeated within the target sequence. Overall, SBH is a rapid and cost‐effective method of obtaining large amounts of accurate DNA sequence information.