Performance of the IMPACT and CRASH prognostic models for traumatic brain injury in a contemporary multicenter cohort: a TRACK-TBI study
Authors: Yue John K. , Lee Young M. , Sun Xiaoying , van Essen Thomas A. , Elguindy Mahmoud M. , Belton Patrick J. , Pisică Dana , Mikolic Ana , Deng Hansen , Kanter John H. , McCrea Michael A. , Bodien Yelena G. , Satris Gabriela G. , Wong Justin C. , Ambati Vardhaan S. , Grandhi Ramesh , Puccio Ava M. , Mukherjee Pratik , Valadka Alex B. , Tarapore Phiroz E. , Huang Michael C. , DiGiorgio Anthony M. , Markowitz Amy J. , Yuh Esther L. , Okonkwo David O. , Steyerberg Ewout W. , Lingsma Hester F. , Menon David K. , Maas Andrew I. R. , Jain Sonia , Manley Geoffrey T. , _ _ , Badjatia Neeraj , Barber Jason , Chesnut Randall M. , Diaz-Arrastia Ramon , Duhaime Ann-Christine , Eagle Shawn R. , Etemad Leila L. , Fabian Brian , Ferguson Adam R. , Foreman Brandon , Gardner Raquel C. , Giacino Joseph T. , Gopinath Shankar , Gotthardt Christine J. , Hamidi Sabah , Huie J. Russell , Keene C. Dirk , Korley Frederick K. , Madhok Debbie Y. , Madden Christopher , Merchant Randall , Nelson Lindsay D. , Ngwenya Laura B. , Robertson Claudia S. , Rodgers Richard B , Schneider Andrea L. C. , Schnyer David M. , Stein Murray B. , Taylor Sabrina R. , Temkin Nancy R. , Torres-Espin Abel , Tracey Joye X. , Vassar Mary J. , Wang Kevin K. W. , Zafonte Ross D. 
Published: March 2024

OBJECTIVE
The International Mission on Prognosis and Analysis of Clinical Trials in Traumatic Brain Injury (IMPACT) and Corticosteroid Randomization After Significant Head Injury (CRASH) prognostic models for mortality and outcome after traumatic brain injury (TBI) were developed using data from 1984 to 2004. This study examined IMPACT and CRASH model performances in a contemporary cohort of US patients.

METHODS
The prospective 18-center Transforming Research and Clinical Knowledge in Traumatic Brain Injury (TRACK-TBI) study (enrollment years 2014–2018) enrolled subjects aged ≥ 17 years who presented to level I trauma centers and received head CT within 24 hours of TBI. Data were extracted from the subjects who met the model criteria (for IMPACT, Glasgow Coma Scale [GCS] score 3–12 with 6-month Glasgow Outcome Scale–Extended [GOSE] data [n = 441]; for CRASH, GCS score 3–14 with 2-week mortality data and 6-month GOSE data [n = 831]). Analyses were conducted in the overall cohort and stratified on the basis of TBI severity (severe/moderate/mild TBI defined as GCS score 3–8/9–12/13–14), age (17–64 years or ≥ 65 years), and the 5 top enrolling sites. Unfavorable outcome was defined as GOSE score 1–4. Original IMPACT and CRASH model coefficients were applied, and model performances were assessed by calibration (intercept [< 0 indicated overprediction; > 0 indicated underprediction] and slope) and discrimination (c-statistic).

RESULTS
Overall, the IMPACT models overpredicted mortality (intercept −0.79 [95% CI −1.05 to −0.53], slope 1.37 [1.05–1.69]) and acceptably predicted unfavorable outcome (intercept 0.07 [−0.14 to 0.29], slope 1.19 [0.96–1.42]), with good discrimination (c-statistics 0.84 and 0.83, respectively). The CRASH models overpredicted mortality (intercept −1.06 [−1.36 to −0.75], slope 0.96 [0.79–1.14]) and unfavorable outcome (intercept −0.60 [−0.78 to −0.41], slope 1.20 [1.03–1.37]), with good discrimination (c-statistics 0.92 and 0.88, respectively). IMPACT overpredicted mortality and acceptably predicted unfavorable outcome in the severe and moderate TBI subgroups, with good discrimination (c-statistic ≥ 0.81). CRASH overpredicted mortality in the severe and moderate TBI subgroups and acceptably predicted mortality in the mild TBI subgroup, with good discrimination (c-statistic ≥ 0.86); unfavorable outcome was overpredicted in the severe and mild TBI subgroups with adequate discrimination (c-statistic ≥ 0.78), whereas calibration was nonlinear in the moderate TBI subgroup. In subjects ≥ 65 years of age, the models performed variably (IMPACT-mortality, intercept 0.28, slope 0.68, and c-statistic 0.68; CRASH–unfavorable outcome, intercept −0.97, slope 1.32, and c-statistic 0.88; nonlinear calibration for IMPACT–unfavorable outcome and CRASH-mortality). Model performance differences were observed across the top enrolling sites for mortality and unfavorable outcome.

CONCLUSIONS
The IMPACT and CRASH models adequately discriminated mortality and unfavorable outcome. Observed overestimations of mortality and unfavorable outcome underscore the need to update prognostic models to incorporate contemporary changes in TBI management and case-mix. Investigations to elucidate the relationships between increased survival, outcome, treatment intensity, and site-specific practices will be relevant to improve models in specific TBI subpopulations (e.g., older adults), which may benefit from the inclusion of blood-based biomarkers, neuroimaging features, and treatment data.