bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The New England Offshore Mining Environmental Study
Authors: Cobb David A. 
Published: October 2008

INTRODUCTION
Interest in the economic recovery of minerals from beneath the sea has accelerated in the past few years as demands for raw materials have increased. Only recently, however, has there been a clear realization that offshore mining must not be permitted to jeopardize the quality of the marine environment. All too often we have failed to anticipate the unforeseen, and often long-range, consequences of technology developed to improve our quality of life. Before we consider the sea floor as a new source for materials, we must carefully weight the implications of such development on the capacity of the marine environment to provide its many services to mankind.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) believes that understanding the environmental consequences of marine mining is a logical objective of Federal research. The New England Offshore Mining Environmental Study (NOMES) is a major step toward understanding the factors governing the impact of offshore sand and gravel mining and toward developing the capability to predict the extent of environmental disturbance that may result from this enterprise.
The area for the proposed experiment is located 16 kilometers east of the Boston, Massachusetts, harbor entrance, 2.8 kilometers west of the Boston Lightship and 8.9 kilometers northeast of the northern end of Nantasket Beach, closest point to the mainland. Dredging will be confined to an irregularly oblong area, approximately 1.5 kilometers long and .6 kilometers wide trending N200W and centered at 42°20'4l"N, 70° 47"10Il W.
A dumping area used to displose of local harbor and river dredge spoil is located 1.2 kilometers east of the dredge site. Chemical analyses of the sediment cores from the site will assist in evaluating to what extent the region has been affected by these activities.
CONCEPT AND APPROACH
Developing the capability to predict the ecological effects of marine sand and gravel mining is the central objective of NOMES. In determining the probable environmental impact of mining at a study site off the coast of Massachusetts, techniques and data requirements would be developed to permit valid determinations in varied physical and biological settings. If the problem posed by this experiment were solely one of assessing, after the fact, the impact of a particular mining operation, the approach might be considerably simplified. However, the need to develop a general predictive capability introduces particular complexities that influenced the selection of the experimental approach described below.
The factors that determine the ecological impact of sand and gravel mining can be generalized as follows:the effects on metabolism and survival of organisms confronted with high suspensions of fine particulate matter.the effects on the benthic habitat caused by sediment removal and redepositions.the chemical and physical response of resuspended bottom deposits.the manner in which chemical constituents are transferred or amplified by organisms through the marine food web.
Natural Hydrocarbon Seeps Along The Northern Shelf of the Santa Barbara Basin, California
Authors: Fischer Peter J. , Stevenson Andrew J. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
During 1972 new data on seeps were acquired using a towed 3.5kHz sub-bottom profiler system. The profiler records show individual gas and oil seeps as discrete reflections which have a distinctive signature. These seeps are located along faults and fractures paralleling the crest of the western extension of the Rincon anticlinal trend. Nearly all hydrocarbon occurrences closely parallel the east-west structural trends of this area.
Over 900 individual occurrences of hydrocarbons have been mapped within a seven-square mite area off Coal Oil Point on the northern shelf of the Santa Barbara basin. Of this total, about 250 are active gas or gas-oil seeps. The other hydrocarbon occurrences are inactive seeps, shallow (near surface) zones of oil and tar saturated sands in Late Quaternary unconsolidated sediments or fractured shale of Late Neogene bedrock units. Most of these hydrocarbon occurrences were mapped utilizing data collected during the period between 1946 and 1958 by various major oil companies.
In addition to structural control, the thickness of the Late Quaternary unconsolidated sediment veneer which overlies the bedrock units influences the location of the hydro- carbon occurrences. Of the 900 occurrences mapped, fully 50% are found in area covered by less than five feet of the unconsolidated sediment. When the sediment thickness exceeds 20 feet the seep frequency decreases to less than five percent.

INTRODUCTION
Historically, the offshore hydrocarbon seeps of the Santa Barbara basin were first recorded by Vancouver in 1792 (Imray, 1). Vancouver, who was Captain Cook's navigator, noted "...the sea had the appearance of dissolved tar floating on its surface, which covered the sea in all directions within the limits of our view? " In 1776, near the present site of Goleta (Figure 1), Father Pedro Font wrote " ...much tar which the sea throws up is found on the shores ..." The implication that the source of this tar was from submarine seeps has been borne out by later studies: Vernon and Slater (2), Allen and others (3), and Fischer and Kolpack (4).
Data utilized for this study span a period of nearly 30 years. The various types of core data released by the oil industry, were gathered during two periods, 1946 to 1947 and 1953 to 1954. Acoustic profiles were taken by Moore (5) in 1959 and the present writers in 1972.

EQUIPMENT AND METHODS
High resolution sub-bottom profiling records were obtained during July 1972. An Edo transceiver, power booster and 3.5Hz transducer, components of the Edo, Model 415 system, were used in combination with a Gifft recorder. The transducer head was mounted in an inexpensive sled designed and constructed at California State University at Northridge. - (Fischer, Stevenson, and White, in preparation).
A Dynamic Analysis Moored and Free-Floating Cable Systems
Authors: McLauchlan R.A. , Sanders D.R. , Taylor R.D. , Collier M.L. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
This paper entails a study and modeling of the dynamic behavior of cable-mass systems suspended in the ocean with a current profile varying linearly with depth. Multi segment, Multipayload (a) continuous, (b) lumped parameter models representing the cable system subject to surface loading and depth varying current drag loading are discussed.
The continuous cable element model employs an equivalent linearization scheme to model payload drag loading and is one dimensional. The lumped parameter model is quasi-two dimensional and includes the nonlinear drag and viscoelastic effects. Nonlinear material characteristics can also be included with the latter model.
Model predictions compare very well with measured data obtained at the NAVAIR R&D test facility operated by TRACOR/MAS at St. Croix, V.I. Comparisons of the tension as a function of time and frequency and snap loadings were done between the lumped parameter model results and experimental data. A comparison of the system tension response as a function of frequency was made with the continuous model results and experimental data.
Both models can be used synergistically to determine optimal cable system designs the continuous model being used to predict the nature of the frequency response for a given cable system configuration. Whereas, the lumped parameter model is used to investigate in detail the snap loading, system displacement, and interesting "resonance" phenomena.
Model optimization and restriction considerations led to the conclusion that the models developed were applicable to moored and free-floating cable systems with long cables. Towed cable systems are not within the scope of the capabilities of the models.

INTRODUCTION
Cable systems find wide application in buoy and ship mooring systems and underwater acoustic sensor systems. These cable systems must reliably satisfy Naval/Offshore requirements in a corrosive seawater environment subject to the vagaries of deployment and retrieval operations, fish bite, and dynamic surface excitation. This paper is directed toward the analysis of the dynamic displacement and tension in multicable, multipayload cable systems (moored or free-floating) subject to wave surface excitation and depth varying current drag loading. Measured peak/snap tensile loads in such systems can exceed six to eight times the predicted static loads at or near the resonance frequencies [1,2,3]
The development of validated cable system models is motivated primarily by cost effectiveness considerations. A validated model can be used toInvestigate design tradeoffs;Evaluate system performance under a variety of applications and conditions;Alleviate many testing requirements;Provide immediate results;Identify critical components to provide testing guidelines; andDerive optimal cable system configurations having desired frequency response behavior.
Though sometimes costly, exercising such computer models is less expensive and more convenient than building and testing a multiplicity of cable, payload systems.
Physical and Chemical Changes in Spilled oil Weathering Under Natural Conditions
Authors: McLean A.Y. , Betancourt O.J. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
In February 1970 a spill of Bunker C oil took place in Chedabucto bay Nova Scotia much of the contaminated shoreline "'as rocky and consequently the oil was not removed thus providing an opportunity to study the long term behaviour of oil weathering under natural conditions.
A sampling program was organised and analysis was carried out for viscosity density and concentration of nickel 'vanadium' sulfur and asphaltenes. It would appear that changes in physical properties and chemical composition occured fairly rapidly in the initial few months but little change has occured subsequently. This leads to the conclusion that the effect of a residual fuel spill in similar circumstances will be evident for many years.

INTRODUCTION
When oil is spilled, it immediately proceeds to interact with the environment and undergoes a series of physical and chemical changes which determine the extent and direct ion of further interactions which are often of a biochemical nature. The nature of the physical and chemical changes depends on the type of oil and the immediate environment in which it is spilled. For instance, when No.2 fuel oil is spilled on water, one of the first interactions is that part of it dissolves. The dissolved portion can then diffuse rapidly throughout the water column and interact with plant and animal life. Since the dissolved portion consists mainly of toxic aromatic compounds, the consequent interaction can be serious. The toxic effects of No.2 fuel oil after spills are well documented, notably those which occurred in Baja California (1) and Buzzard's Bay (2).
Other physical and chemical changes are evaporation, photo-oxidation, biodegradation and emulsification. The relative importance of these processes depends very much on the oil involved. Obviously spilled jet fuel is likely to have evaporated before biodegradation can exert its influence, whereas residual fuel oils are not particularly susceptible to evaporation and consequently photo-oxidation and biodegradation are liable to become of considerable importance with respect to the ultimate fate of the oil.
Oil products which contain asphaltic material, such as some crude oils and residual fuel oils are known to form sticky water-in-oil emulsions, whereas asphalt free products do not.
It is of considerable importance to know whether crude oil spilled at sea, because of a drilling rig accident for instance, will physically disperse throughout the water column or will remain as a slick or slicks floating on the surface to blow, under the perverse influence which guides inanimate objects, to the nearest vacation beach.
Since the effectiveness of many clean up procedures depends on the properties of the oil concerned, selection of measures appropriate to a particular spill will depend on a knowledge of how the properties have been modified.
Use of Float Modules to Supplement Mechanical Tensioning of Marine Risers
Authors: Lifrey W.T. , Masonheimer R.A. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT

USE OF FLOAT MODULES TO SUPPLEMENT MECHANICAL TENSIONING OF MARINE RISERS
Tensioning systems for marine risers used for floating drilling units have passed through several phases of development as the water depths of interest to the industry have steadily increased. The first tensioning systems made use of large counter weights linked to the riser by a system of wire lines and sheaves. These have largely been replaced by hydro-pneumatic rams which have the advantages of smaller physical size, greater flexibility, increased capacity, and better response to vessel heave. More recently, syntactic foam floats attached to the riser have been used to provide lift and thus reduce tension requirements in water depths up to 1500 feet. This paper shows the effects of floats in reducing tension requirements for various combinations of environmental and operating conditions as determined by a mathematical model of a riser system. Factors involved in designing riser systems with optimum combinations of tension and flotation are explained. Actual behavior of a riser with attached floats designed on the basis of this mathematical model for deep water drilling operations in the Santa Barbara Channel is discussed.

INTRODUCTION
In late 1968 Exxon Co., U.S.A. equipped two rigs for drilling in the deep waters of the Santa Barbara Channel, California. The rigs were equipped with 16" OD marine riser systems and with pneumatic riser tensioning systems having 360 kip nominal tensioning 1 capacity. At that time, Harris and Lifrey concluded that these riser and tensioner systems would allow operation in 1300 ft of water with 12 1b/ga1 mud in the riser and in 1500 ft of water with 10 1b/ga1 mud in the riser. It was also concluded that extension of system capability would be possible on the basis that (1) experience might prove design parameters to be unduly conservative and (2) that the range of system adequacy would be improved through the development of new technology.

ESTABLISHMENT OF OPERATING CONDITIONS, TENSIONING CRITERIA, AND TENSlONER PERFORMANCE
With further experience in deep water drilling in the northwestern portion of the Santa Barbara Channel, it became apparent that the maximum wave height likely to be experienced in operations would probably not exceed 20 ft and that drilling vessel offsets would not exceed 3% of water depth during most of the time when work through the riser was necessary. Repeated current measurements encountered in this area could be idealized by a "standard" current pattern of .65 kt for the upper 25% of water depth and 0.2 kt for the lower 75% of water depth. It was also determined that mud weights in excess of 13 Ib/gal were not likely to be required. Meanwhile, thorough consideration of all factors involved in riser operation while well work was being done through the riser resulted in the following tensioning criteria.
Use of the Echo Sounder as an Offshore Exploration Tool
Authors: Hodgson Robert A. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
Precise delineation of sea floor morphology can reveal geologic features of significance to offshore exploration. A wide variety of echo sounding devices can be used to record geologically meaningful parameters of sea bottom relief such as abrupt changes in slope, degree of roughness, etc. Basic simplicity of the equipment required and the high speed of data acquisition make the echo sounder an attractive exploration tool where the full potential is yet to be realized.

INTRODUCTION
A great deal of information about the structure of the rocks immediately below the earth's surface can be derived from the study of the shape and distribution of the land forms which constitute the topography of the land and the floor of the sea. Most of the experience in the interpretation of surface morphology has been gained on land where it is possible to study directly the relations between land forms and underlying geologic structures under a variety of conditions. This experience can be applied to the interpretation of land forms offshore, particularly in shelf areas where the surface morphology and the underlying structures are comparable to those found on shore. Several of the more common and important aspects of the sea bottom morphology are listed in table 1.
Escarpments, ridges, changes in slope and, diagnostic shapes such as cones are the features most readily recognized whether one is viewing a bathymetric contour map constructed from discrete soundings or, an analog echo sounder profile. The definition of valleys requires a high density of soundings to allow diagnostic contouring or profiling. A properly placed single sectional or longitudinal traverse will, however, yield a diagnostic profile where the echo sounder is used. A series of diagnostic topographic features that might be found on the sea floor are shown in Figure 1. Possible relations of these features to underlying geologic structures are shown diagrammatically in Figure 2
The features shown in Figures 1 and 2 represent the grosser aspects of the sea floor topography. In some areas, much additional information can be derived from a study of the details of the bottom topography. Modern echo sounders yield a remarkable amount of topographic detail at shallow and moderate depths. Figure 3 illustrates the concepts of orders of topographic relief used in this paper. The definition locally of high or low relief depends, of course, on scale. Within this context one can define high relief where there is a significant difference in the local elevations. Where maximum depths range to 100 fathoms, for example, changes in elevation of 50 fathoms or more would certainly constitute high relief, whereas changes of 5 fathoms would constitute low relief. The concept of roughness relates to whether the small changes in elevation take place abruptly or smoothly.
Weather Engineering In The Arctic
Authors: German William H. 
Published: October 2008

The purpose of this paper is to present an outline of the collection, analysis, and presentation for engineering purposes of environmental data necessary to marine activities in the Canadian Arctic sector and contiguous waters.

INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
Arctic North America is perhaps man's last land frontier in terms of knowledge of geography, environment, resources, human and material, and all other considerations.
Attempts have been made for years to transit the area almost entirely for the purpose of finding a short commercial route to China from Europe. Such efforts have produced side benefits in that large fleets of whaling vessels operated in the area for many years and, of course, naval expeditions, mostly connected with scientific endeavours, have also been involved. As people returned from the area, so they noted the weather and environmental conditions in their diaries or reports; but, without exception, the recording of all such data was on a disorganised, highly individualistic basis, and no attempts were made, subsequently, to collect the data, analyse it and produce useful information, with the possible exception of Swithinbank and the U.S. Navy. Some useful research has been done over the last thirty years, the most notable of which is by Brewer at Barrow, and, of course, a good deal of pragmatic input from the M.S.T.S. activities in the Arctic in connection with the construction of the Dew Line sites. The Canadian Government has, since1959, been keeping a formal, properly organized record of the ice regime in some Canadian waters, and it is this data that forms a solid basis for reference and ongoingresearch.
The first real impetus was occasioned by the so-called Prudhoe Bay discoveries.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The difficulties in producing acceptable environmental data for the area are threefold. The first and most obvious is the collection of all known data. A wide search, spanning a substantial period of years, is fundamental to the validity of such data, since the longer the period under observation (with a consequential increase in precision averaging), the more accurate will be the data.
The second problem is the selection of the method of presentation. Conventional means used in scientific or highly professional circles is suitable for the person particularly trained in that discipline but recognising that the majority of users of this data would be naval architects, engineers in ocean engineering, navigators and superintendents of exploration, it will be obvious that a simpler and more readily understood method had to be developed.
Wave Forces on Submerged Cylinders
Authors: Gran Sverre 
Published: October 2008

I ABSTRACT
This paper describes a simple method to calculate wave forces on a submerged large, vertical cylinder of arbitrary height standing on the sea floor. The method is based on a long wave solution of the wave scattering problem valid for wave lengths comparable with the cylinder diameter. This long wave solution, however, converges towards exact solutions when the cylinder top is either approaching the sea surface or the sea bottom.
From the formulae obtained, a set of still simpler asymptotic expressions for the forces due to very' long waves are deduced. The very long wave expression for the horizontal force is compared with the Morisons equation, and an expression for the mass coefficient valid for submerged cylinders is suggested.
Results obtained by the present theory are compared with results from model measurements and with alternative computations. Reasonably good agreement has been found.

II INTRODUCTION
The wave forces on large, solid offshore structures have the advantage of being deducible from the theory of potential flow, viscous and turbulent effects being negligible. There are, however, two competetive methods for solving the hydrodynamic equations with respect to the wave forces. On one side we have the analytical methods which expand the wave motion in special well known functions. These methods are rapid and low cost with respect to development as well as to computing time. Their applications, however, are restricted to objects of simple geometry, such as long rectangular breakwaters, circular cylinders, hemispheres lying on the bottom etc. On the other hand one has the sink-source and finite element programs which can handle objects of quite arbitrary geometry, but which are expensive and time consuming to develop and to use. The present method is of the first kind.
The wave forces on a circular solid cylinder standing on the sea floor and extending beyond the sea surface can be immediately deduced from the diffraction theory of Mac Camy and Fuchs /1/. The case when this cylinder is truncated somewhere beyond the sea surface has been solved by Miles /2/ and Black et ale /3/. This theory is, however, rather complicated and the present paper presents a simple long wave approximation of this theory.
By "long wave" is then meant wave Length comparable with the cylinder diameter or longer particularly for tall and low cylinders, this "long wave" formulae approaches solutions that are in principle exact within the linear theory of potential flow, and thus become valid for still shorter wave lengths. From these long wave formulae we shall also deduce some "very long wave" approximations which are very simple expressions, such as the Morisons equation for instance, and convenient for rough estimates.