bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
On Concepts of Objects
Authors: Travis Charles 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter explores Wittgenstein's views on Frege's view of referents. Wittgenstein argued that naming or reference underdetermines conditions for the correctness of wholes, notably, where relevant, conditions for their truth. Wholes with given referents, embedded in different language games, would be true under any of many very different sets of conditions. What Frege leaves out on Wittgenstein's view is that ‘true’ and ‘false’ are in the first instance evaluations of particular historical events — speakings of words on particular occasions, in particular circumstances — and of the fittingness of the words for those circumstances. Those issues do not reduce to facts about referents; nor can we make them do so by definition. There is nothing to play the role that reference would thus be assigned. The chapter supports Wittgenstein's view, and considers what is left open by references to ways for things to be — properties and relations. It argues that a term's having referred to such-and-such object is compatible with its having made any of many distinct contributions to the truth conditions of its whole, so that two wholes with parts thus alike in reference may nevertheless differ in their truth value. Such variation manifests itself, e.g., in identity statements — statements whose truth depends on their referring to one thing twice. In this case, it is difficult to make the Wittgensteinian view coherent. The chapter attempts to do this and suggests that once coherent, the view is eminently plausible.
Introduction: The Institutions of the Market
Authors: Ebner Alexander 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the significance of addressing the institutional substance of markets. It presents the underlying thesis of the chapters in this book: that the basic conceptual parameters of the new institutionalism are currently shifting towards an integrative framework that adheres to evolutionary concepts in accounting for the matter of knowledge, learning, and institutional change. The institutions of market and varieties of institutionalism, recent trends in the differentiation of institutionalist theorizing, and evolutionary reasoning on institutional change are discussed. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
7 On the Social Structure of Markets: A Review and Assessment in the Perspective of the New Institutional Economics
Authors: Richter Rudolf 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter deals with the claim of sociologists that the social structure of markets matters for their performance. ‘Social structure’ is understood as ‘structure of social relationships between actors’. To understand the meaning of ‘social structure’, a reasonable starting point is social network analysis. This chapter begins with a brief description of some basic concepts of social network analysis. It then considers some of the major sociological contributions on the effect of the structure of social relationships between actors on market performance. It shows that positive market models need to include elements of existing social networks between actors to become ‘sufficiently good approximations for the purpose in hand’.
9 Organizational Ecology as a Theory of Competition
Authors: Beck Nikolaus 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter shows that organizational ecology is much more sociological and less biological than many critics of organizational ecology think. It argues that organizational ecology and its theory of competition rests heavily on the seminal work of Emile Durkheim on the division of labour, and on the thoughts of Amos Hawley on human ecology. It suggests that the expressions used by the agents of organizational ecology are ‘Darwinian’ but that the theoretical argumentation is ‘Durkheimian’. The chapter highlights the theoretical foundations of organizational ecology and emphasizes that competition — and not the biological aspects of evolution — forms the core of the organizational ecology theory. The most the most important sub-concepts of organizational ecology that deal with competition and market formation are also discussed: density dependence and resource partitioning. The first concept deals with the impact of the number of competitors on the survival and founding chances of organizations. The latter is concerned with the influence of market concentration on the vital rates of specialist and generalist organizations.
10 Different Paths of Industry Evolution: Timing of Entry, Legitimation, and Competition Spillovers Across Countries
Authors: Wezel Filippo Carlo , Boone Christophe , Witteloostuijn Arjen van 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter has two main goals: (a) to model some of the variety of evolutionary paths of organizational populations empirically observed and (b) elaborate on a model refinement that captures the existence of legitimation and competition spillovers across national populations. In doing so, it contributes to an emerging branch of organizational ecology concerned with evolutionary processes taking place at the international level. A model is proposed that points to cross-country differences in timing of entry and development as key drivers of the country-specific processes of legitimation and competition. It distinguishes pioneer from follower countries, and uses this distinction to advance how observable patterns of population evolution — that is, density growth and decline — may be related to and sustained by spillover effects across countries. The proposed model is largely inspired by that literature in biology, in which the form and the strength of density-dependent evolution are modelled.
11 Co‐evolution of Technologies and Institutions in Market Economies
Authors: Nelson Richard R. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter argues that economists are right in seeing ‘the right institutions’ as the key to economic productivity and progressiveness. But for the argument to be delved deeper, it needs to be recognized that there is a very real challenge; the magnitude of the challenge is only beginning to be understood. The conglomerate of things different economists have called institutions largely reflects the fact that many different kinds of structures and forces mould the way individuals and organizations interact to get things done — so-called ‘social technologies’. Economic growth involves the co-evolution of technologies and the institutions needed for their effective operation and advancement. Some institutions provide the broad background conditions under which technologies can proceed, and others come into existence and develop to support the important new technologies that are driving growth. The chapter reviews the processes of institutional change and argues that institutional change, and its influence on economic activity, is much more difficult to direct and control than technological change, and hence prevailing institutions are often drags on economic productivity and progressiveness. The evolution of technology and institutions in pharmaceutical biotech is considered.
Externalism and Empiricism
Authors: Jenkins Caroline 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter discusses a commitment to epistemological externalism and empiricism. It has often been claimed that empiricism cannot deal properly with the a priori. The chapter describes the most common worries and expresses sympathy with them; but it argues that since the account of a priori arithmetical knowledge that the chapter envisages is very different from the existing empiricist accounts of the a priori, the existing critiques do not apply.
Development
Authors: Jenkins Caroline 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter consists in development of some of the key ideas of the previous chapter. It begins by showing how an arithmetical epistemology along the lines suggested in the previous chapter sits well with a structuralist conception of arithmetic and arithmetical concepts (although it is also compatible with other views). It cautions against a simplistic understanding of the envisaged grounding relationship between concepts and sensory input, arguing that the proposed account allows us to say that our arithmetical beliefs count as knowledge by the lights of Chapter 3. It shows that the account is consistent with realism as characterized in Chapter 1. The chapter spends some time discussing the crucial notion of unconceptualized sensory input, and also offers some comments on what is called here ‘ungrounded’ and ‘unfitting’ concepts.
Other Objections
Authors: Jenkins Caroline 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter considers objections to the proposal of the second part of the book which are not simply objections to the claim that our arithmetical concepts are empirically grounded. These include some objections that might be generated by a broadly Quinean outlook, a circularity worry (which are related here to the Wittgensteinian notion of ‘deep nonsense’), and a number of issues concerning the epistemic step from possession of concepts to belief in conceptually true propositions. The chapter also discusses in some detail the objection that, by definition, arithmetical knowledge cannot be a priori if it is empirical.
3 Pensions and Everyday Investment
Authors: Langley Paul 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThe chapter focuses on pensions, pension funds, and saving for retirement, and further explored the argument that transformations in Anglo-American saving hinge on the partial displacement of the calculative risk technologies and performances of insurance and thrift by those of everyday investment. It shows that although far from complete, there is a discernable and sustained move from insurance to investment in pensions, a move that is prompted by three broadly concurrent processes of change.
4 The Uncertain Subjects of Everyday Investment
Authors: Langley Paul 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter considers the embodiment of transformations in Anglo-American saving, and addresses the making of everyday investor subjects with particular reference to the pension guides produced by state agencies on both sides of the Atlantic. The chapter is organized as follows. The first part marks out a specific route to understanding the making of investor subjects. Concerns with the disciplinary assembly of the ‘entrepreneurial self’ are extended to consider financial and especially investor subjectivity. The second part focuses on the calling up of everyday investor subjects in occupational and personal pension networks. Particular reference is made to the financial literacy programmes of US and UK governmental agencies in the individualization of responsibility and risk in pensions. The final part of the chapter explores the so-called ‘investment shortfalls’ on both sides of the Atlantic that suggest that the subject position of the investor is not simply occupied and performed by individuals in a straightforward manner.
6 The Boom in Everyday Borrowing
Authors: Langley Paul 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the boom in everyday borrowing and the qualitative transformations in consumer credit and mortgage networks that have made it possible. This boom is situated in the two principal sets of market networks of Anglo-American everyday borrowing — consumer credit and mortgage networks. It is argued that it is only through qualitative transformations in these networks, which include the forging of close relationships with the capital markets of ‘global finance’, that the boom has been made possible. The chapter also calls attention to the close interconnections that have become consolidated between mortgage and consumer credit networks, on the one hand, and the networks of the capital markets, on the other. It argues that the overlapping and intersecting of previously disconnected and detached networks has materialized through new calculative devices and performances which rationally figure and manage the uncertainties of future repayments by everyday borrowers as ‘default risks’. Particular attention is paid to the default risk management techniques of lenders — especially asset-backed securitization, but also so-called ‘structured finance’ and the use of credit derivatives — that turn on the issue and trading of default risk-related instruments in the capital markets.
The Je-Ne-Sais-Quoi in Early Modern Europe
Authors: Scholar Richard 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This book studies the je-ne-sais-quoi and its fortunes in early modern Europe. It examines the expression's rise and fall as a keyword and as a topic of debate, its cluster of meanings, and the scattered traces of its pre-history. It focuses on the je-ne-sais-quoi during the key period 1580-1680 but strays on either side of these limits to trace the expression's precursors and its later fortunes. The je-ne-sais-quoi is now assumed to be a quintessentially French phenomenon, but in the early modern period it also marks the cultures of France's neighbours, and this is reflected in the book's inclusion of Italian, Spanish, and English material. It is now assumed, too, that the je-ne-sais-quoi belongs purely to the realm of the literary, but in the early modern period it serves to articulate hitherto unrelated problems in the domains of natural philosophy, the passions, and polite culture, and for that reason it is examined here from an interdisciplinary perspective. Placing major literary and philosophical figures such as Montaigne, Shakespeare, Descartes, Corneille, and Pascal alongside some of their lesser-known contemporaries, this study argues that the je-ne-sais-quoi serves above all to trace a series of first-person encounters with a certain something as difficult to explain as its effects are intense, and which can be expressed only by being expressed differently. The book shows how the je-ne-sais-quoi comes to express that certain something in the early modern period, and suggests that it remains capable of doing so today.
A Certain Something: Montaigne
Authors: Scholar Richard 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter attempts to rescue the je-ne-sais-quoi from its history of sedimentation and loss of semantic force as a supple lexical means of tracing powerful first-person experiences that elude explanation. It undertakes this rescue attempt by altering the direction of the historical narrative and by moving backwards, against the flow of the topic's history, into its ‘pre-history’ (as defined by Terence Cave). Montaigne is offered as the key example of this pre-history because he writes about the experience of the je-ne-sais-quoi in the realms of natural philosophy, the passions (friendship), and culture, without ever using the settled noun, drawing instead on various non-substantival forms of the je-ne-sais-quoi and related terms and figures. In so doing, he uncovers in the Essais a form of writing that captures the force of the je-ne-sais-quoi better than the sedimented noun itself.
A Summary
Authors: Lal Deepak 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter brings together the major themes of this book. It discusses the parameters of the Hindu equilibrium, rural development, and fostering efficient industrialization. It argues that many of the parameters which have sustained the ancient Hindu equilibrium have decisively shifted during the past century. It is to be hoped that the revenue economy will over time be replaced by a market economy; if this happens, the Hindu equilibrium will be eliminated.
Reasserting Control: The Regulation of Mass Culture
Authors: Ross Corey 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter considers one major aspect of the heterogeneous responses of cultural and political elites to the rise of the media and burgeoning entertainment industry. It focuses on efforts, above all through means of state regulation, to reassert elite values and standards by establishing a formal framework of control over popular culture, including literary and film censorship as well as state ownership of broadcasting. While the censorship of cultural forms as a means of social control was of course nothing new at the time, the avowedly commercial orientation of most popular amusements and their unprecedented dissemination via new communications technologies elicited a new brand of cultural interventionism among the educated elite, a belief not only in their ability to improve the tastes and cultural practices of the masses, but indeed in their right — even duty — to do so.
Attempting Reform: Legitimation, Education, and Uplifting Tastes
Authors: Ross Corey 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter looks at the other principal way in which cultural elites engaged with the rise of the mass media: namely efforts to reform mass culture itself. It considers the diverse attempts — ranging across the political spectrum — to harness film, radio, the phonograph, and advertising for the purpose of ‘educating’ and ‘uplifting’ popular tastes. Closely related to this project were a variety of avant-garde efforts to synthesize ‘high’ and ‘low’ culture, and to legitimate the new media in the eyes of cultural elites themselves. The response of German elites was therefore more complex than the common emphasis on ‘cultural pessimism’ suggests. It is shown that however ‘progressive’ such efforts appeared or were intended to be, they, too, essentially reflected a patriarchal and authoritarian view of the audiences — the dangerous ‘masses’.
Political Control and Commercial Concentration Under the Nazis
Authors: Ross Corey 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the ways in which the social impact of the mass media changed in the Third Reich. After emerging victorious from the propaganda battles of the early 1930s, the Nazi leadership's rapid shift away from the shrill tones of electioneering towards a more consensual form of ‘state propaganda’ reflected a desire both to consolidate their position and to advance their professed goal of national völkisch integration. The far-reaching political and commercial restructuring of cultural life within Germany is investigated and it is argued that the new circumstances shaping the media and mass culture in the 1930s were by no means all specific to the Third Reich. Rather, the process of political co-ordination was accompanied and partially abetted by a parallel process of commercial concentration observable across much of the industrialized world.
Scientific Representation
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractScience represents natural phenomena by means of theories, as well as in many concrete ways by such means as pictures, graphs, table-top models, and computer simulations. This book begins with an inquiry into the nature of representation in general, drawing on such diverse sources as Plato's dialogues, the development of perspectival drawing in the Renaissance, and the geometric styles of modeling in modern physics. Starting with Mach's and Poincaré's analyses of measurement and Reichenbach's ‘problem of coordination’, this book presents a view of measurement outcomes as representations achieved in a process of mutual stabilization of theory and empirical inquiry. With respect to the theories of contemporary science, the book defends an empiricist structuralist version of the ‘picture theory’ of science, compatible with a constructive empiricist view, through an inquiry into the paradoxes that came to light in 20th-century philosophies of science. It is argued that indexicality enters irreducibly into the conditions of use and application of measurement, models, and theories. The book concludes with an analysis of the complex relationship between appearance and reality in the scientific world-picture, arguing against the completeness criterion that demands a derivation of the appearances from the theoretically postulated reality.
From theBildtheorieof Science to Paradox
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThe advocacy of the Bildtheorie — the view that what science gives us is representations, important as it is in its own right — was also integral to the origins of what is now known as structuralism in the philosophy of science. Structuralism about science — the thesis that a science represents only structure in its domain — became increasingly and recurrently a salient theme in 20th-century philosophy of science. This development had two motivating philosophical controversies in its past. The chapter focuses on a debate among physicists about the status and use of models, including a paradox posed by Herman Weyl, where there was a clear foreshadowing of later debates over scientific and structural realism.
Ancestral sequence reconstruction as a tool to understand natural history and guide synthetic biology: realizing and extending the vision of Zuckerkandl and Pauling
Authors: Gaucher Eric A. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThe perspective on natural history and medicine by Emile Zuckerkandl combined with the chemical expertise of Linus Pauling generated many novel ideas concerning molecular evolution. These included generating multiple sequence alignments, determining phylogenetic relationships based on sequence data, formulating the molecular clock hypothesis, and the proposal to resurrect ancestral sequences based on information contained within extant sequences, inter alia. Although the field of ancestral sequence reconstruction is still burgeoning, the concepts guiding the field are embraced by today's community more so than when originally proposed by Zuckerkandl and Pauling. This chapter presents a view of the field of ancestral sequence reconstruction, including recognition that genes are dynamic fossils in that they record ancient events while still adapting to new environments. It concludes with a discussion of the potential of combining ancestral sequence space and synthetic biology to expand protein functionality for directed evolution studies.
Estimating the history of mutations on a phylogeny
Authors: Bollback Jonathan P. , Gardner Paul P. , Nielsen Rasmus 
Published: September 2008

AbstractEvolution has left its signature on the molecules and morphology of living organisms. Ancestral reconstruction offers an excellent tool for understanding the process of evolution using comparative information. Methods for ancestral reconstruction have generally focused on reconstructing the ancestral states at the internal nodes of a phylogeny. Often, we are not interested in particular nodes of the phylogeny but the whole history of a character. This chapter focuses on a Bayesian method for estimating these histories, or mutational paths, on phylogenies. Mutational path methods differ most notably from other approaches in their ability to estimate not only the ancestral states at the internal nodes of a phylogeny, but also the order and timing of mutational changes across the phylogeny. The chapter provides a concise introduction to the statistical tools needed for sampling mutational paths on a phylogeny.
Using ancestral sequence inference to determine the trend of functional divergence after gene duplication
Authors: Gu Xun , Zheng Ying , Huang Yong , Xu Dongping 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter presents a new approach to functional divergence analysis with the combination of ancestral sequence inference, using the family of animal G-protein subunits as an example. Using the method, the evolutionary trends of two types of functional divergence of amino acid residues after gene duplication are traced. These pieces of evolutionary information are useful for making testable hypotheses about functional divergence between protein subfamilies, such as subtypes of G-protein subunits, which can be verified by further experimentation.