bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
R
aman Spectroscopy: Theory
Authors: Keresztury Gábor 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A general introduction is given to the principles and theory of Raman spectroscopy, the discipline dealing with spectral analysis of inelastic scattering of light by the vibrating molecules in liquids, solids, or gases – the phenomenon called Raman scattering. The origin of Raman scattering and its association with molecular polarizability is outlined in this article. The frequency relations of the vibrational Raman effect are developed in terms of the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation. A simplified description of the factors governing the directional properties, intensity relations, and polarization characteristics of the scattered radiation are given by the classical theory, which are then refined according to a partial quantum mechanical treatment. The vibrational selection rules including the role of molecular symmetry are demonstrated using select examples of diatomic and polyatomic molecules, contrasting infrared and Raman spectroscopy and emphasizing their complementary nature.
Instrumentation for Step‐ScanFT‐IRModulation Spectrometry
Authors: Manning Christopher J. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractSample modulation measurements have made possible significant advances in the understanding of complex systems. Appropriate Fourier transform infrared (FT‐IR)–based instrumentation for measuring the spectral changes induced by sample modulation is described in detail. Small spectral changes can result from a variety of perturbations, including electrochemical, mechanical strain, photoexcitation and others, that are too numerous to list. The renaissance of the step‐scan technique was an important step toward widespread application of sample modulation techniques. Ubiquity of powerful computers has been particularly enabling. The advantage of step‐scan operation is that it removes the time dependence of the spectral encodement, thereby simplifying data acquisition and processing for the time‐dependent signals that result from sample modulation. A few representative examples from the literature are briefly reviewed and likely future innovations are described.
F
abry–
P
erot Interferometers for Mid‐Infrared Spectroscopy
Authors: Iwata Tetsuo 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Fundamentals of the
F
abry–
P
erot Interferometer

Intensity Transmittance

Angular Dispersion and the Interval of the Interference Order

Free Spectral Range and Finesse

Optical Throughput and Theoretical Resolution

Wavelength Scanning

Extension of the Spectral Range

Synchronized Scanning of the Grating Monochromator and the

FPS

A Combination of the Spectrograph and the

FPS

Multiple

FP

Etalon Arrangement

Using the

FPI

as a Multichannel Wavelength Sampler

Multiplex

FP

Spectrometer

Confocal

FPI
Detectors for Mid‐ and Far‐Infrared Spectrometry: Selection and Use
Authors: Theocharous E. , Birch J.R. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis article is aimed at those who want to identify the most appropriate photodetector for their particular measurement application in the infrared or who wish to use their chosen detector under its optimum operating conditions. The article summarises the most important parameters governing the performance of infrared detectors and provides explanations as to how these parameters affect detector performance. The best procedure for identifying the most appropriate detector technology with a particular active area to fulfil a particular application is highlighted. The importance of the detector preamplifiers in determining the performance of an infrared detection system based on photon detectors is discussed. The merits of thermal and photon detectors are explained before the characteristics of different thermal and photon detectors are summarised.
Fast Time‐Resolved Mid‐Infrared Spectroscopy Using an Interferometer
Authors: Smith Gregory D. , Palmer Richard A. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractFast time‐resolved mid‐infrared (MIR) spectroscopy provides an effective tool to study transient chemical species and dynamic systems. Although several laser‐based approaches to time‐resolved IR offer extremely high time resolution, Fourier transform time‐resolved infrared (FT‐TRIR) techniques have a distinct advantage over these methods, particularly in terms of spectral bandwidth and spectral resolution. Depending on the time resolution required, interferometric techniques based on rapid and ultra‐rapid scanning, stroboscopic sampling, step‐scanning, or asynchronous sampling are capable of covering time domains from seconds to picoseconds. This article reviews the theory of operation of these techniques, their instrumental requirements, specific caveats, advantages and limitations, current applications, and the state of the art.
Instrumental Aspects of Time‐Resolved Spectra Generated Using Step‐Scan Interferometers
Authors: Rödig Christoph , Siebert Friedrich 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionPrinciple of Time‐Resolved Step‐ScanFTMeasurements and Instrumental ConsiderationsQuantities to be MeasuredAspects of Detector PerformanceSignal FluctuationsMirror Fluctuations and Refractive Index FluctuationsStudies of Slow‐Cycling Systems and Irreversible ReactionsSummary
Fast and Ultrafast Time‐Resolved Mid‐Infrared Spectrometry Using Lasers
Authors: Grills D.C. , George M.W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Fast

TRIR

Spectroscopy

Fast
TRIR
Spectroscopy Using
IR
Lasers

CW

CO
Lasers

CW

CO
2
Lasers

Tunable

IR

Diode Lasers

Color Center Lasers

Difference Frequency Generation

Ultrafast
TRIR
Studies

Two‐Dimensional

IR

Spectroscopy

Conclusions
Array Detectors forRaman Spectroscopy
Authors: Pommier Carolyn J.S. , Walton Linda K. , Ridder Trent D. , Denton M. Bonner 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionNoiseSample Shot NoiseBackground Shot NoiseDetector NoiseDark CurrentRead NoisePixel‐to‐Pixel ResponseSingle‐Channel DetectorsMultichannel DetectorsPhotographic EmulsionsResistive Anode Photomultiplier TubesArray DetectorsPhotodiode ArraysQuantum EfficiencyDark Current and Read NoiseIntensified Photodiode ArraysSummaryCharge Coupled DevicesArray FormatsQuantum EfficiencyOpen Electrode StructurePhoton Penetration DepthWindow MaterialDynamic Range and ResolutionNoise ConsiderationsDark CurrentRead NoiseCosmic Ray Events (CREs)Etalon Interference PatternsSpecialized Readout ModesCharge BinningSubarray ReadoutTime‐Delayed IntegrationSpectral FramingIntensifiedCCDsfor Time‐ResolvedRaman SpectroscopySummaryCharge‐Injection DevicesNonsilicon DevicesGermanium DetectorsIndium Gallium Arsenide DetectorsPlatinum Silicide DetectorsOther Nonsilicon Array DetectorsMicrochannel Plates (MCPs)ApplicationsChemical ImagingSimultaneous Spectra CollectionConclusion
Hyper‐Raman Spectroscopy
Authors: Ziegler L.D. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe essential phenomenological characteristics of the nonlinear spontaneous light scattering effect known as hyper‐Raman scattering (HRS) is described in this review. The salient features of the theoretical description of HRS are given within a susceptibility treatment of the induced electrical polarization. Symmetry selection rules and the relation of HRS to Raman scattering are highlighted in this theory section. Experimental considerations for the observation of this higher order Raman effect are considered. Recent applications of this technique to problems of chemical and physical interest are selected to illustrate the utility of this phenomenon. These include HRS studies of crystals, glasses, semiconductors, and liquids. The phenomenon of surface‐enhanced HRS and electronically resonance‐enhanced HRS are also described and illustrated.
Two‐Dimensional Vibrational Spectroscopy by Doubly Vibrationally Enhanced Four‐Wave Mixing
Authors: Wright John C. , Zhao Wei , Murdoch Keith , Besemann Daniel , Condon Nicholas , Meyer Kent 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Theory

History

Site Selective Spectroscopy

Multiresonant Electronic Nonlinear Mixing Spectroscopy

Multiresonant Six‐Wave Mixing Spectroscopy and 2
D
R
aman Spectroscopy

Photon Echo and Stimulated Photon Echo Methods

2
D
Correlation Spectroscopies and Femtosecond Pump–Probe Experiments

Experimental

2
D

DOVE

Spectroscopy

Mode Selection in

DOVE

Component and Isotopic Selection in

DOVE

Time Resolved Structure Determinations

Solvent Background Suppression

Line Narrowing

Conclusions

Acknowledgments
Photometric Standards for Raman Spectroscopy
Authors: McCreery Richard L. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractCorrection of Raman spectra for instrument response to produce a spectrum with reliable relative peak intensities is not commonly performed, in part because of experimental difficulty and lack of suitable standards. Procedures are described on the basis of white light sources and on luminescent samples with known output intensity profiles. In the latter case, the procedure is fast and automatic, with an intensity standard merely taking the place of an ordinary sample. In addition to simplicity, the method is more accurate than a white light source because the illumination geometry of the intensity standard is identical to that of the sample. Standards are currently available from National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for several wavelengths, including 785, 532, and 514.5 nm. Spectra of several compounds are provided for determining the accuracy of intensity calibrations, and procedures for deducing the Raman cross section for target materials are described.
Vibrational Spectroscopy at High External Pressures
Authors: Ferraro John R. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Experimental

Instrumentation

Raman Spectroscopy

IR

Spectroscopy

Sample Loading

Pressure Calibration

Discussion and Results

Vibrational Studies of Coordination Complexes

Solid‐State Structural Conversions with Pressure

Spin‐State Changes with Pressure

Oxidation Changes with Pressure

Megabar Pressures

Simulation of Temperature and Pressure Conditions in the Earth's Mantle and Earth's Core

Metalization

Conclusions

Acknowledgments
Long Path Gas Cells
Authors: Hanst Philip L. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe sections in this article areA Long Path is Needed for Gas MeasurementStudy of the AtmosphereLong Path Cells for Laboratory Measurement of Gases (White's Cell)Some ApplicationsVariations onWhite's CellTwo Rows of ImagesFour Rows of ImagesSix Rows of ImagesWilks–Foxboro CellMany‐Mirror SystemsUse of One Focusing MirrorThe Flexible MirrorLong Path Cells for Use with Lasers (Herriott's Cell)Cell Construction Techniques and MaterialsCell AlignmentHeating ofWhite CellsCell Maintenance and Restoration
External Reflection Spectroscopy
Authors: Claybourn Mike 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Making Reflectance Measurements

Reflectance and Anomalous Dispersion

The Origin and Description of the
F
resnel Formulae

Reflection of Light from a Material with Absorption Bands

Reflectance at the
B
rewster Angle

The Complex Angle of Refraction

Reflectance from a Multilayered System

Measurements at Normal Incidence

Polarized Reflectance Measurements for θ > 20°

Summary
Polarization‐Modulation Approaches to Reflection–Absorption Spectroscopy
Authors: Frey Brian L. , Corn Robert M. , Weibel Stephen C. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction to Polarization‐Modulation Reflection–Absorption Spectroscopy

Experimental Considerations for the

PM

‐

IRRAS

Measurement

Experimental Setup

The

PEM

The

PM

‐

IRRAS

Measurement

PM

‐

IRRAS

Spectral Normalization

Examples and Applications of

PM

‐

IRRAS

Measurement

Metal Surfaces – Ex Situ

Self‐Assembled Monolayers in the
CH
Stretching Region

SAMs

in the Fingerprint Region

Metal Surfaces – Liquid Phase In Situ

Structural Studies of

SAMs

Electrochemical Studies

Metal Surfaces – Gas Phase In Situ

Corrosion Studies on Copper

Carbon Monoxide on
Co
(0001)

Organic Vapors on Silicon Dioxide Nanoparticle Thin Films on Gold

Air/Water Interface

Summary
Macro and Micro Internal Reflection Accessories
Authors: Fitzpatrick James , Reffner John A. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Internal Reflection

Historical Development of Internal Reflection Apparatus for Recording
ATR
Spectra

The Impact of the
FT
‐
IR
Revolution on Internal Reflection Accessories

Chemical Analysis
vs
Determination of Optical Properties

Advances in Materials for

IRE

s

Internal Reflection Accessories for Laboratory Spectrometers

Macro‐Sized Sample Analysis

Prism

Trapezoidal

Cylindrical

Hemispherical

Micro‐Sized Sample Analysis

ATR

Objectives for Microscopes

Internal Reflection in Chemical Process Analyses

New Developments in Internal Reflection Attachments and Systems
Internal Transmission Spectroscopy
Authors: Chabal Yves J. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Theory

The Linear Approximation

Buried Interface: Three‐Layer Model

Interface in Proximity of a Surface: Four‐Layer Model

Examples

Experimental Verification of Enhancement

Silicon Wafer Bonding

Hydrogen‐Induced Exfoliation

Outlook

Acknowledgments
Accessories and Sample Handling for Mid‐Infrared Diffuse Reflection Spectroscopy
Authors: Milosevic Milan , Berets S.L. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionTheorySample HandlingSample PreparationSample ThicknessPenetration Depth in Diffuse ReflectionSpectroscopic Sensitivity in Diffuse Reflection SpectroscopyOptical Design of Diffuse Reflection AccessoriesDiffuse Reflection Accessories for SpectrometersSpecular Reflection and Anomalies in Diffuse Reflection SpectroscopyCommercially Available Diffuse Reflection AccessoriesOverviewPrayingMantis™Selector™Collector™BarrelEllipsoid™Low‐Cost Diffuse Reflection AccessoriesConclusion
SERS‐BasedRaman Probes
Authors: Vo‐Dinh Tuan , Stokes David L. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionDifferentSERS‐Based ProbesMetal ElectrodesMetal ColloidsSolidSERSProbes Based on Metallic NanostructuresMetal Nanoparticle Island FilmsSilver‐Coated Nanosphere ProbesMetal‐Coated NanoparticleSERSProbesSERSProbes Based on Metal‐Coated Quartz PostsSERSProbes Based on Chemically and Abrasively Roughened Solid SurfacesSERSProbes Based on Inherently Rough MaterialsSERS‐Based Probes Based on Metal Nanoparticle‐Embedded MediaSERSProbe CoatingsGeneral Organic, Metallic and Dielectric CoatingsSAMsMonolayers of BioreceptorsAdvanced Sensing Technologies Based onSERSProbesRemote Fiber OpticSERSMonitors and NanosensorsDual‐Fiber SystemsIntegrated Single‐Fiber System and NanosensorsSurface‐EnhancedRaman Scattering‐Scanning Near‐Field Optical MicroscopyConclusionAcknowledgments
Mid‐Infrared Transmission Microspectroscopy
Authors: Sommer André J. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionHistoryInstrumentationObjectivesApertures or Field StopsSystem Layout and MagnificationDetectorsAutomationPerformance EvaluationApplications and Sampling ModesTransmission MicrospectroscopyReflection MeasurementsQuantitative MeasurementsNew and Future Directions
R
aman Microscopy
Authors: Dhamelincourt Paul 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
After a brief recall of the history of Raman spectroscopy, the article presents a summary of the most recent developments in micro‐Raman instrumentation – point analysis and imaging techniques – including the use of confocal optics and line illumination that are now available in most of the commercial instruments.
Some examples of Raman mapping are presented, illustrating the powerfulness of the Raman technique.
Fiber‐Optic Probes for Mid‐Infrared Spectrometry
Authors: Melling Peter J. , Thomson Mary 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The article discusses the optical design of mid‐IR (infrared) fiber‐optic probes for chemical analysis, including the advantages of using fiber bundles and the importance of fiber numerical aperture. The design of, and available materials for, 2‐ and 3‐bounce attenuated total reflection (ATR) crystals to be used with the probes are discussed and their penetration depth and sensitivity are compared. The stability, reproducibility, and transfer of calibrations and the design of probe heads for extreme conditions of temperature, pressure, and chemical corrosiveness are described. The following applications are discussed: surface analysis and cleaning validation using a grazing‐angle head, polymer curing, air‐free and low‐temperature studies, human skin, and fermentation monitoring.
Sensor Systems Based on Mid‐Infrared Transparent Fibers
Authors: Mizaikoff Boris , Lendl Bernhard 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Some Basic Remarks on Optical Sensor Systems

Brief History

Basic Sensing Principle

Sensing Schemes

MIR

Sensors Based on Direct Analyte Interaction

Chalcogenide Fiber Based Direct Sensors

Fluoride Fiber Based Direct Sensors

Sapphire Fiber Based Direct Sensors

Tellurium Halide Fiber Based Direct Sensors

Silver Halide Fiber Based Direct Sensors

Hollow Waveguide Based Direct Sensors

Chemical

MIR

Sensors and Complex Matrices

Biological/Biochemical Applications

Medical Applications

Environmental/Process Applications

Mid‐Infrared Sensors Combined with Flow Injection Analysis

Determination of Enzyme Activities

Determination of Phosphate in Dietary Soft Drinks

Automated Solvent Exchange During the Determination of Caffeine in Soft Drinks

Future Perspectives

Conclusion
Depth Profiling by Photoacoustic Spectroscopy
Authors: Urban Marek W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction: Origin and Principles of Photoacoustic Spectroscopy

PA

Experimental Methods

CS
FT
‐
IR
PA
Methods

S
2
FT
‐

IR

PAS
Methods

S
2
PAS
Phase Analysis

Applications to Surface Depth Profiling
Directly‐Linked Gas Chromatography–Infrared–Mass Spectrometry (GC/IR/MS)
Authors: Wilkins Charles L. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractDirectly linked gas chromatography‐infrared‐mass spectrometry (GC/IR/MS) is well established as a technique that fills a unique niche in the field of complex mixture analysis and structure elucidation. Although the method is not well suited for trace analysis, it has proved especially useful for analytical applications that are not sample limited. Commercial analysis systems based on this approach have gained acceptance and it is expected that continuing advances in the fields of chromatography and spectral detection will lead to improved GC/IR/MS systems in the future. This article reviews the history of GC/IR/MS development and briefly surveys the various approaches including lightpipe and matrix isolation methods. The use of complementary information is stressed and multidimensional GC/IR/MS discussed. Examples of applications include flavor and fragrance analysis, isomer identification, and pyrolysis product identification.
SFC
/
FT
‐
IR
(Flow‐Cell and Direct Deposition)
Authors: Bartle Keith D. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Supercritical fluids (SF) have properties that are an intermediate between those of gases and liquids and are, therefore, useful mobile phases for chromatography, producing high‐resolution separations of less‐volatile compounds. Fourier transform infrared (FT‐IR) spectrometry is a powerful and specific detection technique for supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC), providing a nondestructive universal detection method from total infrared (IR) absorption, and analyte identification from libraries of spectra. Two procedures are employed in SFC/FT‐IR: flow cells (volume 800 nL for capillary column work) with ZnSe windows allow SFC with CO
2
mobile phase, which absorbs weakly in the mid‐IR, although SF xenon is also effective and IR transparent, if expensive; a solvent‐elimination interface permits the use of CO
2
with an organic modifier because each chromatographic peak is deposited from a restrictor onto a movable KBr or ZnSe plate from which spectra may be recorded without solvent interference by means of an FT‐IR microscope. Satisfactory spectra have been recorded from low‐nanogram amounts by both methods. Among numerous application areas, polymer chemistry has proved to be the most fruitful.
R
aman‐Detected Capillary Electrophoresis
Authors: Morris Michael D. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The sections in this article are

Introduction

Safety Considerations

Capillary Zone Electrophoresis/
R
aman Spectroscopy

Capillary Zone Electrophoresis/Surface‐Enhanced
R
aman Spectroscopy

R
aman/Isotachophoresis

Microchip
R
aman/Isotachophoresis

Conclusions
Thin Layer Chromatography and Vibrational Spectroscopy
Authors: Chalmers John M. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a widely used separation technique for mixtures of non‐volatile organic molecules. This article discusses the synergy between the selectivity of TLC and the specificity of vibrational spectroscopy techniques. It focuses, in particular, on approaches for combining these two disciplines to enhance analytical studies, their limitations and example applications.
In situ
methods for identifying TLC separated components (spots) are problematic using most commercial TLC plates, because most common TLC stationary phases and binders absorb strongly infrared radiation. Also many are highly fluorescent making some Raman
in situ
characterisations difficult. For mid‐infrared identifications, both spot removal methods and chromatogram transfer techniques are described, in which the separated eluates (spots, analytes) are removed or transferred onto more suitable substrates for examination by conventional mid‐infrared methods such as alkali‐halide disks or diffuse reflection. Use of alternative stationary phases, such as zirconium oxide, for enabling
in situ
mid‐infrared spectroscopic measurements is also considered. The feasibility and potential of using near‐infrared spectroscopy as a detection technique for TLC spots is also discussed. Raman studies have focused almost exclusively on
in situ
measurements, although, in general, there is a mismatch between a typical TLC spot size and the diameter of the Raman excitation laser beam at the sample point focus.
In situ
FT‐Raman spectroscopy examine a larger sample area and have the added advantages of ameliorating fluorescence and laser‐induced sample damage. Enhanced sensitivity with Raman can be achieved using resonance Raman, and the surface enhanced techniques of SERS and SERRS.
Photoacoustic Spectroscopy
Authors: McClelland John F. , Jones Roger W. , Bajic Stanley J. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe sections in this article areIntroductionPhotoacoustic Signal Generation, Processing, and InterpretationInstrumentationSample ConsiderationsApplicationsApplication 1Application 2Application 3Application 4Application 5Application 6ConclusionAcknowledgments