bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Differences in the species composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in spore, root and soil communities in a grassland ecosystem
Authors: Hempel Stefan , Renker Carsten , Buscot François 
Published: May 2007

SummaryMost studies on the species composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have solely analysed mycorrhizal roots or AM spores collected from soil samples. However, the spore production rate and proportions of AMF mycelium in roots and soils have all been shown to vary substantially in a taxon‐specific manner. Therefore, in the study presented here we used a molecular approach to analyse the species composition of AMF in spores, intra‐radical and extra‐radical mycelium in an intensively farmed meadow in central Germany. By polymerase chain reaction and sequencing of the ITS region members of seven different families and species groups within Glomeromycota were identified. The data revealed remarkable differences in the composition of AMF taxa both between the spores and the mycelia, and between the two types of mycelia. Glomus group Ab was dominant in roots and spores, in accordance with previous research. However, members of this group were rarely detected as extra‐radical mycelium, in which Paraglomeraceae were dominant, although we found no evidence for the presence of Paraglomeraceae in roots or spores, even when a specific primer set was used. These results may be interpreted as a further indication that AMF are not necessarily obligate symbionts of plants.
A GENERALIZATION OF THE FOREIGN TRADE MULTIPLIER*
Authors: Brems Hans 
Published: May 2007

SUMMARY Fictitious Centralism in large enterprises. In order that each of the threads of an increasingly complicated business enterprise may be kept in hand, they are all actually made to converge at the highest level. But this centralisation is fictitious; for, in reality, it leads to an overburdening of the man at the top, who is thus rendered incapable of performing his proper function—namely, to take decisions. Instead, he becomes the weakest link in the routine.Imperfect delegation, i. e., the delegation of matters for treatment without simultaneous surrender of competence, condemns those in the middle grade to subaltern standing, in which they too are unable to take any decision or assume the responsibility that goes with the taking of decisions. The typical result is that nobody decides, that—to exaggerate slightly—the life of an industrial concern is controlled not by definite volition but by the law of cause and effect.Imperfect delegation is one of the causes of the hypertrophy and sluggishness of the internal bureaucracy of business concerns. The fact of clinging to theoretical powers which in reality are not exercised has, for instance, the result that the modern forms of accounting practice not only fail to give the internal life of a big enterprise the elasticity and commerciality which they quite well could have given it, but, instead, lead to a multiplication of bureaucratic processes.The negative effects of the fictitious centralism which distinguishes the industrial system from the great organisations of the past (e. g. the ancient polis and the feudal state, both of which tended to delegate too many rather than too few functions) are certainly well known, yet it seems impossible to overcome it. This fact is only to be explained in the light of the history of ideas (“Geistesgeschichte”). From his predecessor, the capitalistic entrepreneur, the present‐day manager has taken over the automatic equation of what he does with work, and the consequent justification of his social position in his own eyes and those of society. This attitude, which was alien to most of the leading groups in history, prevents him from extricating himself from the vicious circle which he has got into as the result of fictitious centralism.
THEORIES OF CONTROLLED CAPITALISM
Authors: Schweitzer Arthur 
Published: May 2007

SUMMARYRecent theories of capitalism concentrate upon the defects of markets. The theories of Karl Polanyi and Bruno Seidel are examined in this article. In a broad survey of economic history since the middle ages, Polanyi concludes that the whole economic market system destroys the substance of society and creates disadvantages for all groups. Yet disintegration was halted through the principle of social protection which comprises all forms of collective economic actions, whether by groups or states. Yet, the author has failed to give a specific market analysis which would indicate how specific disadvantages arise in the process of pricing. The all comprehensive “social protection” contains so many diverse elements that one cannot infer from the principle how interventions have reformed the market system of capitalism.In his analysis of industrialism and capitalism, Seidel sees a conflict between the industrial and capitalist elements of our economy. Capitalist elements have been “tamed”, while we have been unable to control the industrial elements. Modern technology has become independent of capitalist property and markets. Industrialism has been economically beneficial and socially disintegrating. Deconcentration of large concerns and decentralization of large cities are proposed as necessary reforms. Interventions in markets spring from cartels of producers, organizations of farmers, unions of laborers, and the interference of states. The multitude of interventions is developing into a planned capitalism. The result of these interventions has been a greater degree of equality in the economic and social relationships among men. Control of capitalism was achieved through introducing social‐ethical principles into the economy.The newer version of the defect theory limits control of the market system to the most recent period, and states some of the reasons why organized groups control their markets. The theory of social protection is limited in its scope; its economic, political and social impact upon capitalism is traced in detail. Yet missing is still a theory of deficient markets as well as of controlled markets. The future task of economic research is to provide an analysis of the different market sectors controlled by groups, of the monopoly of concentrated property, of the specific nature of social protection, and the economic role of big government in controlled capitalism.
SCHUMPETER'S CONSTRUCTED TYPE —THE ENTREPRENEUR
Authors: Carlin EdwardA. 
Published: May 2007

SUMMARYIn this paper it has been argued that a comparison between Schumpeter's entrepreneur type and a charismatic leader developed by Max Weber discloses certain factors that can be utilized to make the Schumpeterian construct a more useful conceptual tool.Both Schumpeter and Weber were faced with very similar analytical problems, In each case it was necessary to explain how the dynamics of change could be encompassed within a functional system. In each case a disturbing force was introduced. Schumpeter called his the entrepreneur—Weber's designation was the charismatic leader. Schumpeter attempted to make the entrepreneur endogenous to the system he was attempting to explain. Weber's type was frankly exogenous to any system. The strength of Schumpeter's position was that he could explain in some measure how the entrepreneur could be nurtured. The weaknesss was that the type never remained completely endogenous to the capitalism to which Schumpeter related it.If the entrepreneur‐type is viewed as a sub‐type of the Weberian charismatic leader certain analytical advantages can be realized. The Weberian type is a generalized one that may take a number of forms. The Schumpeterian type is specific and is dependent upon certain objective conditions for it to emerge. In this paper it has been argued that the minimum essentials for the emergence of the entrepreneur‐type from the more generalized type are the following: (1) accessible resources, (2) large markets, (3) an independent banking system, (4) consumer choice, and (5) calcuable law. There is no plea made for the values that may underlie the attainment of these objective conditions but that merely if charisma is to be channeled into entrepreneurship, rather than any of the other numerous paths it may take, then these conditions as they have been explained must be present.A better understanding of the significance and the usefulness of Weber's type can be gained to the extent that a large variety of other sub‐types are constructed and the objective conditions for their operation explored. In this way, it is argued, the significance not only of Weber's type can be better understood but the value of Schumpeter's entrepreneur may be realized both as it stands by itself and as it is supported by a variety of other types. The policy implications of this kind of analysis seem particularly important in a world characterized not only by great change but by a wide variety of conditions that may channel charisma into as wide a variety of directions.
THE EFFECT OF PRICE ON EUROPE'S EXPORTS TO THE UNITED STATESa
Authors: GEHRELS FRANZ 
Published: May 2007

SUMMARYMost studies of international demand determinants have found income to be the significant explainer of variations in both imports and exports, while price appeared to have only marginal importance. The present study deals with exports to the United States from eight European countries and gives support to a rather different conclusion: Two price variables—a price index of imports from a particular country, and an index of general‐import prices—were significant and sometimes showed high elasticities. United States national income, on the other hand, was a poor explainer of imports from a country supplying finished manufactures, while industrial output was a fair explainer of imports from the suppliers of raw and semimanufactured materials.Of the two successful price variables, general‐import prices showed the higher numerical price elasticities. This fact was contrary to the theoretical expectation, and arguments were advanced for believing that there might be greater downward bias in the direct‐ than in the cross‐price elasticities of demand. It was concluded that in general the higher of the two calculated elasticities came closer to the true price elasticity for the country concerned.However, the findings, if taken at face value, also suggest that a European exporting country may be more successful in gaining dollar earnings at the expense of its rivals than at the expense of domestic United States producers. Elasticity with respect to United States domestic prices was low or insignificant; and total imports showed little price response.If it were in fact difficult for the non‐dollar world together or even for Europe alone, to adjust its dollar earnings by means of price, it would still be possible for the countries involved to adjust both their dollar and their overall balances. For to the extent that they reduced prices competitively they would be induced to substitute imports from one another for those from the United States.Finally, if the behaviour of overall United States imports can be taken as typical for manufacturing countries' imports, while particular countries' exports to the world as a whole respond to price much as do those to the United States, we can infer that their balance‐of‐trade adjustments to price will be mainly on the export, rather than on the import, side.
THE INTERNATIONAL DISEQUILIBRIUM SYSTEM
Authors: MUNDELL ROBERT A. 
Published: May 2007

SUMMARYMost of the important generalizations of international trade theory that owe their origin to the classical school are long‐run and static in nature, implicitly assuming that disequilibrium is a transitory state and that passage between equilibria is untroubled. Yet past experience seems to indicate that external disequilibria can remain for extended periods of time, and that the modern system is a disequilibrium system.The nature of the international disequilibrium system has sometimes been attributed, erroneously, to the Keynesian foreign‐trade‐multiplier theorem that an increase in exports will induce an increase in imports which is smaller than the initial increase in exports, and this has been the origin of the belief that “HUME'S law” is invalid in the case of saving and unemployment. However, HUME'S law is valid even in this case if gold flows are allowed to have their natural effect on the internal money supply and hence on interest rates, investment and incomes. HUME'S law is therefore valid in the case of Keynesian unemployment, although the price‐specie‐flow mechanism is replaced by an income‐specie‐flow process.The true nature of the international disequilibrium system derives from the fact that central banks do not allow externally‐induced gold flows to affect the internal supply of money since that would conflict with the new primary goal of monetary policy; full employmentwithout inflation. The new function of monetary policy leaves a policy vacuum with respect to the balance of payments, except insofar as ad hoc policies are designed to suit special circumstances. Gold flows are therefore automatically neutralized by open market operations in some countries, while in other countries monetary policy in effect cancels or reinforces the monetary effect of gold flows in the pursuit of internal stability.At critical times, when foreign exchange reserves become dangerously low and subject to speculation, or when they become burdensomely high, action by the authorities must be introduced even if this is at the expense of internal stability. Even in these cases, however, the system need not become an equilibrium system since the objective might be to recoup reserves or allow them to run down.
PROLEGOMENA TO A THEORY OF SOCIAL CHANGEa
Authors: FRANCIS E. K. 
Published: May 2007

SUMMARY Prolegomena to a Theory of Social Change. The formulation of a general theory of the processes of change of social systems is one of the chief tasks of sociology; none of the models of society currently in vogue provides an adequate basis on which such a theory could be built. The structural‐functional analysis of social interaction systems is capable of understanding the majority of the various processes which go under the name of “social change” as processes within a (major) social system whose boundaries may be theoretically determined at will. On the other hand a working definition of a sociology of “social change” is suggested, in which the term will primarily refer to processes of transition from one social system to another.An obstacle to a “dynamic” sociology of this kind appears in the form of the conception of social systems in equilibrium. The inadequacy of functionalism lies in its ontological postulate that the final end of a social system is its own existence, which is derived from a false analogy with the biological law of the preservation of the species. This analogy holds good only for one social system in “Society” as a whole; the functionalist approach does not suffice to explain the existence of any particular social system or type of system as a particular case among any number of possible arrangements, each of which may equally well satisfy the basic needs of man.The criteria for the transition from one social system to another must be sought in the change of social structure. Since the notion of dynamic equilibrium always implies processes changing the relative position of units within the structure, “social change” must be viewed as the changing of changing structures with regard to the essential properties of particular structures. The change of power structure in the form of the substitution of one social stratum through another one as the ruling element has inescapable consequences for the structural arrangement of the total system. To a certain extent Marxian sociology offers univocal criteria which permit identification of social change, but the alternation of ruling classes is not the only significant change of social structure one could think of.Social change should above all be viewed independently of culture change. Both concepts refer to the same total reality, but at different levels of abstraction. The problem of determining the boundaries of cultural units is not solved by identifying any particular culture with the behaviour patterns and/or norm systems of given social groups. The concept of an “integrated culture” is as much a theoretical model as a social system in equilibrium. The essential property of cultural unity consists in a definite, existentially coloured hierarchy of values, the “Weltanschauung”, whose change is the criterion of cultural change. One possibility of correlating social and cultural change arises from the consideration of the underlying world view as one among many essential properties of social systems.
THE RANDOM‐WALK HYPOTHESIS OF STOCK MARKET BEHAVIORa
Authors: Godfrey Michael D. , Granger Clive W. J. , Morgenstern Oskar 
Published: May 2007

SUMMARYA model of the form xt ‐ xt‐1= etwhere xt is the price of a share at time t and et forms a sequence of independent random variates is postulated as a model of the price determining mechanism of stock markets.The form of the distribution function of the et's is investigated. In opposition to suggestions that have been made in connection with other speculative price mechanisms it is found that the distribution function appears to be well approximated by a normal distribution. There is no evidence that the data treated are samples from a stable process with an infinite variance.It is found that the model mentioned above, termed the random‐walk model, provides a good explanation of the variation of stock market prices for daily observations of the price, and for the series formed by the price of every transaction taking place in the market. In the context of this model it is noted that it appears that the price determining mechanism continues to operate at a reduced ‘speed’ during times when the actual market is closed.While it has been suggested that a correlation between the volume of shares transacted and the absolute value of the first differences of the price series should be expected, no such correlation was observed.Two questions which the paper leaves open are the question of cross‐sectional correlation between different shares, and the question of the possibility of information in moments of order greater than two.In conclusion the following law is stated: ‘The price determining mechanism described in Section II (i. e. the random‐walk indicated above) is the only mechanism which is consistent with the unrestrained pursuit of the profit motive by the participants in the market’.
THE MARKET PRINCIPLE AND ROMAN CATHOLIC THOUGHT
Authors: McKee A. F. 
Published: May 2007

SUMMARYThe attitude that Roman Catholic thought should adopt towards the market principle of price establishment turns on implications to be derived from its support for the foudations of the private enterprise economy, the reaction evident in recent years in favour of some more liberal version of the goal of a reformed socio‐economic order, and such direct discussion of the market principle as has occurred.‘Official’ Catholic thought has repeatedly affirmed the necessity of guarding private property, initiative and freedom, and urged limiting the role of the state; so that basic, though duly qualified, support for the private enterprise economy is the clear and inescapable consequence.Next respecting the vision of an ideal socio‐economic order Mater et Magistra seems to mark a welcome resetting of the balance in favour of the neo‐liberal trend in Catholic social thought. It makes no mention of the goal of a corporative economy with the rigid implications inherent in this, substitutes a looser perspective of associational groups and action as the means of filling the old void between unorganised individuals and the state, and shows awareness of the diversity of desirable patterns of reform in different coutries.Lastly, incorporation of the market principle into Roman Catholic thought requires, on the one hand, full acceptance of it as inevitably associated with and necessary to private property and enterprise, and on the other hand and more formally, a working out of its institutional character and the legal and moral safeguards dictated by commutative, distributive and social justices.It has to be borne in mind that the entire argument implicitly views the advanced Western country as the norm, and is subject to considerable qualification respecting the underdeveloped country and various special cases.
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ADJUSTMENT IN A DISEQUILIBRIUM SYSTEMa
Authors: Linder Staffan B. , Cohen Benjamin J. 
Published: May 2007

SUMMARYA balance of payments adjustment mechanism should be defined as ‘any balance of payments disturbance which can be deliberately initiated in order to correct some other disturbance’. The traditional mechanisms, based on changes in exchange rates, prices and incomes, can no longer be applied effectively because they are domestically impalatable. Consequently, governments have come to rely on new ways of initiating countervailing disturbances, among them (a) pressures on surplus countries; (b) changes in foreign tastes; (c) stimulating economic growth; and (d) forming or joining a customs union. In the present disequilibrium system, new adjustment mechanisms like these are being widely used, and are in fact becoming the only effective means for maintaining international equilibrium.
THE TYRANNY OF SMALL DECISIONS: MARKET FAILURES, IMPERFECTIONS, AND THE LIMITS OF ECONOMICS*
Authors: Kahn Alfred E. 
Published: May 2007

SUMMARYA market economy makes its large allocations and reallocation of resources on the basis of a summing up of the ‘votes’ recorded by customers in a host of small, individual market transactions. A critical task in appraising the efficiency of such an economy, then, is to determine whether and under what conditions this adding up process produces optimal results. The ‘smallness’ of the decisive, individual transactions—their limited size, scope and time‐perspective—can, it is argued, be a source of misallocations, in the sense that consumers might disapprove of the larger result thereby produced, if they were ever given the opportunity explicitly to vote for or against it.In certain circumstances, the smallness of the relevant decisions may produce authentic market failure. This will be the case where they do not include an independent appraisal of customers’ desire to keep available for possible future use a service that they do not actually use in sufficient amount to cover the costs of providing it. In other circumstances, the smallness of the individual transactions may encourage irrational consumer choice, because they are too small to justify the effort of securing good market information. In yet others, monopoly elements may cause the buyer to be presented with excessively narrow choices that do not correctly reflect that actual costs of the competing alternatives; and the result may be an uneconomic spiral of product quality changes over time so‐called ‘product inflation’. Finally, the cumulation of individual choices may have the ultimate effect of changing consumer preference function themselves, in which event it is not possible for welfare economics to judge the optimality of market performance. These possible defects of the market may be conceived in the more familiar terms—as attributable to externalities, market imperfections or the defects of consumer sovereignty itself. Emphasis on the contribution influence of the smallness of the controlling decisions has the virtue of suggesting the possible necessity of substituting a ‘large’ for a piecemeal accumulation of small decisions if the results are to be intelligently appraised or improved.