bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pacific Rim Population Structure of Sockeye Salmon as Determined from Microsatellite Analysis
Authors: Beacham Terry D. , McIntosh Brenda , MacConnachie Cathy , Miller Kristina M. , Withler Ruth E. , Varnavskaya Natalia 
Published: December 2005

AbstractThe Pacific Rim population structure of sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka was examined with a survey of microsatellite variation. Variation at 14 microsatellite loci was surveyed for over 48,000 sockeye salmon sampled from 299 localities ranging from the Columbia River to Japan. The value of the genetic differentiation index FST over all populations and loci was 0.097; individual locus values ranged from 0.038 to 0.154. Sockeye salmon from the Queen Charlotte Islands and the Columbia River displayed the least number of alleles relative to sockeye salmon from other regions in the Pacific Rim distribution of the species. Conversely, sockeye salmon displaying the greatest allelic diversity were observed in Southeast Alaska and the central coast of British Columbia. Sockeye salmon from these two regions displayed approximately 30% more alleles than did sockeye salmon from the Queen Charlotte Islands and the Columbia River. Sockeye salmon from Russia and western Alaska were, on average, less diverse than sockeye salmon from Southeast Alaska and more southerly locations in North America. A regional structuring of populations was generally observed among the sockeye salmon populations sampled, and populations were clustered within lakes and river drainages. At the Pacific Rim scale of population structure, there were two major groups of populations. The first group included populations from Russia, Bristol Bay, Kodiak Island, the Alsek River, and the Queen Charlotte Islands. The second group generally included populations from Southeast Alaska, British Columbia, and Washington. The distribution of microsatellite variation of sockeye salmon on a Pacific Rim basis reflected the origins of sockeye salmon radiating from refuges after the last glaciation period.
Optimizing First-Line Treatment Options for Patients with Advanced NSCLC
Authors: Wakelee Heather , Belani Chandra P. 
Published: December 2005

Abstract

Learning Objectives
After completing this course, the reader will be able to: Explain the clinical implications of large randomized trials evaluating chemotherapy combinations for patients with advanced NSCLC.Summarize the activity and toxicity of current chemotherapy regimens for the first-line treatment of advanced NSCLC.Describe regimens that have quality-of-life benefits in the treatment of NSCLC.Identify potential future standards of care for advanced disease based on recent research findings evaluating novel targeted agents.
Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com
The median survival time for advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains poor, despite years of research into new chemotherapy combinations. Platinum-based chemotherapy has long been the standard of care for the initial treatment of advanced NSCLC. While no one particular platinum-based chemotherapy regimen is definitely superior to the others (as demonstrated in the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group's E1594 trial), three randomized phase III trials (the Southwest Oncology Group 9509, Italian Lung Cancer Project, and TAX326 trials) have recently demonstrated that taxane–platinum doublets are better tolerated than a combination of vinorelbine and cisplatin (VC). Moreover, a combination of docetaxel and cisplatin produced superior survival and quality of life than VC in the TAX326 study. Nonplatinum combinations, such as a taxane–gemcitabine doublet, appear promising and better tolerated than their platinum-based comparators in other studies. Efforts to evaluate chemotherapy specifically in elderly patients and in those with poor performance status (PS) have increased. Single-agent chemotherapy has been safely administered to these populations, but platinum-based doublet therapy may also be feasible in both elderly patients and patients with PS scores of 2. The addition of the monoclonal antibody against vascular endothelial growth factor, bevacizumab, to standard chemotherapy for patients with non-squamous cell advanced NSCLC significantly extended median survival in the E4599 randomized trial. Each incremental advance demonstrates that progress can be made in first-line treatment of advanced NSCLC.
Paradigm Shift in the Treatment of Head and Neck Cancer: The Role of Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy
Authors: Posner Marshall R. 
Published: December 2005

Abstract

Learning Objectives
After completing this course, the reader will be able to: Explain the need for chemotherapeutic treatment for patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck.Identify the role of neoadjuvant chemotherapy in the treatment of locally advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck.Discuss results of randomized trials evaluating taxane-based neoadjuvant chemotherapy for patients with unresectable locally advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck.
Access and take the CME test online and receive 1 AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com
Chemotherapy is an integral component of the management of patients with locally advanced head and neck cancer, though the optimal use of chemotherapy remains to be defined. The combination of a platinum agent and 5-fluorouracil has been used as the standard neoadjuvant treatment and has been shown to permit organ preservation in operable patients and improve long-term survival outcomes in operable and inoperable patients. Recently, the addition of a taxane, docetaxel or paclitaxel, to standard platinum plus 5-fluorouracil induction chemotherapy has been shown to further improve response rates and survival outcomes. Phase III data are emerging to support combinations of docetaxel or paclitaxel with a platinum plus 5-fluorouracil as a new, more effective and less toxic standard for neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Sequential treatment regimens, incorporating a combination of induction chemotherapy and chemoradiation, are also under study in efforts to further improve long-term survival outcomes. Induction regimens incorporating docetaxel or paclitaxel with a platinum plus 5-fluorouracil are under evaluation in this setting. Randomized trials comparing a sequential treatment approach with standard therapies are also being undertaken and will likely define a new treatment paradigm for patients with locally advanced head and neck cancer.
Pattern Recognition, Statistical
Authors: Hofmann Thomas 
Published: December 2005

AbstractStatistical pattern recognition deals with the problem of automatically classifying objects as belonging to one or more classes from a set of possible classes. Objects are typically represented by raw data that may include measured or known object properties and which are summarized in a feature vector. The general goal is to infer suitable classification rules that map feature vectors to class labels based on a training set of objects with known class memberships.
Constraint Satisfaction
Authors: Dechter Rina , Rossi Francesca 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Constraints are a formalism for the representation of declarative knowledge that allows for a compact and expressive modeling of many real‐life problems. Constraint satisfaction and propagation tools, as well as constraint programming languages, are successfully used to model, solve, and reason about many classes of problems, such as design, diagnosis, scheduling, spatio‐temporal reasoning, resource allocation, configuration, network optimization, and graphical interfaces.
Reinforcement Learning: A Computational Perspective
Authors: Dayan Peter , Watkins Christopher JCH 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Reinforcement learning is one of the means by which animals and artificial systems can learn to optimize their behaviour in the face of rewards and punishments. Reinforcement learning algorithms have been developed that are closely related to methods of dynamic programming, which is a general approach to optimal control. Reinforcement learning phenomena have been observed in psychological studies of animal behaviour, and in neurobiological investigations of neuromodulation and addiction.
Natural Language Processing: Models of Roger Schank and his Students
Authors: Schank Roger C , Leake David B 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Over many years, Roger Schank and his students developed a series of theories and computer models of natural language processing, guided by two main tenets: that natural language processing cannot be studied in isolation from the purposes for which language is used, and that meaning and world knowledge may be crucial at even the earliest points in the understanding process. Through an interplay between study of human reasoning, development of theories, and experiments with computer models, this work has identified important research questions and shed light not only on natural language processing but on a broad range of cognitive processes such as planning, learning, explanation, and even creativity.
Adaptive Resonance Theory
Authors: Grossberg Stephen 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Adaptive resonance theory is a cognitive and neural theory about how the brain develops and learns to recognize and recall objects and events throughout life. It shows how processes of learning, categorization, expectation, attention, resonance, synchronization, and memory search interact to enable the brain to learn quickly and to retain its memories stably, while explaining many data about perception, cognition, learning, memory, and consciousness.
Analogy‐Making, Computational Models of
Authors: Kokinov Boicho , French Robert M 
Published: December 2005

AbstractAnalogy‐making is the process of finding or constructing a common relational structure in the descriptions of two situations or domains and making inferences by transferring knowledge from the familiar domain (the ‘base’ or ‘source’) to the unfamiliar domain (the ‘target’), thus enriching our knowledge about the latter.
Sense and Reference
Authors: Reimer Margaret 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Many philosophers of language believe that sense and reference are two essential components of linguistic meaning. The reference of an expression is (roughly) that which the expression is used to talk about; the sense of an expression is (roughly) the criterion an entity must satisfy in order to be the reference of that expression. The intuitive, nontechnical notion coming closest to the notion of ‘sense’ is that of meaning.
Philosophy of Linguistics
Authors: Scholz Barbara C 
Published: December 2005

AbstractThe philosophy of linguistics addresses both general issues in the philosophy of science that occur in the scientific study of language, and philosophical issues that arise in linguistic theorizing. It shares many issues with the philosophies of language and of mind, but is distinct from them in that it focuses directly on questions about linguistic theories, the epistemology and metaphysics of linguistic science, and the psychology of language.
Self
Authors: Kihlstrom JF , Klein Stanley B 
Published: December 2005

AbstractViewed from the perspective of cognitive science, the self is a knowledge structure representing one's declarative knowledge of oneself. This knowledge, in turn, may be classified as semantic knowledge of one's physical, personal, and sociocultural characteristics, episodic knowledge of one's past actions and experiences (and, perhaps, prospective memory of one's future actions and experiences as well), and metaknowledge of one's repertoire of mental and behavioral skills.
T
uring Test
Authors: Cole David J 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Alan Turing proposed a test for deciding whether a computer can think: if a computer could converse well enough to pass for human, it should be recognized as intelligent. This behavioral test is a natural extension to machines of one way we assess each other's intelligence; but it has been subjected to many criticisms, including the Chinese room argument, the frame problem, and claims that Gödel's results show that computers are limited in ways that human intelligence is not.
Chinese Room Argument, The
Authors: Searle John 
Published: December 2005

AbstractThe Chinese room argument is a refutation of ‘strong artificial intelligence’ (strong AI), the view that an appropriately programmed digital computer capable of passing the Turing test would thereby have mental states and a mind in the same sense in which human beings have mental states and a mind. Strong AI is distinguished from weak AI, which is the view that the computer is a useful tool in studying the mind, just as it is a useful tool in other disciplines ranging from molecular biology to weather prediction.
Perception, Direct
Authors: Noë Alva 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
The theory of direct perception holds that perception, in any sensory modality, is a form of noninferential awareness of the sorts of things we normally take ourselves to perceive. This view rejects the idea, common to many philosophical and scientific approaches to perception, that our only immediate contact is with sensations, impressions, or mere patterns of stimulation of the sensory receptors.
Innateness and Universal Grammar
Authors: Crain Stephen , Pietroski Paul 
Published: December 2005

AbstractIn linguistics, the Innateness Hypothesis is the claim that all children have, by virtue of a common biology, a ‘Universal Grammar’ that defines a space of possible human languages. Children explore this space, influenced by the environment, until they stabilize on grammars that are equivalent to those of adult speakers in the linguistic community.
Phrase Structure Grammar, Head‐Driven
Authors: Levine Robert D 
Published: December 2005

AbstractHead‐driven phrase structure grammar is a monostratal theory of natural language grammar, based on richly specified lexical descriptions which combine according to a small set of abstract combinatory principles stated as formulae in a constraint logic regulating, for the most part, the satisfaction of valence and other properties of syntactic heads. These constraints, applying locally, determine the flow of information, encoded as feature specifications, through arbitrarily complex syntactic representations, and capture all syntactic dependencies – both local and non‐local – in elegant and compact form requiring no derivational apparatus.
Implicature
Authors: Horn Laurence R 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Implicature is a non‐truth‐conditional aspect of speaker meaning that represents (part of) what is meant in a speaker's utterance without being part of what is said. What the speaker intends to convey is almost always far richer than what he or she directly expresses, as linguistic meaning radically underdetermines the communicated message. The speaker tacitly exploits pragmatic principles to bridge this gap.
Syntactic Form Frequency: Assessing
Authors: Brysbaert Marc , Mitchell Don C 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Syntactic form frequency research aims to find out how often words and sequences of words in a given context fulfil particular syntactic roles in a sentence. This is achieved by analyzing representative samples of text or speech materials. The research is motivated by the findings that artificial grammars perform better when they take syntactic form frequencies into account, and that humans also seem to be sensitive to this kind of information.
Language Acquisition and Language Change
Authors: Lightfoot David W 
Published: December 2005

AbstractUnder a cognitive view of language, a mental system emerges in the mind/brain of an individual child; linguists study the acquisition of that system, a ‘grammar’, which characterizes the individual's mature linguistic capacity. If a different system develops in another child in the next generation of speakers, then we have grammatical change, and that change reflects differences in the acquisition process.
Language Acquisition by Animals
Authors: Rumbaugh Duane M , Beran Michael J 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Language acquisition by animals is concerned with how the acquisition of linguistic skills by nonhuman animals compares to language acquisition in humans. Although language acquisition by nonhuman animals is not claimed to be identical, or even approximate, to language acquisition by humans, researchers in this area are concerned with the specific cognitive skills of nonhuman animals that are necessary in the productive use and understanding of symbols.
Language, Connectionist and Symbolic Representations of
Authors: Steedman Mark 
Published: December 2005

AbstractConnectionist or neurocomputational representations are based on sets of similar, multiple connected neuron‐like parallel processing units, the connections bearing modifiable weights adjusted on the basis of locally available information using a learning algorithm. Symbolic representations, by contrast, are defined in terms of rules relating expressions in a formal language. Among the claims that have been made for connectionist models is the ‘emergence’ of generalizations that had been thought to require the mediation of rule‐based grammars and modular symbolic processing architectures. A more convincing linguistic role for such networks lies in their potential for inducing grounded conceptual structure and statistical models as infrastructure for acquisition and processing of standard symbolist representations of lexicalized syntax and semantics.
Consciousness, Cognitive Theories of
Authors: Baars Bernard J 
Published: December 2005

Abstract‘Consciousness’ operationally consists of all the things human beings report experiencing, from perception to mental images, inner speech, recalled memories, semantics, dreams, hallucinations, emotional feelings, and aspects of cognitive and motor control. In cognitive theory, consciousness appears to be a global access function, presenting an endless variety of focal contents to executive control and decision‐making.
Neuron Doctrine
Authors: Kaczmarek Leonard K 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
A simple statement of the neuron doctrine is that neurons are the fundamental units of the nervous system, and that the entire activity of the brain can be understood in terms of the actions and interactions of these cells. While this is generally accepted by current‐day neurobiologists, theories of exactly how neurons achieve control over the workings of the brain have undergone multiple modifications since the concept was first introduced.
Neural Oscillations
Authors: Wang Xiao‐Jing 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Oscillations represent a general feature of neural firing patterns, produced by dynamical interplay between cellular and synaptic mechanisms. Large‐scale synchronous neural population rhythms reflect different behavioral states, play a role in neural synchronization that contributes to the neuronal encoding of sensory stimuli, or may be correlated with cognitive processes such as attention and working memory.
Mc
C
ulloch–
P
itts Neurons
Authors: Anderson James A 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
The ‘McCulloch–Pitts neuron’ is an abstraction of the computational functions of a biological neuron. This model ‘neuron’ has two states, on or off, it sums activation from other neurons, and it enters the on‐state when the sum of its inputs exceeds a threshold. Networks composed of such abstract “neurons” can compute any finite logical expression.
Hebb Synapses: Modeling of Neuronal Selectivity
Authors: Shouval Harel Z 
Published: December 2005

AbstractHebb synapses are modifiable synaptic connections that increase their efficacy when the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are coactive. Such a learning rule has appealing computational properties but is not stable. Several modifications have been proposed to stabilize this rule. There is mounting experimental evidence that modifiable synapses exist in brain and form the basis for learning, memory and some aspects of development.
Cortical Columns
Authors: Goodhill Geoffrey J , Carreira‐Perpiñán Miguel Á 
Published: December 2005

AbstractIn many regions of the cortex, neuronal response properties remain relatively constant in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, while they vary in a direction parallel to the cortex. Such columnar organization is particularly evident in the visual system, in the form of ocular dominance and orientation columns.
Neglect
Authors: Driver Jon , Vuilleumier Patrik 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Unilateral spatial neglect is the failure to perceive, orient, and act on objects or events towards the side of space opposite a unilateral brain lesion (typically to the right hemisphere). These characteristic deficits are not attributable to primary sensory or motor loss, but involve deficits in higher‐level spatial representation and attention.
Diffusion Models and Neural Activity
Authors: Ricciardi Luigi M , Lánský Petr 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Neuronal interspike intervals can be characterized in terms of the first‐passage time probability density of stochastic diffusion processes under steady state and periodic stimulation. The Wiener and Ornstein–Uhlenbeck models, and models with multiplicative noise, can be used to elucidate neuronal activity.
Neurogenesis
Authors: Ormerod Brandi K , Falconer Erin M , Galea Liisa A M 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
Adult neurogenesis has been found to occur in the olfactory bulb and the hippocampus of all vertebrate species studied but has been most extensively characterized in birds and mammals. Although its function is unknown, neurogenesis is influenced by physical activity, learning, environmental complexity, season and photoperiod, exposure to stress, and experimental brain pathology.
Reticular Activating System
Authors: Sarter Martin , Bruno John P , Berntson Gary G 
Published: December 2005

Abstract
The reticular activating system consists mostly of ascending noradrenergic and cholinergic projections originating in the brainstem. These projections enter the cortex, thalamus and basal forebrain, and mediate increases in wakefulness and arousal. Contemporary hypotheses describe these systems as actively regulated afferent components of forebrain circuits mediating defined cognitive processes.
Basal Forebrain
Authors: De Rosa Eve , Baxter Mark G 
Published: December 2005

AbstractThe basal forebrain is a complex of subcortical nuclei that project widely to cortical and limbic areas involved in cognitive function. Damage to the basal forebrain is associated with cognitive deficits. The contributions of particular neuroanatomical and neurochemical components of the basal forebrain to different aspects of cognitive function can be dissociated to some extent.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Swanson James M , Volkow Nora D , Newcorn Jeffrey , Casey BJ , Moyzis Robert , Grandy David , Posner Michael 
Published: December 2005

AbstractAttention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a childhood syndrome characterized by developmentally inappropriate inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity which produces impairment at home and school. Long‐term outcome is poor, but treatment with stimulant medication and behavior modification is effective. Investigations of the disorder and its treatments suggest a dopamine deficit exists that may be corrected by stimulant medication.
Nootropic Drugs
Authors: Meck Warren H , Williams Christina L 
Published: December 2005

AbstractNutrients and other chemicals that amplify cognition are sometimes called ‘nootropics’. These ‘smart drugs’ are thought to work by one of two basic processes, either by influencing glucose metabolism and blood flow in the brain, or by elevating the levels of one of the many neurotransmitters or neuromodulators that are known to play a role in attention, memory and decision processes.