bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Explosives Analysis in the Environment
Authors: Tomkins Bruce A. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe interest in analytical procedures for explosives residues in environmental media steadily increases as more and more formerly utilized military sites are certified and converted to full‐ or part‐time civilian use. Careful statistical studies have clearly demonstrated that analyses based on randomly collected “grab” samples of soils frequently produce a false picture of the extent of explosives contamination. Well‐designed sampling plans, which employ multiple samples taken from small areas and which consider the distribution of the soil particles, are mandatory for understanding the true extent of contamination. Because site remediation is such a costly venture, there is a strong need for analytical procedures which are capable of quantitating explosives in soil and groundwater samples quickly and accurately, using equipment and methods which may be operated reliably by nontechnical personnel. For that reason, scientific interest is gradually moving away from the completely laboratory‐based, statistically validated, and highly technical standardized methods, such as high‐pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC) and their mass spectroscopic analogs, towards the many fieldable analytical techniques. Some of these, such as ion mobility spectrometry and the various magnetic resonance techniques, are still in their infancy; their potential and utility are still to be fully developed. Others, such as the colorimetric and enzyme‐based field test kits, have been fully tested and, in some cases, have been adopted as standard methods themselves. Still others, such as the various mass spectrometric methods, involve highly technical equipment which must be simplified before it can be used routinely in the field. However, the extreme sensitivities characteristic of these state‐of‐the‐art instruments partially offset the need for extensive operator training. A variety of mass spectrometric techniques may yet be used routinely for explosives residue analysis in the field. Some of these new methods may be used in, or even be derived from, forensic applications.
Formaldehyde, Environmental Analysis of
Authors: Srivastava S.S. , Maharaj Kumari K. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Formaldehyde is a ubiquitous component of both the remote atmosphere and polluted urban atmospheres. Interest in ambient concentrations of formaldehyde derives both from concerns over health effects and from the primary role that formaldehyde plays in the tropospheric chemistry cycle. It is an important intermediate product occurring in all regions of the atmosphere, and arises from the oxidation of methane and other biogenic and anthropogenic hydrocarbons. In spite of the increasing interest in the levels and fate of formaldehyde in the environment, there is at present no simple method available for the determination of trace amounts (i.e. nanograms) of carbonyls in air, water, and other environmental samples. This article reviews all the available methods (qualitative and quantitative) for the analysis of formaldehyde in various matrices, including sampling of atmospheric formaldehyde. The various methods discussed include colorimetric, titrimetric, polarographic, and chromatographic methods. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS) have been reviewed, and fluorimetric methods of analysis have also been dealt with. The article includes a comparison of the various methods with respect to sensitivity, detection limits and interference.
Gas Chromatography by Direct Aqueous Injection in Environmental Analysis
Authors: Biziuk Marek 
Published: September 2006

AbstractSample pretreatment, the initial stages of an analytical procedure, becomes the essential stage in environmental analysis. The only method of determination of organic compounds in water which avoids the isolation and preconcentration step uses direct injection of an aqueous sample on to a gas chromatographic column. Direct aqueous injection (DAI) is the simplest method for the determination of organic water pollutants. This method is also very fast and easy to automate. The method avoids the problems associated with using solvents (toxic and expensive) and incomplete recovery of the analytes during their isolation from the aqueous phase, the effect of potential contaminants when using solvent or solid‐phase extraction (SPE), and losses of the analytes during the enrichment step.The idea of DAI on to a chromatographic column is very old and for liquid chromatography and ion chromatography was widely applied from the beginning of these techniques. In the beginning of the application of this technique in gas chromatography (GC), packed columns were used. The real issue for the development of GC and the application of DAI is connected with introducing to practical use a capillary column with a polar or non‐polar stationary thin liquid film or thin layer. The next, very important step was to introduce a direct injection on‐column, which eliminates a lot of problems connected with injection in the split or splitless mode.The determination of haloforms in water using DAI on to a capillary column and electron capture detection (ECD) was the most spectacular application of this method. The DAI/GC/ECD method was used for determination of haloorganic compounds in the different aqueous samples (tap, surface, swimming pool, and seawaters, beers, juices, soft drinks, and physiological liquids). This method was also used for the determination of semivolatile and nonvolatile haloorganic and other organic compounds in the different aqueous samples.
Gas Chromatography with Atomic Emission Detection in Environmental Analysis
Authors: Pedersen‐Bjergaard Stig 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

When capillary gas chromatography (GC) is coupled with atomic emission detection (AED), mixtures of volatile and semivolatile organic compounds are first separated based on different retention in a capillary GC column, whereafter the separated compounds are introduced directly into a helium (or argon) plasma. The high temperature of this plasma results in atomization of the separated compounds followed by excitation of the constituent atoms. From the excited states, the atoms emit light of characteristic wavelengths which are monitored continuously during the chromatographic separation by an optical spectrometer. This results in element‐selective chromatograms, where all elements from the periodic table (except helium or argon) may be monitored selectively with a simple change of wavelength on the spectrometer. With the use of multichannel spectrometers, several elements may be monitored simultaneously resulting in multielemental detection. Both nonmetallic and metallic elements are detected with a very high selectivity. This enables environmental contaminants containing heteroatoms to be determined in dirty extracts without extensive sample cleanup. However, since detection limits (DLs) in GC/AED range from 1–100 pg s
−1
, extensive analyte enrichment is often required prior to environmental analysis. Because the separated compounds are atomized within the plasma, only minor structural variations are observed for the detector responses. This, in combination with the multielemental capability, enables estimation of empirical formulas for each of the separated compounds, which may be utilized to support identification of environmental micropollutants. In addition, the structure‐independent detector responses enable simplified calibration for quantitative purposes because different compounds may be quantified based on a single elemental calibration curve.
Gas Chromatography with Selective Detectors for Amines
Authors: Kataoka Hiroyuki 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe presence, identity and quantity of amines in the environment should be established to evaluate possible health hazards. In many cases, environmental amines are present at very low concentration and are often found among a myriad of other compounds from which they must be separated and identified. Therefore, analytical methodology for the isolation and quantification of these amines needs selective and sensitive detection. The present article is concerned with the utilization of selective gas chromatographic detectors for amine analysis and their application to the determination of amines in environmental samples.
Immunoassay Techniques in Environmental Analyses
Authors: Lesnik Barry 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIn the 1980s, several Program Offices of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) investigated the use of immunoassay methods for environmental applications with limited success. Most of the problems were with method ruggedness, i.e. they worked well in clean spiked matrices, but not very well on real world samples. The situation changed significantly in January of 1992, when the Office of Solid Waste (OSW) received its first rugged immunoassay method (for pentachlorophenol (PCP)) that worked on field samples. Several more followed, and through the early and mid‐1990s, the USEPA initiated use of immunoassay methodology in its hazardous waste program. The first group of methods incorporated into the OSW's methods compendium, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, or SW‐846, between 1993 and 1995 were a group of 10 enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)‐based screening methods for various environmental analyte classes. These methods were officially ‘approved’ by the USEPA in July, 1997. We provided a great deal of training on these methods to raise the comfort level of the environmental community for their use.This chapter addresses several major topics including an overview of the USEPA's major Regulatory Programs; how analytical methods are used in Regulatory Programs; general guidelines for the development of screening methods; specific validation criteria for immunoassay methods; the current status of the USEPA immunoassay method development program; current and potential environmental applications for immunoassay technology; barriers to implementation of immunoassay methods and the steps being taken to overcome them; and future directions and new developments in immunoassay technology for regulatory programs.The overall future of the technology for environmental monitoring and analysis looks very bright. It offers a cost effective way to generate reliable information upon which to base sound environmental decisions.
Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry in Environmental Analysis
Authors: Yamasaki Shin‐ichi 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe first sections of this article describe a brief history, the basic principles and advantages as well as disadvantages of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) over other analytical techniques commonly used for environmental analysis (see Figure 1). Section 4 is devoted to the discussion of the relative merits and demerits of a wide variety of dissolution techniques and their limitation in the pretreatment of various environmental samples. In section 5, efforts are concentrated on the novel application of ICPMS to such typical environmental samples as water, soil, and biological materials. In the last sections of the article, future perspectives of new ICPMS and related devices are discussed. The topics chosen are high resolution ICPMS, multiple‐collector instruments, time‐of‐flight (TOF) ICPMS, collision cell interface ICPMS, and low‐sample consumption nebulizers.
Industrial Waste Dumps, Sampling and Analysis
Authors: Rasemann Winfried 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Industrial sites where residues and wastes such as slags, ashes, dust and sludges have been dumped are essential parts of the environment and of the economic structure. The amount of waste produced, distributed and deposited is constantly increasing. The wastes can contain hazardous components that pollute and endanger the environment, but they can also consist of valuable materials, which are a source of secondary raw materials. To assess the environmental risk caused by the waste, or to calculate the economic benefit of dumped material, a reliable knowledge of the waste composition is required. Waste management experience has regularly shown that conflicts and lawsuits are the result if the composition of the waste materials is difficult to determine reliably. Investigations carried out by different institutions and persons, or by the same personnel under varying conditions, will often have very different results. The measuring technology and the measuring methods cannot be the only reasons for that. Nowadays, it is possible to accurately determine chemical components in any natural concentration, and there is no problem in distinguishing the size and shape of particles down to the nanometer scale. The problems are created because the wastes are mixtures of particles and lumps which vary in size and shape as well as in chemical composition and physical properties. A waste dump with a varied production history and dumping conditions, with chemical reactions or physical changes occurring after dumping, will be heterogeneous as a rule. Therefore, the evaluation of any dump of industrial waste materials is quite difficult. To ensure that the results of evaluation are comparable, certain regulations of investigation must be followed. According to the delivery, the wastes are classified into material streams (stationary, moving or free falling), heaps delivered within containers and vehicles, and free‐standing heaps. As it is economically unjustifiable to investigate the entire waste dump, subsets of material (called samples) must be taken from the stream, the container or the heap in order to determine the measurements of interest. In doing this, rather a lot of errors can be made. Therefore, the errors that exist are frequently caused by unobjective sampling and improper handling of the sample material. However, a false estimation can also be made by evaluating reliable data using unsuitable statistical methods.
The present contribution takes up this problem. An industrial waste dump and a contaminated site were chosen as examples, and proven sampling regulations were applied. The applicability of known statistical and geostatistical methods developed for homogeneous granular bulk solids and uniformly contaminated soils to the evaluation of extremely heterogeneous waste dumps and nonuniformly contaminated industrial sites is shown.
Inorganic Environmental Analysis by Electrochemical Methods
Authors: Somer Güler 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAfter the industrial revolution considerable emphasis was placed on monitoring organic, inorganic and organometallic substances in the environment. Environmental contaminants include products of combustion, vapors, gases, industrial solvents, dusts, agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, radioisotopes, noise, ultraviolet light and certain microwave electromagnetic radiations.Contaminants that are present in strong enough concentrations to pose an immediate threat to life or to cause unmistakable cases of disease or acute poisoning are usually readily apparent, and experience has led to the development of adequate, but by no means perfect, environmental control measures. The effects of environmental contaminants are related to time as well as concentration or intensity. Time factors become increasingly important when low concentrations of contaminants do not produce ill effects until after months or years of exposure. Trace analytical methods, therefore, play a very important role in environmental analyses. They are required for the detection and identification of chemical pollutants present in the environment. It is essential that the analytical methods applied are suitable and that they yield reliable data. These methods have to have high sensitivity, as many toxic chemicals are present in environmental samples at microgram per liter levels. Furthermore they have to cover a large dynamic range, and most important they have to be inexpensive. Voltammetry fulfills all of these features and it can be used both in trace metal analyses and in the determination of organic compounds in environmental samples. This article will cover the determination of inorganic pollutants in air, water and soil, using electrochemical (EC) methods.
Ion Chromatography in Environmental Analysis
Authors: Jackson Peter E. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Ion chromatography (IC) is a subset of liquid chromatography applied to the determination of ionic solutes, such as inorganic anions, cations, transition metals, and low‐molecular‐weight organic acids and bases. Although these solutes can be analyzed using a number of separation and detection modes, ion‐exchange is the primary separation mode and suppressed conductivity is the primary method of detection in IC. Method detection limits (MDLs) for inorganic anions and cations are typically in the low parts per billion range and recoveries obtained for ions in spiked water samples are generally in the order of 80–110%. The linear calibration range extends from low parts per billion to mid parts per million concentrations for most applications. IC is well established as regulatory method for the analysis of inorganic anions in environmental samples as there are few alternative methods which can determine multiple anions in a single analysis. However, there are relatively few regulatory methods for cation analysis which use IC. Methods for cation analysis tend to be based upon spectroscopic techniques, although IC offers the advantage of providing information on metal speciation. The main interferences in IC are generally other ions which elute within the timeframe of the ion(s) of interest, and the determination of trace ions in the presence of high levels of other ionic species remains the most difficult of analyses with this technique.
Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry in Environmental Analysis
Authors: Durrant Steven F. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractSoon after the invention of the laser by Maiman, laser pulses were used for excitation and ionization of sample material for inorganic analysis by optical emission spectrometry (OES) or mass spectrometry (MS). This direct approach is complicated by the complexity of the laser–sample interaction and the need to optimize simultaneously the sampling and excitation (or ionization) steps. Use of a laser for solids sampling with separate atomization and excitation in an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) retains the advantages of direct solids analysis, including spatially resolved concentration data, and adds those attributable to the ICP, including wide elemental coverage, a linear dynamic range of six or more orders of magnitude, and excellent detection limits (DLs). The resulting techniques, denominated laser ablation/inductively coupled plasma/optical emission spectrometry (LA/ICP/OES) and laser ablation/inductively coupled plasma/mass spectrometry (LA/ICP/MS), are based on recording of relative emission intensities or ion count rates, respectively. Both methods are treated here, but emphasis is given to LA/ICP/MS, a rapidly developing technique in use for less than 15 years, which in addition to offering DLs typically 103times lower than those obtained by LA/ICP/OES, also offers isotope ratio analysis. Hardware, analytical procedures, performance, and prospects are addressed. The power and limitations of the methods are illustrated by environmental applications, including the analysis of metals, soils, rocks, and plastics.
Microwave‐Assisted Techniques for Sample Preparation in Organic Environmental Analysis
Authors: Smith Frank E. , Xiong Guohua 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis report describes innovative methods for sample pretreatment in organic environmental analysis that involve the use of microwave‐assisted techniques. The methods described include: microwave‐assisted extraction (MAE), focused microwave‐assisted Soxhlet extraction (FMASE), microwave‐assisted headspace analysis, microwave‐assisted derivatization (MAD), microwave‐assisted saponification (MAS) and microwave‐assisted decomposition. A brief history of the development of each technique is provided. Reference is made to literature published up to the beginning of 1999.
Microwave‐Enhanced Solvent Extraction of Organics in Environmental Analysis
Authors: Dean John R. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Microwave‐enhanced solvent extraction is a relatively new approach for the extraction of organic pollutants from solid environmental matrices. This approach uses microwave technology to heat organic solvent in contact with the sample in either a sealed (pressurized) or open (atmospheric) vessel. The major advantage of this approach over conventional extraction procedures, such as Soxhlet extraction, is the speed of the process. As well as the principles of microwave heating, the article also describes the instrumentation required to effect the extraction process. Finally, selected applications of microwave‐enhanced solvent extraction are described. Applications are divided into extraction from solid matrices and extraction from aqueous matrices. The specific analytes covered include the extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides and phenols from solid matrices; direct extraction of chlorinated benzenes from aqueous matrices; microwave elution of a range of analytes from solid‐phase extraction (SPE) media and, finally, volatile compounds, e.g. benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX) from aqueous samples. Finally, some recommended operating conditions for the extraction of analytes from solid matrices using pressurized microwave‐assisted extraction (MAE) are provided.