bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
7 Changes in Religion and Politics
Authors: Black Antony 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
The papalist revolution of the 11th century led to greater divergence between the political thought of the West and of Islam and Byzantium. Pope Gregory VII's views on papal sovereignty provided a prototype for the modern Western state. He and his supporters desacralized kingship. Their attempt to subordinate the state to the church provoked a reaction which led to secular theories of the state. This ‘first European revolution’ coincided with the rise of city republics and economic development. Sunni Islam was consolidated through a firmer alliance between the sultans and the 'ulama. But the Mongol invasions hastened economic and cultural decline. The Shi'ite revolution in 16th-century Iran resulted in social dominance for the Shi'ite 'ulama. This laid a basis for their rise to political power in the 20th century. These changes in the relationship between religion and politics had the opposite results in the West and in Islam.
Towards a New Modus Operandi of the International Financial System
Authors: Cohen Daniel 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThe Bretton Woods system was conceived as a fixed exchange rate regime, allowing for a few devaluations, with the IMF supplying a line of credits to countries in ‘transitory’ difficulties. As capital mobility expanded, the system has radically changed. The role of the IMF is no longer to finance ‘transitory’ balance of payments disequilibria, which almost by definition can be dealt with by financial integration. As a result of capital mobility, however, orderly resolution of sovereign debt crises has also become more difficult in the past decade. The political difficulty of setting up an international court with authority over the handling of sovereign debt has also appeared be unattainable. This chapter reports a new modus operandi rather than a big bang approach to the reform of the system.
Spatio-temporal patterns of fishing pressure on UK marine landscapes, and their implications for spatial planning and management
Authors: Stelzenmüller Vanessa , Rogers Stuart I. , Mills Craig M. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractStelzenmüller, V., Rogers, S. I., and Mills, C. M. 2008. Spatio-temporal patterns of fishing pressure on UK marine landscapes, and their implications for spatial planning and management. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 65: 1081–1091. The spatio-temporal distribution of fishing pressure on marine landscapes in offshore UK (England and Wales) waters is assessed, based on a time-series of fishing vessel monitoring system (VMS) data for UK and foreign fleets deploying beam and otter trawls, and scallop dredges. The results reveal that marine landscapes with coarse or mixed sediments and weak or moderate tide stress are heavily fished. Marine landscapes experienced different intensities of fishing pressure depending on their spatial location in UK offshore waters and the regional heterogeneity of landscape types. Spatial patterns of fishing pressure vary by region, but within regions, patches of high fishing pressure remain centred at the same locations. When designing marine management plans, it is important to take account of the spatial extent and patchiness of fishing activity, and the consistency with which areas are fished in the same region from year to year. Descriptions of the spatial distribution of fishing pressures will become more meaningful at a local level if they also reflect the sensitivity of the habitats to those pressures. The further development of such sensitivity analyses, using life-history traits or measures of benthic production, is now becoming a priority.
Making and Diluting Stock Solutions
Authors: Adams Dany Spencer 
Published: May 2008

INTRODUCTIONFor particular experiments, certain solutions are used frequently and are therefore made up in large quantities. To minimize the volume actually occupied by these solutions, they are often made at a higher concentration than that which will be used. These concentrated solutions are referred to as stock solutions. Stock solutions save time in addition to space; when you need a solution of a given concentration, you need only dilute the stock rather than starting from scratch. This article describes the steps necessary to make and dilute stock solutions appropriately.
Dissection of Larval Salivary Glands and Polytene Chromosome Preparation: Figure 1.
Authors: Kennison James A. 
Published: May 2008

INTRODUCTIONAlthough the large polytene chromosomes of diptera were originally described in the late 1880s, it was not until the early 1930s that their significance to the study of the genome of Drosophila was realized. Polytene chromosomes are found in several larval and adult tissues, but preparations are usually made of the chromosomes in the larval salivary glands, because the glands are easily dissected and the polytene chromosomes are large.
Phenotypic Analysis of Arabidopsis Mutants: Gibberellin/Abscisic Acid/Paclobutrazol Hormone Response
Authors: Blázquez Miguel 
Published: May 2008

INTRODUCTIONSeed germination requires breaking the dormancy that is maintained by abscisic acid (ABA) and involves the activation of gibberellin (GA) biosynthesis and signaling. Mutants with low germination rates may be defective in GA biosynthesis and/or signaling and often require exogenous GAs for efficient germination. Conversely, mutants with either increased GA signaling or reduced signaling by the GA antagonist ABA are resistant to GA-biosynthesis inhibitors or ABA, respectively. Mutants with enhanced GA signaling or decreased ABA content are also more resistant to inhibition of germination by Paclobutrazol (PAC), a GA biosynthesis inhibitor. This protocol describes the measurement of the germination rate of Arabidopsis seeds in the presence of GA, ABA, or PAC.
Hematoxylin and Eosin Staining of Tissue and Cell Sections
Authors: Fischer Andrew H. , Jacobson Kenneth A. , Rose Jack , Zeller Rolf 
Published: May 2008

INTRODUCTIONHematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stains have been used for at least a century and are still essential for recognizing various tissue types and the morphologic changes that form the basis of contemporary cancer diagnosis. The stain has been unchanged for many years because it works well with a variety of fixatives and displays a broad range of cytoplasmic, nuclear, and extracellular matrix features. Hematoxylin has a deep blue-purple color and stains nucleic acids by a complex, incompletely understood reaction. Eosin is pink and stains proteins nonspecifically. In a typical tissue, nuclei are stained blue, whereas the cytoplasm and extracellular matrix have varying degrees of pink staining. Well-fixed cells show considerable intranuclear detail. Nuclei show varying cell-type- and cancer-type-specific patterns of condensation of heterochromatin (hematoxylin staining) that are diagnostically very important. Nucleoli stain with eosin. If abundant polyribosomes are present, the cytoplasm will have a distinct blue cast. The Golgi zone can be tentatively identified by the absence of staining in a region next to the nucleus. Thus, the stain discloses abundant structural information, with specific functional implications. A limitation of hematoxylin staining is that it is incompatible with immunofluorescence. It is useful, however, to stain one serial paraffin section from a tissue in which immunofluorescence will be performed. Hematoxylin, generally without eosin, is useful as a counterstain for many immunohistochemical or hybridization procedures that use colorimetric substrates (such as alkaline phosphatase or peroxidase). This protocol describes H&E staining of tissue and cell sections.
Whole Genome Amplification by T7-Based Linear Amplification of DNA (TLAD): I. CIP Treatment of Samples and Tailing Reaction with Terminal Transferase
Authors: Liu Chih Long , Bernstein Bradley E. , Schreiber Stuart L. 
Published: May 2008

INTRODUCTIONT7-based linear amplification of DNA (TLAD) uses a linear amplification approach based on in vitro transcription (IVT) of template DNA by RNA polymerase from T7 phage. TLAD was designed for use with the ChIP-chip method (whereby DNA recovered from chromatin immunoprecipitation [ChIP] of cell lysate is used for subsequent analysis on DNA microarrays) and requires nanogram quantities of dsDNA to generate microgram amounts of amplified RNA. In Part I of the method, described here, a 3′ conserved end is added to the template dsDNA, using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) tailing. The initial treatment with calf intestinal phosphatase (CIP) is optional but strongly recommended for removing 3′ phosphate groups, because most genomic DNA fragmentation methods (i.e., sonication, micrococcal nuclease digestion, and certain restriction digests) produce a significant proportion of 3′ phosphate groups within the mixture of fragmented genomic DNA. This protocol is compatible with the presence of RNase A and can be carried out immediately after digestion of RNA carried over from ChIP, without any intermediate clean-up step. The tailing reaction involves the addition of a short (20-40 nucleotide [nt]) poly(dT) tail to the template DNA. The included dideoxynucleotide acts as a tail terminator in the reaction mixture and is necessary to maintain a tight size distribution. This poly(dT) tail provides a conserved 3′ element that permits the addition of a T7 promoter sequence in the subsequent second-strand synthesis step. IVT can then use this newly appended T7 promoter and linearly amplify the template dsDNA, producing amplified RNA product.
Whole Genome Amplification by T7-Based Linear Amplification of DNA (TLAD): III. Sample Purification
Authors: Liu Chih Long , Bernstein Bradley E. , Schreiber Stuart L. 
Published: May 2008

INTRODUCTIONT7-based linear amplification of DNA (TLAD) uses a linear amplification approach based on in vitro transcription (IVT) of template DNA by RNA polymerase from the T7 phage. TLAD was designed primarily for use with the ChIP-chip method (whereby DNA recovered from chromatin immunoprecipitation [ChIP] of cell lysate is used for subsequent analysis on DNA microarrays) and requires nanogram quantities of dsDNA to generate microgram amounts of amplified RNA. Briefly, the strategy is to add a 3′ conserved end to the template dsDNA, using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) tailing, which permits the addition of a T7 promoter sequence in the subsequent second-strand synthesis step. IVT can then use this newly appended T7 promoter and linearly amplify the template dsDNA, producing antisense RNA (aRNA) product. After the IVT reaction is complete, the aRNA is cleaned up using the QIAGEN RNeasy Kit. This protocol for RNA sample purification is based on the manufacturer’s protocol for cleaning up RNA reactions, with minor modifications.
Whole Genome Amplification by T7-Based Linear Amplification of DNA (TLAD): Overview
Authors: Liu Chih Long , Bernstein Bradley E. , Schreiber Stuart L. 
Published: May 2008

INTRODUCTIONT7-based linear amplification of DNA (TLAD) was designed primarily to overcome the shortcomings of exponential amplification approaches. TLAD uses a linear amplification method based on the in vitro transcription (IVT) of template DNA by RNA polymerase from the T7 phage, a common strategy used in RNA amplification protocols. The TLAD protocol introduced here successfully addresses amplification fidelity issues encountered with use of random PCR (R-PCR) with the ChIP-chip method (whereby DNA recovered from chromatin immunoprecipitation [ChIP] of cell lysate is used for subsequent analysis on DNA microarrays). Thus, optimizations have been done with this particular application in mind. For other applications that require DNA instead of RNA to be the end point, reverse transcription is a necessary step that increases the cost and complexity of necessary molecular biological manipulations to the sample, when compared with PCR. However, IVT amplification does offer improved fidelity and a much higher maximum yield per single reaction. Thus, other techniques that require amplification of complex mixtures of randomly fragmented genomic DNA can also benefit from this method.
Fungal Effector Protein AVR2 Targets Diversifying Defense-Related Cys Proteases of Tomato
Authors: Shabab Mohammed , Shindo Takayuki , Gu Christian , Kaschani Farnusch , Pansuriya Twinkal , Chintha Raju , Harzen Anne , Colby Tom , Kamoun Sophien , van der Hoorn Renier A.L. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThe interaction between the fungal pathogen Cladosporium fulvum and its host tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is an ideal model to study suppression of extracellular host defenses by pathogens. Secretion of protease inhibitor AVR2 by C. fulvum during infection suggests that tomato papain-like cysteine proteases (PLCPs) are part of the tomato defense response. We show that the tomato apoplast contains a remarkable diversity of PLCP activities with seven PLCPs that fall into four different subfamilies. Of these PLCPs, transcription of only PIP1 and RCR3 is induced by treatment with benzothiadiazole, which triggers the salicylic acid–regulated defense pathway. Sequencing of PLCP alleles of tomato relatives revealed that only PIP1 and RCR3 are under strong diversifying selection, resulting in variant residues around the substrate binding groove. The doubled number of variant residues in RCR3 suggests that RCR3 is under additional adaptive selection, probably to prevent autoimmune responses. AVR2 selectively inhibits only PIP1 and RCR3, and one of the naturally occurring variant residues in RCR3 affects AVR2 inhibition. The higher accumulation of PIP1 protein levels compared with RCR3 indicates that PIP1 might be the real virulence target of AVR2 and that RCR3 acts as a decoy for AVR2 perception in plants carrying the Cf-2 resistance gene.
A NEW METHOD OF ESTIMATING THE CELL CYCLE TIME IN EPITHELIAL TISSUES OF LONG GENERATION TIME
Authors: Brown J. M. , Oliver R. 
Published: May 2008

ABSTRACT1. Using standard autoradiographic techniques, the percentage of labelled mitoses and the numbers of labelled cells in the various layers of the epithelium of the hamster cheek pouch have been studied at various times after a single injection of [3H]thymidine.2. A new method for determining the cell cycle time of the basal layer cells is described and compared with the techniques previously used. This method is based on the rate at which labelled cells leave the basal layer and enter the spinous layer above it.3. Using this technique, the mean cell cycle time of the basal cells has been estimated as 130 ± 7 hr; a value which compares favourably with the estimate of 135 ± 17 hr determined with similar assumptions from the length of the S period and the labelling index.4. The technique enables an estimate to be made of the fraction of cells in the basal layer that are proliferating (the growth fraction). This is found to be indistinguishable from 1.5. The mean time taken by cells in travelling from the basal layer to the keratin, i.e. the transit time through the spinous layer, has been found to be approximately 186 hr.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE NUMBER OF CELLS IN MITOSIS AND OF THE NUMBER OF CELLS SYNTHESIZING DNA IN THE EPITHELIUM OF THE HAMSTER CHEEK POUCH
Authors: Brown J. M. , Berry R. J. 
Published: May 2008

ABSTRACT1. The numbers of cells in mitosis and in DNA synthesis in the epithelium of the hamster cheek pouch have been studied at different times of the day and night.2. By accumulation of mitotic cells using colcemid, both the rate of entry of cells into mitosis and the duration of mitosis have been estimated at two different times of day.3. A diurnal variation has been demonstrated in both the mitotic index and in the tritiated thymidine labelling index. Although these variations are of different amplitude and timing, the experimental data fit closely to the hypothesis that the diurnal mitotic variation is the result of a partially synchronous population moving through the DNA synthetic period. No direct action on the mitotic process need be postulated.4. From the results of mitotic accumulation, it is clear that the rate of entry of cells into mitosis depends on the time of day at which this is studied. There is also the possibility that the duration of mitosis is slightly longer when the mitotic index is high.5. It is concluded that, at least in the epithelium of the hamster cheek pouch, the diurnal rhythm in the number of mitoses present is a reflection of the diurnal variation in the number of cells synthesizing DNA at some time earlier. Small fluctuations in the mitotic pattern imposed by this partially synchronous population moving from S into mitosis, could be caused by slight variations in the duration of mitosis.
CELL POPULATION KINETICS OF THE RECOGNIZABLE ERYTHROID CELLS IN THE RAT
Authors: Tarbutt R. G. , Blackett N. M. 
Published: May 2008

ABSTRACTThe cell population kinetic parameters defining a simple model of the recognizable part of the erythroid system have been determined. Experimental results using tritiated thymidine and radioactive iron autoradiography have provided estimates of the number of cell divisions, transit times and flow rates for all the recognizable stages of the erythroid system. The accuracy of the estimates and the validity of the model employed are discussed.
CELL LOSS FROM EXPERIMENTAL TUMOURS
Authors: Steel G. Gordon 
Published: May 2008

ABSTRACTThe rate of loss of cells from a tumour may be estimated by measuring the cell production rate and comparing this with the rate at which cells are observed to be added to the tumour volume. An attractive method of measuring cell production rate is by the simultaneous measurement of a thymidine‐labelling index and the duration of the DNA synthetic period. A theoretical treatment of this method in exponential populations is given and the necessary assumptions are indicated.Estimates of cell loss have been made for a number of experimental tumours using available published data. It is shown that in some cases cell loss is an important, perhaps even dominant, factor determining tumour growth rate and the shape of tumour growth curves.
DISTURBANCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL COLONIES FOLLOWING THE IRRADIATION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF SINGLE CELLS IN TISSUE CULTURE WITH A HETEROCHROMATIC MICROBEAM OF ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
Authors: Smith C. L. , Dendy P. P. 
Published: May 2008

ABSTRACTVarious sites in mouse L cells have been irradiated using an heterochromatic ultraviolet microbeam 3.5 μ in diameter, and the subsequent growth of the cells has been studied for 5–7 days after irradiation.Modifications in the growth curves were recorded for the total number of cells in each radiation category and significant anomalies in the DNA metabolism of some of the progeny of irradiated cells were noted at the end of the post‐irradiaton incubation period. The frequency with which binucleate and giant cells were produced was also recorded and the results analysed.For equivalent absorbed doses, the nucleus is more sensitive than the cytoplasm in experiments of this type and there was some evidence to suggest that the maximum sensitivity is achieved when some nucleolar material is irradiated.
ASSESSMENT OF VIABILITY OF FROZEN BONE MARROW CELLS USING A CELL‐CULTURE METHOD
Authors: Abrahams S. , Till J. E. , McCulloch E. A. , Siminovitch L. 
Published: May 2008

ABSTRACTThe survival of mouse bone marrow after freezing and thawing was assessed using two methods: the spleen‐colony technique; and a cell‐culture method. The results of these experiments indicate that both methods yield similar estimates of marrow cell viability. It is suggested that the cell‐culture method be used as an assay of marrow‐cell viability in situations where the spleen‐colony technique is not applicable.
ENZYME PATTERNS DURING A SYNCHRONOUS GROWTH CYCLE OF CHLORELLA PYRENOIDOSA
Authors: Cole Francis E. , Blondin Joan , Temple Louise 
Published: May 2008

ABSTRACTThere have been no studies in which a significant number of isozymes have been investigated during a synchronous growth cycle of any organism. The present study was designed to obtain information on the fluctuations of a broad spectrum of enzymes during a synchronous growth cycle of Chlorella pyrenoidosa.Of the thirty‐two enzymic activities investigated, seventeen could be localized on starch gels from a high temperature strain of Chlorella pyrenoidosa. Nine of these activities were found to possess more than one band of activity by starch gel electrophoresis. Seven of these activities were localized on starch gels throughout a synchronous growth cycle of C. pyrenoidosa grown in continuous light. Assay techniques are described. The fluctuations in enzyme activity are discussed with relation to concurrent metabolic and cytological changes during cell maturation in C. pyrenoidosa.
AN EARLY RESPONSE OF THE MORPHOLOGICALLY RECOGNIZABLE ERYTHROID PRECURSORS TO BLEEDING
Authors: Hanna Ismail R. A. 
Published: May 2008

ABSTRACT 55Fe autoradiography of the peripheral red blood cells has been used to study the proliferation of the recognizable erythroid precursors in bled animals. The transit time of the recognizable erythroid precursors present in the bone marrow and labelled with 55Fe 6 hr before bleeding, remains unchanged, but the number of red cells produced by these precursors is significantly greater than normal. It is deduced that the increased red cell production is brought about by an increase in the number of divisions that the cells undergo during maturation and that a shortening in the red cell cycle time is implied. The possibility that the transit time of the progeny of cells differentiating into pro‐erythroblasts after bleeding may be shorter than the transit time of the precursors already differentiated before bleeding, is briefly discussed.
THE EFFECT OF NITROGEN MUSTARD ON THE HAEMOPOIETIC STEM CELLS OF THE BONE MARROW IN THE RAT
Authors: Harriss E. B. , Aponte L. 
Published: May 2008

ABSTRACTThe sensitivity of haemopoietic stem cells to the action of nitrogen mustard has been investigated by transfusion of bone marrow from treated donor rats to recipients whose own haemopoiesis had been reduced to low levels by whole body X‐irradiation. By measurement of the resultant erythropoiesis in the recipients with radioactive iron, a comparison of the repopulating ability of nitrogen mustard treated bone marrow with that of normal bone marrow could be made. It was found that although a dose of 0.9 mg/kg body weight reduces bone marrow cellularity to less than 10% of normal, repopulating ability is not decreased to much less than half the normal level. This is in contrast to the effects of X‐radiation, which has a more marked effect on the stem cell population than on the differentiated marrow cells. Possible reasons for this difference are discussed. It could be that the proliferative or metabolic state of the cell plays a role, or that some repair mechanism is operative in the stem cells which does not exist in the differentiated cells.
FURTHER EVIDENCE FOR THE PRESENCE OF A PANETH CELL PROGENITOR IN MOUSE INTESTINE
Authors: Hampton J. C. 
Published: May 2008

ABSTRACTPhotomicrographic evidence, mitotic figures and 3H‐thymidine labeling among Paneth cells, is presented in support of the hypothesis that Paneth cells are replaced by cells proliferating in the bottom of the intestinal crypt rather than by migration of cells from the mid‐crypt region.
FRACTIONATION OF SUSPENSIONS OF MOUSE SPLEEN CELLS BY COUNTER CURRENT DISTRIBUTION
Authors: Brunette D. M. , McCulloch E. A. , Till J. E. 
Published: May 2008

ABSTRACTSuspensions of mouse spleen cells were fractionated by means of counter current distribution in an aqueous two‐phase polymer system composed of 5% (w/w) dextran and 4% (w/w) polyethylene glycol. Counter current distribution in this combination of polymers was not toxic for hemopoietic colony‐forming units (CFU) and yielded a partial separation of CFU, granulocytes and antibody‐producing cells. The results obtained indicate that counter current distribution is a useful means for the separation of populations of intact, viable hemopoietic cells.