bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Radical Enzymes
Authors: Sjöberg Britt‐Marie , Sahlin Margareta 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Radical enzymes are enzymes that harbour a stable free radical in their polypeptide chain or generate a transient free radical, that participates in catalysis. A growing number of enzymes are known to require a posttranslationally generated free radical for their proper functioning. The radical is generally used to remove a hydrogen atom from an unreactive position in the substrate, activating the substrate to undergo chemical transformations. Some radical enzymes have unexpectedly been found to harbour a stable radical on an amino acid side‐chain that is distinct from the side‐chains of the active site region; during catalysis the stable free radical interacts with the active site via electron or radical transfer and between turnovers it serves as a radical sink.
Myosin Superfamily
Authors: Kendrick‐Jones J , Hodge TP , Lister IMB , Roberts RC , Buss F 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMyosins are a large family of actin‐based mechanoenzymes that bind and hydrolyse ATP to generate the force and movement along actin filaments necessary to drive a wide variety of cellular functions. Phylogenetic analysis has so far identified 17 distinct classes of myosin (designated I–XVII).
Peptide Chain Elongation: Models of the Elongation Cycle
Authors: Nierhaus Knud H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Three models of the ribosomal elongation cycle are used to explain the mechanism of protein synthesis on the ribosome. These are the allosteric three‐site model, the hybrid site model, and the α‐ε model. The α‐ε model reconciles most of the experimental data currently available.
Plant Gums
Authors: BeMiller James N 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The term gum is commonly applied to water‐soluble, nonstarch polysaccharides of commerce; such gums are present in both higher and lower plants. Plant gums and other gums are used in practical applications primarily to thicken or gel aqueous systems and to control water. They may also function as adhesives, crystallization inhibitors, emulsifying agents, emulsion stabilizers, encapsulating agents, film formers, foam stabilizers, suspending agents, suspension stabilizers, or syneresis inhibitors and/or impart other specific properties.
Triacylglycerols
Authors: Mann Jim , Skeaff Murray 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Triacylglycerols are an important source of energy in the human diet, and when not immediately required for this purpose may be stored in the body in adipocytes.They are transported in thebloodstream as chylomicrons and very low‐density lipoproteins and stores are continually being broken down and resynthesized.
Glycerophospholipids
Authors: Farooqui Akhlaq A , Yeo Young K , Horrocks Lloyd A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Glycerophospholipids are derivatives of
sn‐
glycero‐3‐phosphoric acid. They contain an
O
‐acyl or
O
‐alkyl or
O
‐alk‐1′‐enyl residue at the
sn‐
1 position and an
O
‐acyl residue at the
sn‐
2 position of the glycerol moiety. Glycerophospholipid classes are defined on the basis of the substituents on the phosphoric acid at the
sn‐
3 position.
XenopusEmbryo: β‐Catenin and Dorsal‐Ventral Axis Formation
Authors: Moon Randall T 
Published: September 2006

AbstractDuring embryonic development of the amphibian,Xenopus laevis, the dorsal side of the embryo forms approximately opposite the sperm entry point, and the anterior and posterior axes are linked to this through the process of gastrulation. The mechanisms responsible for specification of the dorsal axis include a postfertilization cortical rotation that promotes a dorsal accumulation of β‐catenin, and the activation of a cascade of regulatory genes by the complexes of β‐catenin and HMG box transcription factors which starts the process of gastrulation.
Zebrafish Embryo as a Developmental System
Authors: Amacher Sharon L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Zebrafish are simple, rapidly‐developing animals that are amenable to detailed developmental and genetic analyses. Despite their relatively simple morphology, they share many developmental features with other vertebrates. By combining developmental studies in zebrafish with those in other animals, we will begin to understand the complex events that occur as an embryo develops from a one‐celled zygote to a complex, multicellular organism.
Arabidopsis
: Flower Development and Patterning
Authors: Bowman John L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The development of flowers and floral organs is directed by genetic programmes likely to be universal amongst the angiosperms. A simple model explaining how a small number of regulatory genes acting alone and in combination to specify the identity of the floral organs (sepals, petals, stamens and carpels) is supported by both molecular and genetic experiments in
Arabidopsis
.
Vertebrate Embryo: Patterning the Neural Crest Lineage
Authors: Kalcheim Chaya 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Neural crest cells form as epithelial progenitors during the process of neurulation, then undergo an epitheliomesenchymal transition and become motile. These mesenchymal cells migrate through stereotypical pathways, reach their homing sites, and differentiate into a large variety of neural and nonneural derivatives.
Bromoviridaeand Allies
Authors: Scott Simon W 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe familyBromoviridaeconsists of five genera:Alfamovirus,Bromovirus,Cucumovirus,IlarvirusandOleavirus. All viruses in these genera possess tripartite genomes of single‐stranded, linear, positive‐sense RNA, in which expression of the downstream codon of the RNA3 is via a subgenomic messenger RNA (RNA4).Raspberry bushy dwarf virus, the sole member of the genusIdaeovirus, shares features in common with members of the genusIlarvirusandAlfamovirusbut possesses a bipartite genome and has not been assigned to a family.
Potexviruses and Carlaviruses ‐ Short Filamentous Viruses
Authors: Brunt Alan 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPotexviruses and carlaviruses are plant‐infecting viruses; they have slightly flexuous filamentous particles containing 93–95% protein and 5–7% single‐stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) and similar genomic organizations.
Tombusviridae
Authors: Giesman‐Cookmeyer Donna , Sit Tim L , Lommel Steven A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The family Tombusviridae is a relatively large and diverse family of viruses that have single‐stranded, positive‐sense, RNA genomes and that share morphological, structural, molecular and genetic features. It is a particularly well‐characterized family of viruses in the areas of virus structure, gene expression strategies, virus movement and the support of satellite viruses and defective‐interfering RNAs.
Plant Resistance to Infection with Viruses
Authors: Valkonen Jari P T 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Infection of plants by viruses involves cycles of viral replication and cell‐to‐cell movement (for spread within the infected tissue), and viral long distance movement via the vascular tissue to different parts of the plant according to the source‐sink partitioning of photoassimilates. Plants defend themselves against viral infections by recognizing viral proteins with specific resistance genes, which induces the host defence mechanisms, or by destroying viral RNA using a cellular RNA surveillance mechanism (posttranscriptional gene silencing).
Bacteriophages with ssRNA
Authors: van Duin Jan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The single‐stranded RNA (ssRNA) phages include about 100 isolates. The best‐characterized are those infecting
Escherichia coli
, a Gram‐negative bacterium found in the gut and faecal sewage. The genome of ssRNA phages assumes a highly optimized and unique structure that regulates translation of genes, confers RNAase resistance in the bacterial cytoplasm and ensures recognition by replicase.
Bacteriophage Lambda and its Relatives
Authors: Casjens Sherwood R , Hendrix Roger W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Bacteriophage lambda is a virus that infects the bacterial species
Escherichia coli
. It is a temperate virus, in that it can either make virion progeny in its host, or establish a state in which its chromosome is integrated into the host chromosome and its own replicative genes are turned off.
Bacteriophage T4
Authors: Mathews Christopher K 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Analysis of molecular events following infection of

Escherichia coli

by
bacteriophage T4
has revealed some of the most fundamental principles of biology, including the chemical nature of genes and mechanisms of gene expression. In addition, the phage has provided researchers with virus‐coded proteins that are continuing to serve as reagents to help fuel the biological revolution that began in 1953 with Watson and Crick and is continuing today.
Caenorhabditis elegans
Neural Development
Authors: Brockie Penelope J , Maricq Andres V 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The nervous system of the nematode
Caenorhabditis elegans
has been well described in terms of cell lineage, neural anatomy and connectivity. Identifying mutations that disrupt these defining characteristics has led to a detailed understanding of the genetic and molecular mechanisms of neural development in
C. elegans
.
Neural Tube Defects
Authors: Copp Andrew J 
Published: September 2006

AbstractNeural tube defects (NTDs) are congenital malformations of the central nervous system and axial skeleton that range from the fatal to the asymptomatic. NTDs can be classified according to the embryonic event that is disturbed, and may result from a variety of genetic defects and environmental influences. Understanding the genetic and embryonic basis of NTDs is enabling new approaches towards prevention of these serious birth defects, a strategy exemplified by the ability of folic acid and other vitamins to prevent spina bifida.
BMP Antagonists and Neural Induction
Authors: Eggen Bart JL , Hemmati‐Brivanlou Ali 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In vertebrates, during the gastrula stage of embryonic development, the dorsal part of the ectoderm (the animal pole) is fated to form the neural plate, whereas the ectoderm located at the ventral side will primarily form epidermis. Embryonic factors known as BMP antagonists play a critical role in the processes of neural and epidermal induction.
Genetic Code: Introduction
Authors: Watanabe Kimitsuna 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe genetic code establishes the relationship between all 64 possible arrangements of the four nucleotide bases contained in either DNA (A, T, G and C) or RNA (A, U, G and C) and the 20 amino acids that are used to construct proteins. The historical events that contributed to the deciphering of the genetic code led to the development of the field of molecular biology.
Axon Guidance at the Midline
Authors: Tear Guy , Georgiou Marios 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Much has been learnt about how axons are guided along their appropriate paths by studying axon growth at the midline of the central nervous system in a number of model systems. The specialized midline cells produce both attractive and repellent short‐ and long‐range signals and the axons express specific receptors that are dynamically regulated. It has become clear from these studies that the molecular mechanisms used to guide axons have been highly conserved during evolution.
Transposons as Natural and Experimental Mutagens
Authors: Woodruff RC , Thompson James N 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Transposons are sequences of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that have the ability to move from one genome location to another causing deleterious mutations and chromosome rearrangements. These elements, which are under self‐regulation and regulation by their hosts, are used as vectors to move foreign DNA into transgenic plants and animals and as experimental mutagens to tag genes. Transposons are also occasionally used in adaptive ways by the host in spite of their short‐term deleterious effects on fitness.
Catalytic
RNA
Authors: Walter Frank , Westhof Eric 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Some RNA molecules can function like enzymes and exert a catalytic action on themselves or on other molecules. These ribozymes are diverse in size and sequence and differ in important aspects of their three‐dimensional structure and folding. Catalytic RNAs present a new target for drugs and can be used for inactivating unwanted RNA or DNA molecules by a specific cleavage reaction.
Messenger
RNA
: Interaction with Ribosomes
Authors: Carr‐Schmid Anne , Kinzy Terri Goss 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The recruitment and binding of a messenger RNA (mRNA) to the ribosome is a highly specific and regulated process. This process depends on unique sequences and structures within the mRNA, soluble auxiliary factors as well as the RNA and protein components of the ribosome to allow the synthesis of proteins.
Ribosomal RNA
Authors: Lafontaine Denis LJ , Tollervey David 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
All proteins are synthesized by ribosomes, large RNA–protein complexes that function as ribozymes and are the targets of several clinically relevant antibiotics. Ribosomes contain highly conserved rRNA species, which catalyse the key steps in protein synthesis, together with 70–80 proteins that play important roles in the correct folding and packaging of the rRNAs.
m
RNA
Splicing: Role of
sn
RNA
s
Authors: Padgett Richard A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Many small nuclear ribonucleic acids (snRNAs) of eukaryotic cells are involved in the maturation of primary transcripts of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Certain snRNAs are involved in the formation and function of the spliceosome, a large ribonucleoprotein structure in which pre‐mRNA splicing takes place.
Intron Homing
Authors: Edgell David R , Landthaler Markus , Shub David A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Introns belonging to the group I or group II self‐splicing types are mobile elements that can move into unoccupied sites in homologous genes (homing), or into new genomic sites (transposition). This mobility is mediated by intron‐encoded proteins: site‐specific endonucleases in the case of group I introns and chimaeric proteins containing reverse transcriptase activity for group II introns.
Introns: Group I Structure and Function
Authors: Paquin Bruno , Shub David A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Group I introns fold into characteristic secondary and tertiary structures. In a Mg
2+
‐dependent reaction initiated by a guanosine cofactor, group I ribozymes catalyse their own excision from the primary transcript. In addition, group I introns often contain an open reading frame that assists the intron in its own mobility.
mRNA Splicing: Regulated and Differential
Authors: Cooper Thomas A 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAlternative splicing is the process by which single genes express multiple messenger RNAs (mRNAs), and therefore multiple proteins, by differential processing of the primary transcript (pre‐mRNA). The temporal and spatial regulation of protein expression by alternative splicing is determinative for such diverse biological processes as gender specification inDrosophila, commitment to apoptosis, and sound frequency recognition of individual hair cells in the avian cochlea.
Antibody Classes
Authors: Wingren Christer , Alkner Ulf , Hansson Ulla‐Britt 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAntibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin family. The immunoglobulins have a common four‐chain structure (two identical light chains and two identical heavy chains) and they can be divided into different classes (and subclasses) according to the isotype of the heavy chain. The heavy‐chain isotype will confer different structural and functional properties on each antibody class, so that each isotype will occupy a specific site in the body and have a specific role to play in the immune system.
Secondary Metabolites: Attracting Pollinators
Authors: Harborne Jeffrey B 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
When insects, bats, birds and other animals visit flowers to feed on the nectar and pollen, they usually pollinate the flowers in the process, so that both partners benefit from this mutualistic association. Secondary metabolites are involved primarily to provide either visual or olfactory attraction in terms of flower colour and flower scent. They may also be present in the nectar and pollen to interact with certain visitors.
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
Authors: Penn Dustin J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) contains the most diverse genes known in vertebrates, the class I and II loci. These highly polymorphic genes encode cell surface receptors that play a central role in controlling immunological self/nonself recognition, and subsequently tissue rejection, autoimmunity, and immune responses to infectious diseases. The polymorphisms of MHC genes has been maintained by natural selection over long periods of evolutionary time.
Major Histocompatibility Complex: Human
Authors: Penn Dustin J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a large genetic region that contains the most polymorphic loci known in humans and other vertebrates. MHC genes are the most intensively studied genes because they influence so many important traits, including resistance to infectious diseases, autoimmunity, compatibility of tissue transplants, spontaneous abortion, odour and mating preferences.
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC): Mouse
Authors: Melvold Roger W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) of the mouse, the
H2
(or
Histocompatibility‐2
; formerly abbreviated as
H‐2
) complex, is located on chromosome 17. It contains genes critical to the functioning of the immune system because their products are intimately involved in the earliest steps in initiating immune responses. There is great variation among these genes, a trait that is unusual and probably critical to the immune system.
Immunoregulation
Authors: O’Shea John J , Nutman Thomas B 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The immune system serves essential functions in protection from numerous pathogenic organisms and, in general, is not harmful to the host. The process by which the immune response is restrained or controlled is termed immunoregulation. A number of different aspects of the immune system contribute to this process of immunoregulation, some of the most important being signals from antigen‐presenting cells by ostimulatory molecules, the effects of cytokines and apoptotic cell death.
Immunotoxicology
Authors: Luster Michael I , Simeonova Petia P , Germolec Dori R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Immunotoxicology can be defined as the study of adverse effects on the immune system resulting from exposure to chemicals (including drugs), biological materials and, in certain instances, physiological factors, collectively referred to as agents. It encompasses studies of various immune pathologies associated with exposure of humans and wildlife species, including allergy, immune dysregulation (suppression or enhancement), autoimmunity and, in some instances, chronic inflammatory diseases.
Hypersensitivity: Anaphylactic (Type I)
Authors: Bannon Gary A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Type I hypersensitivity reactions occur in individuals who have been previously sensitized to a specific allergen. They are the result of allergen recognition by immunoglobulin E on mast cells and basophils and cause a variety of symptoms such as itching or tingling of the lips, tongue or throat; nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea; sneezing, runny nose and wheezing, shortness of breath and coughing. In some cases the reaction can be so severe that the circulatory system shuts down and tracheal swelling occurs, leading to a life‐threatening condition known as anaphylaxis.
Antisense Nucleic Acids in Biotechnology
Authors: Delihas Nicholas 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Antisense nucleic acids are natural or synthetic polymers that base pair with target RNAs and inhibit target functions. Natural antisense RNAs are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms and regulate gene expression during cell growth or development. Synthetic and vector‐encoded antisense nucleic acids are used in experimental molecular genetics to determine the function of target genes, and are being developed for use in human disease management and in agriculture.
Bornaviruses
Authors: Lipkin W Ian , Briese Thomas 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Borna disease virus
is a neurotropic, nonsegmented negative‐strand RNA virus that is currently the only known member of the family
Bornaviridae
within the order
Mononegavirales
. It appears to be distributed worldwide and has the potential to infect most, if not all, warm‐blooded hosts, causing disorders of the central nervous system.
Caliciviruses
Authors: Neill John D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Caliciviridae is a family of small, nonenveloped viruses containing a single‐stranded, plus‐sense genomic RNA that is polyadenylated at its 3′‐end. Most caliciviruses have distinctive cup‐shaped depressions (L. calix, cup) on their surface, giving them their characteristic ‘Star of David’ appearance. These viruses have a large and diverse host range and cause diseases of both human and veterinary importance.
DNA Plant and Animal Virus Replication
Authors: Gutierrez Crisanto , Martinez‐Salas Encarnacion 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
DNA viruses have evolved very different replication strategies as well as a rich variety of molecular interactions with their host cells. They frequently subvert cellular pathways involved in transcription, translation, DNA replication and cellular defence. Their study is providing key information for designing strategies of virus control and, at the same time, DNA viruses are extremely useful molecular tools to delineate the mechanisms behind basic cellular processes.
Epstein‐Barr Virus
Authors: Sung Nancy S , Pagano Joseph S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), a ubiquitous herpesvirus, was the first human tumour virus to be discovered. Infecting both lymphocytes and epithelial cells, EBV is associated with a diverse array of diseases, most of them malignant and restricted to distinct human populations.
Foot‐and‐mouth Disease
Authors: King Andrew MQ , Belsham Graham J , Donaldson Alex I 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Foot‐and‐mouth disease is an economically important, viral disease of cloven‐hoofed animals characterized by the appearance of vesicles (blisters) on the feet and in and around the mouth. The causative agent was the first mammalian virus to be discovered and has been studied intensively.
Hepatitis C Virus
Authors: Smith Donald B 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Hepatitis C virus
is an RNA virus, usually transmitted by contact with blood, that frequently gives rise to chronic infections. After several years or decades, disease can progress to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, liver failure or the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. While the availability of screening assays has greatly reduced the incidence of infection following blood transfusion, current treatment is only partially successful and a vaccine is still under development.
DNA Replication: Mammalian
Authors: Hickey Robert J , Hoelz Derek J , Malkas Linda H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Resolution of the structure of DNA revealed the complementary relationship between the nucleoside bases of the two DNA chains forming the double helix. It was suggested that the complementary strands of the DNA molecule separated during DNA replication, and that DNA alone functioned as the template for the synthesis of new daughter DNA molecules. It is now known that the replication of the DNA genome of even very simple organisms is very complicated, requiring many different proteins and enzymes. Although much is known regarding the basic mechanics of DNA synthesis there is still much to be understood in relation to the regulatory mechanisms controlling DNA synthesis, and much to be learned about the architecture of the machinery responsible for mediating DNA replication.