bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Comfort Factors of Protective Clothing: Mechanical and Transport Properties, Subjective Evaluation of Comfort
Authors: Cowan SL , Tilley RC , Wiczynski ME 
Published: February 2009

The purpose of this research was to determine the mechanical and transport properties contributing to fabric comfort for a series of nonwoven fabrics known to resist spray penetration and to relate those properties to the subjective evaluation of comfort.
Seven fabrics that may be used in protective apparel were evaluated for their comfort properties. One hundred percent cotton woven chambray with and without a fluorocarbon finish served as control fabrics. Five nonwoven test fabrics known to resist spray penetration were selected. Three spun-laced or spun-bonded test fabrics contained 100% olefin fibers with either a fluorocarbon finish or a polyethylene coating. Both woodpulp, polyester-blended nonwovens had a fluorocarbon finish. One woodpulp, polyester fabric also contained a flame retardant finish.
For each fabric, standard ASTM test methods were used to measure air and water vapor permeability, fabric weight, thickness, flexural rigidity, breaking load and elongation, and bursting and tear strengths. The Kawabata Evaluation System (KES) was used to provide an objective evaluation of hand characteristics. A panel of judges subjectively ranked the seven fabrics on smoothness, stiffness, stretchiness, thickness, weight, and hand.
The woodpulp, polyester nonwoven fabric with a commercial finish was found to be the nonwoven fabric having comfort characteristics closest to those of the chambrays. Among the nonwovens, it was ranked the highest for hand by the panel of judges while the olefin nonwoven fabric with the polyethylene coating was ranked as having the least desirable hand. The woodpulp, polyester nonwoven with a commercial finish was comparable to the chambray fabrics in terms of fabric stiffness. Both woodpulp, polyester fabrics had better air and water vapor transmission properties than did the other nonwoven fabrics evaluated.
According to the subjective evaluations, the stiffer and smoother the fabric, the less desirable the hand. The olefin nonwoven fabric with the polyethylene coating strongly exhibited both of these characteristics. In the subjective evaluation, it was ranked as having the least desirable hand. Both spun-bonded olefins had the lowest air and water vapor transport properties of the fabrics evaluated. Lack of these properties makes the olefin nonwovens a poor choice for comfortable protective apparel.
The nonwoven fabrics had significantly weaker tensile and bursting strength properties compared to the two chambray fabrics. There were no significant differences between wet and dry strengths of the nonwoven fabrics. Therefore, the presence of moisture would not be expected to cause premature fabric failure. The spun-bonded olefins were the most durable of the nonwoven fabrics evaluated.
Performance Evaluation of Chain Saw Protective Leggings
Authors: Arteau J , Turcot D 
Published: February 2009

The Standardization Office of Quebec mandated us to develop a test that could rate protective pads or leggings in terms of performance.
In the test, a chain saw was mounted on a horizontal axis about which it was allowed to rotate freely. A test consisted of letting the blade of this chain saw drop perpendicularly to the longitudinal axis of the legging that was mounted on a wood cylinder to simulate the leg of the worker. The legging was fixed on the specimen support in such a way that the textile threads could be pulled out by the chain so as to cause minimum interference with the protective mechanism of the textile. Wires on the legging and underneath the pad and an appropriate data acquisition system permitted measurement of the cut-through time and the chain saw speed.
The number of plies, the material thickness, and the chain saw speed were shown to change the cut-through time and stopping speed, which measures the maximum speed that the chain saw can run without actually cutting completely through the leggings.
For the first time, both performance criteria were measured with the same apparatus on the same type of leggings to confirm that these two different performance criteria were required to rate legging performance when no correction is made to the cut-through time for the free-fall time. The threshold stopping speed seems to be a preferable criterion.
The cut-through time was shown to be sensitive to the thickness of the material; the threshold stopping speed, to the strength of the assembly of fabric layers. Observations with a high-speed video camera (2000 frames/s) demonstrated the slowing of the chain by the fabrics, the stretching of the yarns up to the stitching on the perimeter of the pad, and the absence of bouncing during testing.
Dose Response of Skin Absorption in Young and Adult Rats
Authors: Hall LL , Fisher HL , Sumler MR , Monroe RJ , Chernoff N , Shah PV 
Published: February 2009

The effect of skin dosage on percutaneous absorption was determined in young and adult rats using 14 pesticidal chemicals. Young (33-day old) and adult (82-day old) female Fischer 344 rats, with previously clipped mid-dorsal skin, were treated with three dosages of labeled pesticides in acetone and sacrificed 72 h following application. The treated area was 2.3% of the body surface area and was protected by a perforated plastic blister. Skin penetration was determined by dividing the radioactivity in the body plus excreta by the total radioactivity recovered. The dosages used were 0.02 to 0.35, 0.54, and 2.68 µmol/cm2 for the low, medium, and high dosage levels, respectively.
Skin penetration of the pesticides in young animals ranged from 2.9 to 81.5%, 2.0 to 84.4%, and 0.9 to 90.1% at the low, medium, and high dosage levels, respectively. In the adult, it ranged from 7.7 to 86.4%, 2.7 to 90.5%, and 1.0 to 93.3% at the low, medium, and high dosage levels, respectively.
Chlorpyrifos, dinoseb, mono- and disodium methanearsonate did not show a significant effect of dosage on dermal penetration. Dinoseb, mono- and disodium methanearsonate displayed constant fractional penetration in both young and adult animals over the dosage range examined. The other compounds showed dose-dependent dermal absorption although the total amount absorbed usually increased with dose. Dose-response curves for young and adult animals were not parallel in 8 of the 14 pesticides studied.
Eleven of the 14 pesticides showed significant age-dependent differences in skin penetration. Four of these eleven compounds had greater absorption in the young than adult at some dose. The highest and lowest significant young/adult penetration ratios were 1.53 and 0.19, respectively.
In summary, dermal absorption of the majority of the pesticides studied was found to be dependent on dose and age of the animal. With this heterogeneous group of chemicals, the correlation between skin penetration and octanol/water partition coefficients was marginal. Stratum corneum thickness did not appear to be a factor in the penetration differences between young and adult.
Problems in Determining Permeation Cell Equivalency
Authors: Patton GL , Conoley M , Keith LH 
Published: February 2009

Permeation tests were conducted to determine if an alternate 1-in. stainless steel cell was equivalent to the ASTM standard 2-in. glass cell. Permeation tests were conducted according to ASTM Test Method for Resistance of Protective Clothing Materials to Permeation by Liquids or Gases (F 739-85). Sheet stock neoprene (0.41 and 0.81 mm) and sheet stock nitrile (0.41 mm) were challenged with n-hexane (99%). Seven replicates of each chemical/material were tested for each cell.
Data sets of breakthrough time and permeation rate were compared using a proposed ASTM Cell Equivalency Method, Standard Practice for Determining Equivalency of Optional Chemical Permeation Test Cells to that of the ASTM Cell—Draft, 10 April 1985. This method first determines the equivalence of cells in terms of precision, via an F statistic. Equivalence in accuracy (bias relative to the ASTM cell), is then determined via a comparison of absolute percent difference and a calculated t statistic.
Analysis of ASTM and alternate cell data demonstrated standard deviations were dependent on mean breakthrough times and mean permeation rates. Therefore, the proposed ASTM procedure utilizing pooled standard deviations could not be used to determine cell equivalency. Further test results to characterize both cells are presented along with alternative statistical methods to evaluate data in cell validation tests.
An Analytical Technique for Permeation Testing of Compounds with Low Volatility and Water Solubility
Authors: Spence MW 
Published: February 2009

One of the most challenging problems currently facing researchers in the field of chemical protective clothing (CPC) permeation testing is how to perform tests for compounds that have low volatility and low water solubility. Permeation testing with these compounds is difficult because an inert gas or water are currently the only permeant collection media that one can use with the assurance that the CPC material will be unaffected by the collection medium.
An approach to solving this problem using an automated sample concentrating technique in conjunction with gas chromatography is described. Such a technique allows determinations of breakthrough times and permeation rates while maintaining the permeant concentration in the collection medium at very low levels through the use of relatively high collection medium flow rates. By keeping the permeant concentration low enough to remain within the volatility limit of the compound being tested, the range of compounds that can be tested using air or nitrogen as the collection medium is greatly expanded.
Problems in Personal Protective Equipment Selection
Authors: Eiser DN 
Published: February 2009

The development and validation of protective clothing test methods are very important to industrial hygiene practitioners. These methods will eventually help to ensure that protective clothing performance data are comparable, meaningful, and available to field personnel. However, field problems are typically very complex, with multiple challenges placed on protective clothing, as well as the users. The “perfect” protective clothing item is rarely, if ever, found in practice.
Protective clothing challenges can often include combinations of heat, tear, and cut hazards, rough surfaces, puncture hazards, and complex chemical mixtures. Fitting problems, differences in performance of similarly-described clothing from different manufacturers, and occasional poor quality control can cause additional complications for users. Training in the proper wearing of clothing, whether or not the equipment is considered disposable, worker acceptance, comfort, flexibility, compatibility with the work being done, and other more subtle issues also influence whether or not clothing is actually used. Dermatitis aggravated by personal protective equipment use, skin cleaners, and hand creams can also present problems to clothing users. In addition, practical guidelines for assessing toxic risks from dermal exposures to chemical agents are critical if we are to meaningfully apply protective clothing performance data.
This paper presents some of the factors that must be considered during personal protective equipment selection, and gives specific examples of typical selection problems. Engineering, job layout, and skills' training solutions are needed to minimize the need for personal protective equipment and to ensure effective use when it must be specified for protection.
Selected Protective Clothing for Semiconductor Manufacture
Authors: Gittelman DH 
Published: February 2009

State-of-the-art technologies in the semiconductor industry require exotic processing techniques using unusual, hazardous chemicals. The very nature of some of these chamicals makes it necessary to very carefully select protective clothing to assure the protection of the worker.
Selection techniques are described for safety glasses, side shields, goggles, visitors' goggles, face shields; ear protection; respirators, in-line air breathing equipment, self-contained breathing apparatus; gloves—acid, solvent and heat-resistant as well as disposable types; oversleeves; aprons; head protection; footwear; and protective suits. Properties of materials—strength, permeability, durability, and impact resistance as well as chemical resistance—must be considered. Finally, recommendations for personal protective equipment to be used in the semiconductor industry are offered. Included will be an overall list of suggested equipment and possible suppliers.
Protective Clothing Materials: Chemical Contamination and Decontamination Concerns and Possible Solutions
Authors: Garland CE , Torrence AM 
Published: February 2009

The theory that supports permeation testing indicates that contaminants will saturate a protective material given sufficient exposure. Once the challenge is removed, chemicals within the matrix diffuse out in both directions. The purpose of this study was to develop a method of measuring contamination of protective clothing materials and to investigate solutions to the problem of matrix contamination and release. Experimental procedures used provided the basis for the ASTM standard development in this area.
Experiments consisted of challenging neoprene, Viton, and butyl with nirobenzene. Percent contamination was measured as a percent by weight of the virgin material at several time intervals up to saturation. Up to 46% contamination was detected.
Three possible solutions to the problem of contamination were investigated: decontamination between wearings, materials with very long breakthrough times, and disposable protective clothing. Disposable protective clothing appears to be the most practical solution at the present time.
Decontamination using solvent flushing (Freon 113) was not effective even after two washes. The data generated also indicated that chemical exposure can alter the barrier properties of the material. Thermal decontamination proved effective with nitrobenzine and neoprene, but more research is needed to determine the extent to which it can be applied. Teflon-coated Nomex, which has a long breakthrough time, exhibited no detectable matrix contamination. As expected, contamination was found to be inversely related to breakthrough time. Where exposure times are very small fractions of breakthrough time, it may be possible to decontaminate by surface cleaning. Disposable protective clothing of laminated Tyvek offers excellent barrier properties to many chemicals. With disposable clothing worn by itself or over a reusable clothing, the contamination problem is discarded with the contaminated garment.
Skin Protection and Sensitizing Epoxy Compounds in Electron Microscopy Laboratories
Authors: Jolanki R , Estlander T , Henriks-Eckerman M-L , Kanerva L , Stjernvall T 
Published: February 2009

A questionnaire survey was carried out among electron microscopy (EM) laboratory technicians in Finland. The questionnaire was returned by 18 out of the total of 45 to 50 EM workers, covering 13 laboratories. Epoxy resins, especially glycidyl ethers of glycerol, anhydride hardeners, amine accelerators, and propylene oxide, where used for embedding. On average, the technicians had been exposed to unpolymerized epoxy resins for 3 h a week over a 10-year period. Ten workers reported skin symptoms. Seventeen used protective gloves when working with unpolymerized resins.
In gas chromatography, the epoxy resins were found to contain many skin sensitizing compounds, that is, diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (molecular weight 340) and epoxy reactive diluents. This potential allergenic capacity of the epoxy resins emphasizes the importance of preventing skin contact.
Selection of glove material for the handling of tissue specimens in electron microscopy laboratories was based on the results of permeation tests with propylene oxide, because the chemical construction of propylene oxide is similar to that of sensitizing epoxy compounds. Because it is a low viscosity compound, however, propylene oxide penetrates glove material more rapidly than the resin compounds.
Thin polyethylene gloves provide better protection against propylene oxide, and thus also against embedding resins, than disposable polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or natural rubber gloves.
Simulation of the Effect of Moisture Content in Underwear and on the Skin Surface on Steam Burns of Fire Fighters
Authors: Mäkinen H , Smolander J , Vuorinen H 
Published: February 2009

About 9% of the injuries to fire fighters in Finland are burns. The majority of the burns on the shoulders and upper arms were caused by a high condensation rate of steam on the skin. The moisture transport from the skin of the subjects to the outer layers of clothing, as well as the heat transfer through the same dry and wet garment layers were measured by fabric tests. The differences between types of underwear, that is, cotton knit, aramid knit, and wool knit fabrics, were sought by the simulation method. Humidity measurements were performed with Vaisala Humicap sensors. The sensor mechanic and computer control systems of the sensor were developed at the Institute of Occupational Health.
Four male firemen served as subjects at 30°C ambient temperature and at 30% humidity. Each exposure lasted for 70 min (20-min rest, 25-min walk, and 25-min rest). The humidity between the skin and the underwear of the back and on the shoulders and between two-garment layers were recorded. The skin temperature was recorded at nine sites. Core temperature, heart rate, and oxygen consumption were also measured. The same layers of clothing were moistened with different amounts of water, and their thermal behavior was evaluated by exposing the garments to a source of radiant heat, 20 kW/m2, according to the second draft of ISO 6942. The lowest moisture content between skin and underwear on the shoulders was measured when woolen underwear was worn, and the highest content when cotton underwear was worn. The moisture content of the garments was lowest in the aramid underwear. The differences were not significant, however, the moisture in clothing decreased the transmission factor, TF20, the time-to-pain, and second-degree burn time. The decrease was drastic when the moisture content rose from 20% to 30 to 40% in underwear.
Analysis of Standards and Testing for Firemen's Protective Clothing
Authors: Abraham CJ , Newman M , Bidanset JH 
Published: February 2009

A study was made of standards published since 1970 for firemen's protective clothing. In addition, the state of the art in material science from the early 1960's through 1986, relating to protective clothing, was examined, including testing techniques and development of fire-resistant materials. Studies were performed in conjunction with the remains of protective clothing and equipment exposed to a flashover during residence fire.
The authors conclude that the standards set forth by the National Fire Protection Association, the American National Standards Institute, the American Society for Testing and Materials, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration do not correlate with the foreseeable exposure temperatures in a burning structure. The materials currently used by fire fighters cannot withstand the extreme heat conditions generated by a flashover. Based upon the findings of the authors, it is necessary to continue to upgrade the preexisting minimum standards to incorporate the state of the art available for protective clothing and equipment.
Upgrading existing standards to reflect the level of available technology would lead to significant improvements in the design and construction of protective gear. In turn, this would result in greater safety for firemen caught in catastrophic fires by reducing foreseeable thermal exposure injury.
Evaluation of the Physiological Parameters Associated with the Propellant Handler's Ensemble
Authors: Doerr DF 
Published: February 2009

Work involved during the preflight preparation of spacecraft involves the handling of materials that are very toxic to humans. These toxins attack the respiratory and skin systems and, therefore, impose the requirement for full suit enclosures. The weight, structure, and operating parameters of such a suit can be expected to have a significant effect upon the metabolic and thermal responses of the user, especially in high workload situations and ambient temperature extremes.
This paper describes the testing of the operational version of the Propellant Handler's Ensemble (PHE). In particular, parameters affecting the physiology of the user were measured during a work-rest regimen performed in three temperature environments: −7, 23, and 43°C (20, 74, and 110°F). Six subjects performed tests in these environments in two versions of the PHE, the autonomous backpack version and the hoseline supplied configuration. Measurements included heart rate, four skin temperatures, rectal temperature, oxygen and carbon dioxide in the helmet area, suit pressure, and interior suit temperature.
It was concluded that the weight and configuration of the suit significantly influenced the physiological stress on the user. The weight, at 29.5 kg (65 lb) for the PHE and backpack, proved to be a primary stressor, as indicated by elevated heart rates. The high workload portion of the protocol also taxed the limit of the environmental control unit because of the increased respiratory requirements. Oxygen levels dropped as much as 4% below resting levels and the carbon dioxide level increased by a similar amount. Finally, thermal stress is clearly evident, especially in the 43°C (110°F) tests.
State-of-the-art design techniques in whole body suits do not provide solutions to these problems. Therefore, it has been necessary to institute operational restrictions and impose medical and physical standards to avoid situations that could adversely affect the well-being of the worker.
Mechanisms of Clothing Exposure and Dermal Dosing during Spray Application
Authors: Popendorf W 
Published: February 2009

This report focuses on the mechanisms underlying the various sources of exposure during two replicate exposure studies of two ground crews applying Difolatan 80 Sprills (80% captafol) in central Florida orange groves.
Aerosolized captafol concentrations averaged 56 µg/m3 for mixer-loaders and 34 µg/m3 for spray applicators but were not statistically different.
Dermal “exposures” (outside the coveralls) were consistent within participants but not within operations for reasons that are compatible with observed differences in work conditions. The density of exposure ranged roughly from 1 to 10 µg/h/cm2 to the hands, legs, and arms (but up through 20 when direct contact with captafol solutions was evident) to 0.1 to 1 µg/h/cm2 for other locations. Whole-body exposures had a mean of 40 mg/h and ranged from 15 to 116 mg/h, with the hands accounting for around 40% of these totals.
Dermal “doses” (inside the coveralls) were reduced and generally more uniform than either dermal exposures or aerosols. Penetration through the cotton-polyester coveralls differed from a mean of 2% for the spray applicators to 7% for the mixer-loaders, for reasons believed to be related to wet versus dry deposition, respectively. This protection reduced skin dosing densities under the coveralls to 0.01 to 0.1 µg/h/cm2 except to the largely horizontal upper legs and lower arms that ranged from 0.1 to 0.5 µg/h/cm2. Whole-body doses had a mean of 19 mg/h and ranged from 10 to 30 mg/h, with hands accounting for around 90% of these totals. Laboratory methods to predict the clothing penetration rates in similar field settings are needed.