bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Canadian Agricultural Tariff of 1843
Authors: Jones Robert Leslie 
Published: June 2006

Upper Canada acquired a wheat-growing reputation during the 1830's comparable to that of the Genesee Valley or of Ohio. At that time, it was remarked, “the great and almost sole object of serious interest to the Canadian farmer was to grow wheat as largely, and to repeat the crop as frequently, as any decent return could be obtained.” Nor was this unreasonable. Lord Durham was informed that “in Upper Canada, the whole of the great peninsula between Lakes Erie and Huron, comprising nearly half the available land of the province, consists of gently-undulating alluvial soil, and with a smaller proportion of inferior land than probably any other tract of similar extent in that part of North America, is generally considered the best grain country on that continent.” The red and white winter wheats grown in Upper Canada in a favourable season, when exported to Great Britain, were “spoken of by millers as a grain of superior quality” and “brought the highest prices the markets would afford.” Finally, the merchants in many places were accustomed to pay cash for wheat, while they would receive other products only in trade. When he had a steady market, the wheat farmer had cause for thanksgiving; but all too often he lacked it.The ordinary market for the surplus wheat and flour of the Canadas was the United Kingdom, but the amounts exported fluctuated widely from one year to the next. Poor crops or good crops, increases in acreage, and especially the capricious Corn Laws, were the determining factors.
Canada in Perspective
Authors: Dawson C. A. 
Published: June 2006

On these annual ceremonial occasions it has been customary to have an Economist look at Economics, a Statistician discuss the role of Statistics, the Historian look at History, or all the Social Scientists look concertedly at some synthetic product called Social Science. There have been some exceptions to this type of procedure. I shall take my cue from the latter and discuss some matters in the Canadian scene in which the various Social Sciences have a common interest.Canada's Population Possibilities. In the first place, let us consider Canada's population. In recent years we have heard much about the so-called over-populated and under-populated countries. The crudest form in which notions of this kind are presented is in terms of number of people per square mile of land surface. By this device Canada's 2½ per square mile seems to demonstrate obvious under-population as compared with England's 390, forgetting that this 390 involves resources not only at home but also abroad. We seem to be on safer ground when we take arable land surface as a base for presenting population densities. Then Canada seems not so vacant with 121 to the square mile. The arable land index should be supplemented by indices of available minerals and closely allied items. Such measuring rods could be extended to include (1) real income trends for the country as a whole as well as for its varied occupations, (2) the employment index, and (3) trends in population growth. These merely suggest some of the indices that could be used to make comparisons of population pressure on the living space of different countries.
The Canadian Party System in Transition
Authors: Underhill F. H. 
Published: June 2006

The Canadian Political Science Association, half-way through the second year of the Century of the Common Man, naturally devotes some of its attention to the prospects of democracy in our own country. It is fitting that we should inquire into what has been happening to our party system, for we have had as long an experience as most modern countries in the working of popular political parties as part of the machinery of democracy, and our experience should be of some significance to other peoples as well as to ourselves. How little systematic study has been done on this subject, however, is brought home to a Canadian after he has lived for a time in the United States and has had to try to answer Americans when they ask for books on the principles, organization, and history of Canadian parties, such as they produce so abundantly on their own parties. It might not be a bad idea, therefore, to begin this paper with some reference to recent American discussions of their party system. One can usually derive from a study of American experience the most useful categories of thought in which to arrange our own Canadian experience. And American books on democracy in general and on political parties as one of the techniques of democracy have been pouring from their presses in great profusion in recent years.American study of the subject of political parties in America has now reached the stage at which text-books digesting for university undergraduates the conclusions of the experts are almost as standardized as American motor-cars. When one reads the new ones that appear with each new publishing season one gets a strong impression that the chief reason for the new publication is not the author's urge to throw fresh light on the subject but simply the reason which produces new text-books in most subjects, namely the urge to supplement a meagre salary by a comfortable income from royalties.
War-time Problems of Local Government
Authors: Curtis C. A. , Chatters Carl H. 
Published: June 2006

This paper is an attempt to relate briefly the impact of the Canadian war organization on local governments in Canada; most of the experience and fact are derived from the Province of Ontario although they apply in large measure to the municipalities throughout Canada. In the course of the paper some criticisms will be made, not for the sake of being critical, but in the hope that they may influence coming developments.In view of the confusion that seems to exist concerning the functions of municipal government, the division of constitutional powers in Canada is relevant and may be reviewed briefly. The British North America Act formally establishes only two divisions of government—the Dominion and the provinces. The provinces, under section 92, sub-section 8, are given exclusive power over “municipal institutions in the Province.” Certain other matters of local importance such as licences, charities, hospitals, and asylums, are also given to the provinces. These specific items along with the allocation generally of “all matters of a merely local or private nature” have been taken as indicating that the traditional social services in the first instance are a provincial responsibility although in fact they have been shared with the local government from the beginning. It is thus clear from the British North America Act that municipal institutions are under the province and are legally the creation of the province. Naturally, the experience has not been the same in all provinces and some have gone further than others in the development of local government. But one thing is clear: the provinces are familiar with the municipal governments which they have created; they have worked with them, they have argued with them, and they understand them. They appreciate that they are, to use the words of the sixteenth-century poet, “a proud and yet a wretched thing.”
History of Indian Administration in Canada
Authors: MacInnes T. R. L. 
Published: June 2006

On the advent of the European to North America some four centuries ago, the Indian population of what is now Canada, according to the best estimates of anthropologists, was about 200,000. It dwindled following the first shock of contact with civilization with its outriders of vice and disease, and for a time the race seemed fated to die out. Then it began slowly to recover and in recent years it has shown a fairly steady increase; it is now 125,000 in round figures.It is believed that the Indians came in successive migrations in prehistoric times from North Asia. They are divided into a number of distinct linguistic stocks, and many tribal subdivisions with widely differing physical and psychological characteristics.Their affairs are administered exclusively by the Dominion government. Under the French régime, the Indians were treated kindly, even benevolently, but the French government never recognized them as having any special legal rights. The British, on the other hand, from their first contact with the Indians of North America recognized an Indian title or interest in the soil, to be parted with or extinguished, only by formal bilateral agreement. This was the beginning of the system of Indian treaties and surrenders which has been the fundamental basis of Indian policy, both in Canada and the United States. At the outset this policy doubtless was dictated in the main by protective motives designed to secure the very necessary goodwill of the warlike natives. As time passed, however, and the Indians ceased gradually to be a threat to the existence of the white settlements, it became an ethical and moral obligation, which on the whole and with some reservations, has been respected and fulfilled in both countries.
The Place of Canada in Post-War Organization
Authors: Claxton Brooke 
Published: June 2006

Canada is the fourth industrial power, the fourth naval power, and the fourth air power in the free world. These facts are new, the result of the war. Taken with Canada's membership in the British Commonwealth, her close association with her friendly American neighbour, and her geographical relationship to the Soviet Union, they give her world-wide interests, major responsibilities, and definite opportunities. Canada's resources, geographical position, and dependence on world trade give her a stake in the peace of the world as great as that of any nation.But whatever may be the position or interests of any nation today, it is clear that the making of peace, the keeping of peace, and, to a lesser degree, the formation and conduct of the numerous functional organizations necessary to conduct business between nations, depend on the attitude of the three major military powers among the United Nations.What Canada's place will be in post-war international organization depends partly on the nature of the organization and partly on the recognition by our Canadian people of Canada's position and interests. To tell what that place is likely to be we must first try to see what the post-war organization may or should be like, and then estimate where Canada's opinion will stand.
The Development of Government Expenditure Control: The Issue and Audit Phases
Authors: Balls Herbert R. 
Published: June 2006

The Consolidated Revenue and Audit Act of 1931 is the statutory embodiment of the principles underlying the control which the Parliament of Canada exercises over the receipt and issue of moneys from the Consolidated Revenue Fund. It is the most recent of the legislative milestones which mark the evolution of systematic control from the plodding simplicity of the methods of 1855, when the first Audit Act was passed, to the mechanized organization of the present day.Legislative financial power had been firmly established in 1878 with the appointment of an Auditor General as an officer of Parliament, to regulate the issue of moneys from the treasury and to examine and report upon the public expenditures. With wide powers of inquiry and examination, the Auditor General possessed the means to learn if legislative directions were being obeyed. Control of the issue gave him the means to deal with the misapplication of appropriations by refusing to sanction further issue. This ever-present threat, hovering as the sword of Damocles over the heads of the spending departments, was ready at the word of the Auditor to cut off the flow of money from the treasury. For fifty-three years, legislative regulation of the issue served as a more or less effective restraint on executive disobedience to parliamentary directions.
Sanctions under the Charter of the United Nations
Authors: Kelsen Hans 
Published: June 2006

The failure of the League of Nations is due to many causes. One of them is that the Covenant of the League did not establish an adequate system of effective sanctions. Sanctions are coercive measures provided for by a legal order as reactions against violations of this order. The coercive measures consist in a forcible deprivation of certain possessions, such as life, freedom, property, or other rights. The measure we call a sanction is coercive in so far as it is to be carried out even against the will of the subject against whom it is directed, by the employment of force, if necessary. The Covenant of the League, in its Article 16, provided two kinds of sanctions: a general sanction for any violation of the Covenant, expulsion from the League, and special sanctions for the violation of the Covenant which was constituted by illegally resorting to war. The sanctions for this delict were: either economic reprisals, or action taken by armed forces against the member-state responsible for the violation of the Covenant.The Charter of the United Nations follows the Covenant, in principle at least, in establishing the same kinds of sanctions as the Covenant. Article 6 of the Charter stipulates: “A Member of the United Nations which has persistently violated the Principles contained in the present Charter may be expelled from the Organization by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.” It may be doubtful whether expulsion from an organization whose purpose is the maintenance of peace is an adequate sanction at all. This is certainly not the case, if by expulsion the member gets rid of the obligations which it has violated and thus has shown that it considers these obligations as an unwelcome burden. Expulsion has the effect of a sanction, that is, to be felt as an evil, only in so far as it deprives the state of its rights as a member. This effect, however, can be realized without releasing the guilty member from its obligations.The Charter provides for such a possibility in Article S, which runs as follows: “A Member of the United Nations against which preventive or enforcement action has been taken by the Security Council may be suspended from the exercise of the rights and privileges of membership by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. The exercise of these rights and privileges may be restored by the Security Council.” This Article introduces, as a valuable innovation, suspension from the exercise of the rights of membership.
International Monetary Control
Authors: MacGibbon D. A. 
Published: June 2006

The signing by forty-four nations at Bretton Woods, N.H., on July 22, 1944, of articles of agreement for the establishment of an International Monetary Fund marks the third stage in the process of setting up an organization which is intended to control international exchange operations after the war. The first stage was initiated by the publication by the British Treasury of Baron Keynes's scheme for an International Clearing Union concurrently with the publication by the United States Treasury of the draft outline of a plan for a United and Associated Nations Stabilization Fund prepared by Dr. Harry White. These were made available to the public on April 8, 1943. Subsequently in June of 1943 experts of the Canadian Government issued a third plan for an International Exchange Union. A revised edition of the American plan appeared July 10, 1943. As collateral to these proposals in October, 1943, the United States Treasury released a text entitled, “Guiding Principles for a Proposed United Nations Bank for Reconstruction and Development.”All these schemes were at once subject to a critical examination by monetary experts in the United States, Great Britain, and Canada. Meanwhile negotiations were being carried on in Washington with a view to ironing out the differences revealed between the British and American point of view. Experts from other countries in time entered into these discussions. In the end by mutual concessions substantial agreement was reached upon the main points under consideration. With the putting forward in Washington on April 21, 1944, by the monetary experts and treasury technicians of thirty-four governments of a plan covering their tentative conclusions, the second stage was reached and the way cleared for a definite step forward to be attempted.
Stabilization of the Income of the Primary Producer
Authors: Stewart Andrew 
Published: June 2006

The large part of Canadian experience with controls affecting primary products has been acquired under the peculiar conditions of war. With expanding income in the hands of consumers, prices generally rose rapidly during 1941, and the general price ceiling was established in December of that year. Since then the incomes of consumers have continued to expand, and the general ceiling has been supported by taxation, borrowing, and informal and formal rationing. However, given the ceiling and the level of spendable incomes on the one hand, and the supplies of labour and equipment available to producers on the other, producers' prices were frequently too low to induce sufficient production to prevent the necessity of more extended formal rationing; to provide for desired expansion in domestic consumption, and to meet the urgent need for food for export. Producers' prices have therefore been supported; the object of the supports being primarily to direct production in line with the national policy, and only incidentally to raise producers' incomes. In a few cases, notably, wheat and apples, supported prices have been applied to maintain incomes against a decline in demand. The price of wheat has been supported by stock accumulation, quotas, and acreage reduction. Apples have been purchased and diverted to alternative markets.In 1942, wheat, dairy products, hogs, cattle, and poultry products together provided more than 70 per cent of the gross, cash income from the sale of farm products in Canada. Wheat has been purchased by the Canadian Wheat Board at a fixed statutory price. Minimum prices have been established for beef and butter, which are sold mainly on the domestic market; export contracts assisting in clearing the Canadian market of surpluses. Prices of hogs, cheese, and eggs have been supported by contract prices agreed upon by the British Ministry of Food, and financed largely under the provisions of Mutual Aid.
The Sampling Approach to Economic Data
Authors: Keyfitz Nathan 
Published: June 2006

Statistics provide data for action. A statistic which will not be used was not worth the trouble of collecting. I consider this a part of the definition of the subject and will not undertake to support it here. The action of course need not follow immediately; it may not be taken until the results of many other observations are available.Specifically, statistics deal with random variation. In any practical situation, after we have accounted for every variable which can be brought under control, we still cannot say exactly what will happen. In manufacturing a coil spring, we may use metal of fixed chemical specification, even from the same heat, have a fixed setting on the machine which coils the spring, the same time and the same temperatures in tempering it, and still the tensions of the successive springs which are produced will vary. Given a variety of wheat whose seed is the purest strain we can procure, we plant a number of plots in soil of the same chemical composition, apply the same manurial treatment, see to it that the slopes and the irrigation are the same, plant the seed and cultivate the grain in the same way, and yet we find that the yields vary. In no practical case can theory provide an exhaustive account of the relevant variables, our physical control of real situations is never perfect, and consequently we are never in a position where the result will come out exactly to order.
The Party System and the New Economic Policies
Authors: Dessauer F. E. 
Published: June 2006

It is inevitable that, in time of war, the greater concentration of power necessary for the efficient prosecution of the war should lead to the abandonment of certain of the constitutional rules and traditional practices of popular government. It is possible that the new measures introduced under the cover of war, the new methods of social and economic policy which are now coming into use, not only serve the special requirements of a war-time economy but correspond as well to the lasting needs of a changed society. It is not the purpose of this inquiry to say whether these new methods are good or bad in themselves, permanent or temporary, nor am I concerned here with the conflict between them and individual liberties; I wish to discuss only how far they are compatible with popular government and how far it may be necessary to adapt its system to changed conditions. For though established institutions have a way of making their own adaptations to circumstances in the course of time, some conscious and considered human guidance may aid in the progress.First, both the traditional forms of popular government and the new policies, which constitute its novel activities, need some defining. Popular government, in the English-speaking world, rests on the two-party system by which one party is in power and the other in opposition. Although the two-party system is not the only form of democracy, it is the one that has shown itself on the whole to be the most stable, lasting, and extensive.
Income and Food Consumption
Authors: Hopper W. C. 
Published: June 2006

In recent years in many countries of the world a great deal of attention has been directed toward the need for more nutritious diets. The term “protective” foods has become established in the literature on nutrition. While there may be some differences of opinion as to what constitutes protective foods, practically all the lists of such foods which have been prepared by nutritionists include milk, meat, eggs, cheese, and fruits and vegetables.The first studies of consumption of agricultural products in Canada were made by the Economics Division of the Dominion Department of Agriculture in 1930 when by the use of mail questionnaires a survey was made of the purchases of apples by consumers in Toronto and Montreal. A year later the first study of milk consumption in Canada was made by the Economics Division in the Sydney-Glace Bay area of Nova Scotia and in 1935 a more comprehensive study of milk consumption was undertaken in a number of urban and rural areas. Since 1935 additional studies of consumption of foods of various kinds have been made by the Economics Division as well as by other agencies. Most of these studies have been in relation to protective foods which in the main are the more expensive kinds of foods. These studies have been largely confined to city people although information has been gathered on the use of certain commodities in rural Canadian homes.