bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
B‐lymphocyte Activation
Authors: Khan Mamnunur , Turner Martin 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
B‐lymphocyte activation is initiated by the binding of antigen to the B‐cell receptor (BCR), which leads to an intricate web of downstream intracellular signalling events that ultimately results in a specific immune response. Breakdown in any of the multiple signalling cascades controlling B‐lymphocyte activation can result not only in impaired B‐cell development and immunodeficiency, but also in a predisposition to autoimmunity and malignancy.
Vertebrate Embryo: Patterning the Neural Crest Lineage
Authors: Kalcheim Chaya 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Neural crest cells form as epithelial progenitors during the process of neurulation, then undergo an epithelio‐mesenchymal transition and become motile. These mesenchymal cells migrate through stereotypical pathways, reach their homing sites and differentiate into a large variety of neural and nonneural derivatives.
Cleavage and Gastrulation in Avian Embryos
Authors: Stern Claudio D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Avian embryos differ from those of other vertebrates in several respects – among them, they have a large mass of yolk, the cells initially divide meroblastically, and the embryo has great ability to regulate until very late stages of development. After about 20000 cells have been generated, gastrulation begins. This process establishes the three axes of the future embryo (head–tail, dorsoventral and left–right), and many cell fates become fixed.
Algae: Phylogeny and Evolution
Authors: Moestrup Øjvind 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Ideas on the phylogeny and evolution of the algae are presently based on a combination of ultrastructural, biochemical and molecular data. Following the discovery that chloroplasts of eukaryotic algae arose after one or more symbiotic events, the term algae is now used as a colloquial term for primitive plants, including both prokaryotic and eukaryotic species.
Endosymbionts
Authors: Jeon Kwang W 
Published: September 2006

AbstractEndosymbionts are small symbiotic partners living inside a host organism, and they may live within the host's cells (intracellular) or outside cells (extracellular) in a multicellular host. A symbiotic relationship may be parasitic (one partner harming the other), commensal (usually not affecting each other) or beneficial (unilaterally or mutually).
Retroviral Replication
Authors: Pedersen Finn Skou , Duch Mogens 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Retroviruses are enveloped animal ribonucleic acid (RNA) viruses that replicate via a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) intermediate, which is integrated into host cell chromosomal DNA. Expression of viral RNA and proteins from the DNA intermediate utilizes the normal transcription and translation machinery of the host.
Microorganisms
Authors: Hayward Chris A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
An organism that is too small to be seen with the naked eye requiring the use of a light or electron microscope. They consist of single cells or cell clusters; also including the viruses that are microscopic but not cellular. Cellular microorganisms include the prokaryotes (Bacteria and Archaea) and some unicellular plant‐like and animal‐like eukaryotes and some fungi. Many can be cultivated in artificial medium using special techniques.
Caliciviruses
Authors: Neill John D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The
Caliciviridae
is a family of small, nonenveloped viruses containing a single‐stranded, plus‐sense genomic ribonucleic acid (RNA) that is polyadenylated at its 3′‐end. Most caliciviruses have distinctive cup‐shaped depressions (L.
calix
, cup) on their surface, giving them their characteristic ‘Star of David’ appearance. These viruses have a large and diverse host range and cause diseases of both human and veterinary importance.
Circadian Rhythms in Cyanobacteria
Authors: Johnson Carl Hirschie , Golden Susan S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Cyanobacteria are prokaryotes that express circadian (daily) rhythms. In rhythmic environments, the fitness of cyanobacteria is improved when this clock is operational and when its circadian period is similar to the period of the environmental cycle. In cyanobacteria, three key proteins form a core molecular clockwork that orchestrates global gene expression and can reconstitute an oscillator
in vitro
. The three‐dimensional structures of these proteins have been determined.
Vesicular Stomatitis Virus
Authors: Pringle Craig R 
Published: September 2006

AbstractVesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) is the prototype rhabdovirus. It is an important animal pathogen that causes a disease, which is difficult to differentiate clinically from that caused by foot‐and‐mouth disease virus. Its broad host range, rapid lytic growth cycle, unique morphology and susceptibility to interferon have all contributed to its popularity as a model system in experimental virology. VSV has been employed frequently for the rapid assay of other more fastidious viruses or for detection of noncytopathogenic viruses exploiting the phenomenon of pseudotype formation. Coinfection of the rapidly cytolytic VSV and a noncytolytic enveloped virus, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), generates an appreciable frequency of pseudotype particles in which infectious VSV nucleocapsids are enveloped by the envelope proteins of HIV. The yield of cytolytic virus after exposure to high‐titre anti‐VSV serum can detect and quantitate the presence of noncytolytic (e.g. HIV) virus.
Rhabdoviruses
Authors: Pringle Craig R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The viruses classified in the family
Rhabdoviridae
have monopartite, negative‐sense, single‐stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) genomes, 11–15 kb in size; the virions have helical nucleocapsids contained within bullet‐shaped or bacilliform enveloped particles. Rhabdoviruses infect animals, plants and invertebrates; some rhabdoviruses multiply in both invertebrates and vertebrates, and others in both invertebrates and plants, but none multiply in all three hosts. The family includes several viruses responsible for considerable economic losses in agriculture and commercial fisheries;
Rabies virus
is the most significant human pathogen.
Proteobacteria
Authors: Kersters Karel , De Vos Paul , Gillis Monique , Swings Jean 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Proteobacteria constitute one of the major lineages (phyla) within the domain of the Bacteria. Although these Gram‐negative bacteria are phylogenetically related, they are physiologically, morphologically and ecologically extremely diverse. They are of great biological importance because they include various pathogens of humans, animals and plants, as well as a number of taxa that play key roles in the carbon, sulfur and nitrogen cycles on our planet.
Archaeal Membrane Lipids
Authors: Patel Girish B , Sprott G Dennis 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Membrane lipids of
Archaea
are unique and distinct from those found in
Eukarya
and
Bacteria
. The polar lipids consist of isopranoid chains, 20–40 carbons in length and usually saturated, which are attached via ether bonds to the glycerol carbons at the
sn
‐2,3 positions. The polar lipids of
Archaea
can be used to make liposomes (closed vesicles) with characteristics that are useful for applications in biotechnology.
Paramecium
Authors: Aufderheide Karl J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Members of the genus
Paramecium
(from the Greek
παραμηκησ
– oblong or oval‐shaped) are ciliated protozoa with a characteristic elongated shape (length approximately three to four times the width), a uniform distribution of cilia over the cell surface and a ciliated oral groove leading from the anterior of the cell to a mid‐ventral deep oral cavity. The oral apparatus is shaped like a funnel, with 12 rows of oral cilia in a helical array inside.
Entamoeba
and
Entamoeba histolytica
Authors: Diamond Louis S , Clark C Graham 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Entamoeba
species are protozoa parasitizing all classes of vertebrates and a few invertebrates. Two species,
Entamoeba histolytica
, a parasite of humans, and
E. invadens
, a parasite of reptiles, are capable of causing severe illness and death of the host.
mRNA Untranslated Regions (UTRs)
Authors: Pesole Graziano 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Eukaryotic messenger ribonucleic acids (mRNAs) possess a tripartite structure that comprises a 5′ untranslated region, a coding region made up of the amino acid coding triplet codons and a 3′ untranslated region. During nuclear maturation of primary transcripts, both ends of mRNA are posttranscriptionally modified through the addition of a 7‐methyl‐guanosine cap structure at the 5′ end and a polyadenosine tail at the 3′ end.
5′ UTRs and Regulation
Authors: Mignone Flavio , Pesole Graziano 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The 5′ untranslated region consists of the leading part of a cellular mRNA from the 5′ end to the translation start codon AUG. The 5′ end of the precursor mRNA is posttranscriptionally modified by the removal of introns and the addition of a 7‐methyl‐guanilate cap structure, which has a crucial role in translation initiation and in regulating transcript stability.
Chromosomes 21 and 22: Gene Density
Authors: Saccone Salvatore , Bernardi Giorgio 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Isochores are long DNA segments that are fairly homogeneous in base composition. The GC‐richest and GC‐poorest isochores of the genomes from warm‐blooded vertebrates are characterized by the highest and the lowest gene concentrations respectively. Chromosomes 21 and 22 can be used to show some properties of both the GC‐richest and GC‐poorest isochores of the human genome.
GAS5
Gene
Authors: Hirose Tetsuro , Steitz Joan A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

GAS5
(growth arrest‐specific 5) is a nonprotein‐coding small nucleolar ribonucleic acid (snoRNA) host gene. Ten box C/D snoRNAs are encoded within the 11 introns of the human
GAS5
gene, while the spliced exons have little protein‐coding potential.
GAS5
has been classified as a member of the 5′ oligopyrimidine tract (5′ TOP) gene family. It is ubiquitously expressed, but the spliced
GAS5
transcript is rapidly degraded in proliferating cells. Growth‐dependent translation mediated by the 5′ TOP sequence present at its 5′ terminus determines the level of the
GAS5
spliced transcript by a mechanism of translation‐linked RNA degradation.
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (
DMD
) Gene
Authors: Davies Kay , Fernihough Janet 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The cloning of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy gene, encoding the protein dystrophin, led to greater understanding of the disease pathogenesis. Studies of dystrophin associated and related proteins has led to a better understanding of other muscular dystrophies and the development of novel approaches to therapy.
Titin (
TTN
) Gene
Authors: Labeit Siegfried , Centner Thomas , Witt Christian , Labeit Dietmar , Granzier Henk 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Muscle sarcomeres contain several thousand precisely assembled and tuned proteins that give rise to efficient muscle contraction. Titin is a multifunctional filamentous protein, in charge of sarcomeric assembly and turnover, and providing long‐range elasticity.
Intronless Genes
Authors: Doenecke Detlef , Albig Werner 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Most eukaryotic protein‐coding genes are composed of exon and intron sequences. Intron derived sequences within primary transcripts are eliminated by ribonucleic acid (RNA) splicing. A small number of protein‐coding genes are intronless; their primary transcripts are processed at their 5′ and 3′ ends like other premessenger RNAs, but no splicing is needed. Examples of intronless genes are genes for histone and interferon.
Promoters
Authors: Smale Stephen T 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A promoter is a segment of a gene of about 100–400 base pairs that comprises the transcription initiation site and a collection of short deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequences that bind proteins involved in regulating transcription. The proteins that bind to the promoter mediate the recruitment of a ribonucleic acid (RNA) polymerase to the initiation site and play a major role in dictating when, and in which cells, the gene is expressed.
Matrix‐associated Regions (MARs) and Scaffold Attachment Regions (SARs)
Authors: Razin Sergey V 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Matrix‐associated regions and scaffold attachment regions are eukaryotic deoxyribonucleic acid sequence elements that can selectively bind isolated nuclear matrix in the presence of a vast excess of competitor prokaryotic DNA. They are thought to participate in chromatin loop anchorage to the nuclear matrix, although this supposition lacks direct experimental proof.
Zinc‐finger Genes
Authors: Gell David , Crossley Merlin , Mackay Joel 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The term zinc‐finger is used to describe several small protein domains in which one or more zinc ions stabilize the folded structure. Many zinc‐finger genes contain more than one zinc‐finger domain and these domains act as interaction motifs, contacting such diverse partners as other proteins, DNA, RNA or lipids.
Ribosomes and Ribosomal Proteins
Authors: Kenmochi Naoya 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
As the catalyst for protein synthesis, the omnipresent ribosome is essential to all organisms and is composed, in mammalian cells, of four ribosomal ribonucleic acid species and 79 different ribosomal proteins. As many as several hundred copies of the genes encoding the RNA constituents form clusters within the human genome; by contrast, the genes encoding the proteins are widely dispersed, though they are functionally related and coordinately expressed.
Minisatellites
Authors: Epplen Jörg T , Kunstmann Erdmute M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Minisatellites are tandemly arranged, repetitive deoxyribonucleic acid elements scattered throughout eukaryote and prokaryote genomes, the short basic units of which are mostly imperfectly reiterated at each locus. Although biological functions are not obvious immediately, the overwhelming variability/polymorphism of these loci has rendered them the prime targets for demonstrating genetic individuality and/or relationship analyses.
Mitochondrial Genome
Authors: Saccone Cecilia 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Mitochondria are cytoplasmic organelles present in all eukaryotic cells which are able to respire. They possess their own genetic system and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) whose size is rather small but constant in animal cells (15–17 kilobases). The genetic content and organization of human mitochondrial DNA is common to all mammals and vertebrates. It consists of two ribosomal ribonucleic acid (RNA) genes, 13 protein‐coding genes and 22 transfer RNAs. All other mitochondrial products are coded by nuclear DNA and transported into the mitochondrion.
Human and Chimpanzee Nucleotide Diversity
Authors: Kaessmann Henrik 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Nucleotide diversity is a measure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) polymorphism in a population that is based on pairwise DNA sequence comparisons. The extent of nucleotide diversity is shaped by the mutation rate and selection but also by the demographic history of a population. Thus, studies of nucleotide diversity in humans and their closest evolutionary relative, the chimpanzee, shed light on the population history of these species.
Domain Duplication and Gene Elongation
Authors: Li Wen‐Hsiung , Makova Kateryna D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A protein domain is a well‐defined region within a protein that performs a specific function. Thus duplication of a protein domain may enhance the function of the protein. The fact that many extant proteins contain duplicated domains suggests that present‐day complex proteins have evolved from simple proteins mainly via domain duplication.
Codon Usage
Authors: Moriyama Etsuko N 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Genetic codes have degeneracy; that is, most amino acids (18 out of 20 in the universal genetic code) are encoded by more than one codon. Codons encoding the same amino acid are called synonymous codons. In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic genes, the synonymous codons are not used with equal frequencies.
Developmental Evolution
Authors: Lindsay Susan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Development and evolution are superficially similar in that both deal with change. In the past, the study of comparative embryology was used as a powerful argument both for and against evolution. More recently, experimental approaches are being used to address questions at a molecular genetic level in both evolutionary and developmental biology studies. The data and ideas generated have led to attempts to synthesize the two disciplines that have been very fruitful, if only partially successful, to date.
DNA
Methylation: Evolution
Authors: Razin Aharon , Shemer Ruth 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The understanding of how a biological feature has evolved is limited to the existing knowledge concerning this feature and the ability to interpret the available data. In an account of evolution of DNA methylation, similarities and differences in the structure of DNA methyltransferases should be considered, as well as the diversity of methylation patterns and the variety of biological processes that involve DNA methylation.
Retrosequences and Evolution of Alu Elements
Authors: Roy‐Engel Astrid M , Batzer Mark A , Deininger Prescott 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Retrosequences make up almost half of the human genome. They insert in new locations via a ribonucleic acid (RNA) intermediate and can amplify to over a million copies, as is the case for Alu elements. Although almost any transcribed RNA may undergo occasional reverse transcription and insertion into the genome, most retrosequences are limited to a few types of retroelements with high retrotransposition efficiencies. Despite these high copy numbers, the vast majority of retroelements are defective and therefore the number of active copies is generally very low; thus, the evolution of these elements follows the evolution of these few active elements with the remainder representing ‘fossils’ of the active elements at any given evolutionary time.
Concerted Evolution
Authors: Liao Daiqing 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Concerted evolution is a genetic process by which repetitive DNA sequences are homogenized so that the sequence of a given multigene family within a species shares much higher sequence identity than that of the homologous gene family between two different species. Concerted evolution occurs in all living organisms, from bacteria to humans. DNA recombination mechanisms, especially gene conversion, are responsible for concerted evolution.
Ancient DNA: Phylogenetic Applications
Authors: Hofreiter Michael , Vigilant Linda 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Studies of ancient human DNA attempt to shed light on the genetic relationships among individuals representing archaic or extinct human populations, and between these individuals and modern humans. These studies are limited by several factors, including the contamination of ancient samples with modern human DNA, the reliance of necessity upon a single genetic locus, the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) molecule, and difficulties in interpretation of results, due to the fact that modern, typically geographically defined human populations are not associated with diagnostic mtDNA sequences.
Williams Syndrome: A Neurogenetic Model of Human Behavior
Authors: Korenberg Julie R , Bellugi Ursula , Salandanan Lora S , Mills Debra L , Reiss Allan L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Williams syndrome (WMS) is a rare neurogenetic disorder, usually caused by a deletion at 7q11.23. Integrating the genetic with the distinctive clinical, cognitive, neurophysiological and neuroanatomical profiles of WMS provides an opportunity to understand the molecular basis of human cognition and behavior.
Huntington Disease
Authors: Harper Peter S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Huntington disease is a serious neurodegenerative disorder resulting from an expanded CAG repeat in a specific gene on chromosome 4. The highly specific mutation allows accurate diagnostic and predictive testing; our increasing understanding of how the expanded polyglutamine sequence in the protein huntingtin causes neuronal damage gives promise for the development of effective future therapies. Huntington disease provides a valuable model for many genetic aspects of late‐onset inherited disorders.
Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders
Authors: Pogue‐Geile Michael F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The history, importance, and definition of schizophrenia spectrum disorders are described. Findings regarding the nature of the familial association between spectrum disorders and schizophrenia are reviewed and evaluated. Evidence does suggest that spectrum disorders may be genetically correlated with schizophrenia and thus potentially useful in efforts at identifying genes for schizophrenia liability.
Dopamine D4 Receptor (DRD4) Box Score
Authors: Ebstein Richard P , Kluger Avraham N , Siegfried Zahava 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Only recently has a specific genetic variant been associated with a human personality trait, Novelty Seeking. Since the first report in 1996, a number of studies have sought to replicate these first findings. This article summarizes the current status of the association between the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene and Novelty Seeking based on a recent meta‐analysis of almost four thousand subjects so far examined in molecular genetic studies.
de
CODE
and Iceland: A Critique
Authors: Árnason Einar , Wells Frank 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
deCODE Genetics Inc. is a for‐profit American corporation built around the idea of cloning and characterizing the genes of Icelanders and marketing the information so obtained. deCODE's three‐pronged plan of genomics research and commercialization in Iceland has brought into focus business practices of the genomics industry and a number of ethical issues.
Celera Genomics: The Race for the Human Genome Sequence
Authors: Fortun Michael A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Human Genome Project always embodied multiple tensions, if not contradictions: public science and funding that seeded private sector initiatives, collaborative data sharing coexisting with competition and ownership, deliberative science and high‐throughput technological production. The events leading to the early completion of the human genome sequence, involving the corporation Celera Genomics and the public International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium, illuminate in miniature the productive but at times volatile tensions of the public‐cum‐private efforts over 10 years to map and sequence the genomes of multiple organisms.
Discrimination in Insurance: Experience in the United States
Authors: Hall Mark A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Health and life insurers may discriminate based on genetic information by classifying people as high risk or unhealthy based on genetic tests that predict future health problems, rather than on diagnosis of current illness. In the USA, the fear of genetic discrimination by insurers is much greater than the reality, especially for health insurance. However, some health insurers may raise rates or restrict coverage. Life insurers are more likely to consider results from predictive genetic tests, but this practice currently is not widespread.
Animal Models of Human Behavior
Authors: Maxson Stephen C 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAnimal models should be viewed only as generating hypotheses about human behavior, because there are differences between animal and human behavior as well as similarities. There are two ways that gene‐based behavioral variants of animals can be used for this: the first way is in identifying and mapping genes with effects on human behavior; and the second is in developing hypotheses about the biological causes of human behavior.