bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Comparative evaluation of anthropometric measures to predict cardiovascular risk factors in Tehranian adult women
Authors: Esmaillzadeh Ahmad , Mirmiran Parvin , Azizi Fereidoun 
Published: February 2006

AbstractObjectiveTo compare the ability of waist circumference (WC), body mass index (BMI), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) to predict cardiovascular risk factors in an urban adult population of Tehranian women.DesignPopulation-based cross-sectional study.SettingTehran, the capital of Iran.SubjectsThis study was conducted on 5073 women aged 18–74 years, participants of the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study. Demographic data were collected. Anthropometric indices were measured according to standard protocols. Cut-off points of BMI, WC, WHR and WHtR were considered as 25 kg m−2, 80 cm, 0.8 and 0.5, respectively. Blood pressure was measured and hypertension was defined based on the sixth report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Biochemical analyses were conducted on fasting blood samples. Diabetes was defined as fasting plasma glucose ≥126 mg dl−1or 2-hour plasma glucose ≥200 mg dl−1and dyslipidaemia based on the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program Expert Panel. The presence of ‘at least one risk factor’ from the three major cardiovascular risk factors (hypertension, dyslipidaemia and diabetes) was also evaluated.ResultsMean (±standard deviation) age of women was 39.9 ± 14.6 years; mean BMI, WC, WHR and WHtR were 27.1 ± 1.5 kg m−2, 86.5 ± 13.5 cm and 0.83 ± 0.08 and 0.55 ± 0.08, respectively. Of the four anthropometric measures, WC had the highest sensitivity and specificity to identify subjects with risk factors in both the 18–39 year and the 40–74 year age categories. WC was seen to have a higher percentage of correct prediction than BMI, WHR and WHtR.ConclusionIt is concluded that WC is the best screening measure for cardiovascular risk factors, compared with BMI, WHR and WHtR, in Tehranian adult women.
Logic and Language
Authors: Stern David G. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
An analysis of the sources of Wittgenstein’s picture theory — which include not only his moment of insight on reading a magazine story about the use of models in a traffic court, but also the work of Russell, Hertz, and Boltzmann — provides the basis for an exploration of Wittgenstein’s articulation of a pictorial conception of representation in his wartime notebooks and its crystallization in the Tractatus. A discussion of Wittgenstein’s later criticism of the picture theory and his notion of a “philosophical picture” illustrates the fundamental reversal in his transition to his later conception of philosophy: instead of taking literal pictures as a guide to the nature of meaning, he came to regard philosophical theories as akin to expressing an aesthetic preference for a certain style of representation. Wittgenstein’s treatment of factual language in the picture theory is related to his Tractarian approach to logical form, and the role of the show/say distinction in his early conception of logic and language. Particular attention is given to the difficulties generated by the idea that the conditions for the possibility of a given domain of discourse cannot be described in language, but must be shown by the form of words in question.
Diverse Tests on an Independent World
Authors: Trout J. D. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter shows how the central epistemological notion of this book, population-guided estimation, makes contact with traditional epistemological categories. The persistent empiricist and others skeptical of theoretical progress in the social sciences and psychology deny the independence of diverse, converging tests. It is argued that different and relatively independent methods introduce errors into the data that are, roughly speaking, randomly distributed. In fact, those critical of the long-term reliability of diverse testing are committed to at least one of two implausible doctrines: (1) that the world conspires to keep information from us (and changes systematically to do so), or (2) that an adequate scientific methodology must empower the scientist to predict the future history of science. These two principles are incompatible with, respectively, the realist metaphysics and the naturalistic epistemology independently advanced in this book.
Personal Identity in African Metaphysics
Authors: Adeofe Leke 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis essay explores the issues involved in determining what it means to be a person within the Yoruba metaphysical context. Yoruba thought is characterized as having tripartite conceptions of persons, and does not fall prey to criticisms that have plagued Western conceptions of persons. Variants of the continuity and persistence theories associated with Kant, Descartes, and Hume are discussed in light of Yoruba conceptions of persons. It is argued that Yoruba conceptual language provides an accurate conception of human existence that is sufficient for clarifying personal identity concerns within Western culture.
The Concept of the Person in Luo Modes of Thought
Authors: Masolo D. A. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis essay examines the concept of juok, found among the Southern (Kenya) and Central (Uganda) Luo. The implications of the concept for understanding what constitutes personhood, grounding the principles of moral discourse and judgement, and determining the principles of social geography in the Luo world are discussed. It is argued that the nature of personhood results from the interplay between the culturally objectified perceptions of persons and the subjectively apprehended aspects of social life through which individuals express their subjectivity in opposition or resistance to conventionally defined roles, rules, and regulations of the habitus.
An Engineer Dissects Two Case StudiesHayles on Fluid Mechanics and MacKenzie on Statistics Philip A. Sullivan
Authors: Sullivan Philip A. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractBuilding on a discussion of the nature of scientific knowledge, it is argued that a convincing demonstration of the presence of social values in the content of such knowledge requires showing that it occurs in disciplines where the knowledge has become stable, or has a record of accurate prediction. Two studies of this type are reviewed: a feminist critique of fluid mechanics, and an analysis by an Edinburgh sociologist of a dispute in the early 20th-century development of statistics. Both studies are shown to be fatally flawed. The first is riddled with elementary technical errors, making its subsequent case for male bias meaningless. The second ignores fundamental mathematical questions at issue in the dispute, leading its author to cast about for implausible sociological explanations.
Evidence‐Free Forensics and Enemies of Objectivity Paul R. Gross
Authors: Gross Paul A. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractFeminist philosopher Elizabeth A. Lloyd has contributed to the so-called science wars a lengthy book chapter attacking scientist-authors who have recently defended natural science from various indictments (e.g., sexism, racism, masculinism, militarism, imperialism) lodged against it in the field of “science studies”. Her main charge is that the named scientists, not those against whose charges they defend science, are the real enemies of objectivity. It is argued that her methods are old and well-known devices of propaganda; her conclusions are therefore nugatory.
Nativist Rebellions
Authors: Graziano Frank 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter analyzes how millennial, messianic, apocalyptic, and utopian ideas contributed to indigenous peoples’ response to conquest. The case material is diverse — from the preconquest Maya to current movements — with particular emphasis on the War of Mixtón, the Taqui Onqoy movement, the Pueblo Revolt, the Caste War of the Yucatan, and the eighteenth-century Andean rebellions (including those of Túpac Amaru II and Túpac Catari).
Monism in Spinoza
Authors: Carriero John 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis essay explores Spinoza’s attitude towards the ontological status of finite corporeal things, i.e., finite bodies or, in the Cartesian context in which he is working, finite regions of res extensa. It argues that Spinoza’s monism, especially as it bears on the ontological status of finite bodies, should be understood as a response to revisions in the concept of matter wrought by Descartes’s science. The early exchange of letters between Henry Oldenburg and Spinoza is examined to defend this argument.
The Middle Spinoza
Authors: Huenemann Charles 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This essay explores Spinoza’s early work, Metaphysical Thoughts, which was published as an appendix to his commentary on Descartes’s Principles of Philosophy. It discusses four topics that illustrate the difference between Metaphysical Thoughts and both Descartes’s philosophy and Spinoza’s later philosophy: (1) the identity of the will and intellect in God, (2) the necessity of all things, (3) God’s moral character, and (4) the relation of creatures to God. These topics shed light on some aspects of Spinoza’s mature philosophy.
Thought Experiments
Authors: Sorensen Roy A. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractCan merely thinking about an imaginary situation provide evidence for how the world actually is — or how it ought to be? This book addresses this question with an analysis of a wide variety of thought experiments ranging from aesthetics to zoology. Presenting the first general theory of thought experiment, the book sets it within an evolutionary framework and integrates recent advances in experimental psychology and the history of science, with special emphasis on Ernst Mach and Thomas Kuhn. The book explores what thought experiments are, how they work, and what their virtues and vices are. In this view, philosophy differs from science in degree, but not in kind. For this reason, the book claims, it is possible to understand philosophical thought experiments by concentrating on their resemblance to scientific relatives. The book assesses the hazards of thought experiments and grants that there are interesting ways in which the method leads us astray, but attacks most scepticism about thought experiments as arbitrary. It maintains that they should be used — as they generally are — as part of a diversified portfolio of techniques, creating a network of cross-checks that make for impressive reliability.
Mach and Inner Cognitive Africa
Authors: Sorensen Roy A. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the views of Australian philosopher-physicist Ernst Mach, the earliest and most systematic writer on thought experiments (and, not coincidentally, mentor of the young Albert Einstein). It discusses Mach's response to the problem of informativeness. It then details the book's disagreements with Mach. It is argued that Mach's mistakes can be traced to his sensationalism and a one-sided diet of examples. His sensationalism led him to overemphasize the mentalistic aspects of thought experiment and to throw away tools needed to explain its genuinely a priori features. Perhaps because of this, Mach's attention gravitated toward thought experiments he could explain (natural science cases) and away from the recalcitrant normative examples (in aesthetics, ethics, logic, and mathematics). To get a complete account of thought experiments, we should reject sensationalism and consider how armchair inquiry works in general.
Kuhntradictions
Authors: Sorensen Roy A. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter focuses on Thomas Kuhn's account of thought experiments. It begins with what Kuhn takes to be the smart talk about thought experiments. It then details Kuhn's amendments to this view and raises objections, most of which are directed against the notion of local incoherence. Finally, Kuhn's error is reconstructed in order to salvage the considerable insight that it contains.
Matter and Motion in the Metaphysical Foundations and the First Critique
Authors: Friedman Michael 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This paper focuses on the relationship between the general metaphysics of the Critique of Pure Reason and the special metaphysics of the Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science. Kant claims that what distinguishes the latter from the former is that the latter presupposes an empirical concept, namely the concept of matter, whereas the former does not. It is argued that the concept of matter is empirical not in any ordinary sense, but in the sense that it requires actual perceptible objects to be given. Only the system of contingently given, empirical objects of the solar system as described by Newtonian physics, satisfies this requirement. This interpretation suggests that “experience”, whose possibility Kant is exploring in the first Critique, is exclusively “scientific experience”, and that the task of theoretical philosophy thus lies primarily in understanding the conceptual presuppositions of scientific experience.
Kant's Dynamics
Authors: Warren Daniel 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Kant contrasts dynamical and mechanistic approaches to physics, and rejects the latter. This paper attempts to connect this rejection to Kant’s views about a fundamental shift in the conception of matter’s basic properties, and in the explanatory projects in which they figure. It argues that for Kant, the mechanistic conception of impenetrability involves an attempt to characterize matter through its inner (nonrelational) properties. In this way, Kant’s rejection of the mechanistic conception is tied to considerations from the first Critique, namely, the critical doctrine that we cannot know things as they are in themselves.
Kant on Empirical Psychology
Authors: Sturm Thomas 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This paper explains Kant’s views on the theory of matter as developed in the Dynamics chapter of his Metaphysical Foundations, and elaborates their background in the chemistry of the period. Kant’s general approach to matter theory unites Newtonian and Leibnizian motifs, and entails an intricate internal structure for matter involving a multiple overlap of material shells of different density. Kant’s chemical views derive from Stahlian chemistry and involve a noncorpuscularian account of chemical combination and a nonoperational conception of chemical elements.
We Children of the Enlightenment
Authors: Abbey Ruth 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
The works of the middle period are sometimes labeled positivist, and one of their distinguishing features is the praise they contain for science. In these works, Friedrich Nietzsche repeatedly expresses his admiration for science’s methods and procedures, and for the values and characteristics of its practitioners. As part of his vision of an enlightened future, Nietzsche looks forward to the generation of a new aristocracy. This chapter explores the tension in these writings between his ideas of an aristocracy of spirit and an aristocracy of birth. The significance of embodiment in each of these models of aristocracy is discussed, and a Nietzschean ethic of care of the self is adduced.
One Cannot Be Too Kind about Women
Authors: Abbey Ruth 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Contrary to the common classification of Friedrich Nietzsche as a misogynist, the works of the middle period do not entirely denigrate or dismiss women. Nietzsche’s views on women at this time were more nuanced and less vitriolic than they became. The works of the middle period repeatedly measure women by the values constitutive of free-spirithood such as autonomy, intellectual strength, desire and ability to pursue the sort of scientific knowledge Nietzsche prizes, capacity for cruelty, and the skills of dialogue. This suggests that women can be considered as candidates for free spirithood, even if Nietzsche assumes that most females, like most males, will fail to meet its requirements. Rather than focus on the shaping power of biology, these writings point to the social and cultural forces that shape gender identity, allowing Nietzsche to adumbrate a non-essentialist approach to women and their potential.
The Political Critique
Authors: Alcoff Linda Martín 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter argues that there is yet a case to be made about the nature of identity and its political and epistemic implications. It is certainly not the case that the work we need to do is finished; there are numerous “authentic” problems of identity that need attending to, but we do not need to overcome identity as much as tounderstand it more deeply. An alternative account of identity is developed which will be used to show the inadequacy of the assumptions behind the critique of identity.
The Metaphysics of Gender and Sexual Difference
Authors: Alcoff Linda Martín 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter focuses on women's specifically gendered identity and its basis in sexual difference. It argues that there are persuasive grounds for an objective rather than totally fluid account of sex categories, that objectivity does not require an escape from mediation in human knowledge or the ability to have “out of theory experiences”, and that the tendency for descriptive accounts to become prescriptive is a variable rather than uniform or absolute tendency and can be offset. The objective basis of sex categories is in the differential relationship to reproductive capacity between men and women, but a sexual categorization based on the biological division of reproductive labor does not establish a necessary link between reproduction beyond conception and heterosexuality.
Conclusion
Authors: Alcoff Linda Martín 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis concluding chapter presents a synthesis of discussions in the preceding chapters. It argues that we have yet to formulate a theory that can incorporate with explanatory adequacy the struggles regarding social status, social class, and social identity into one overarching account. One of the most serious obstacles facing any attempt to formulate an overarching theory is that the ontological basis of the focal point is very different if we are talking about status, about class, or about social identity. The concept of identity, as it is actually used in common practice, does not entail or even necessarily suggest the reifying effects that identity critics portend. What identities really are (as opposed to what they are sometimes said to be) is nothing to be politically afraid of.
Autonomy and Its Discontents
Authors: Friedman Marilyn 
Published: February 2006

AbstractFeminists, communitarians, and other social theorists have raised numerous challenges to the very possibility of the ideal of personal autonomy and its alleged value. This chapter offers a negative defense of autonomy by responding to six critical challenges that have been or may be leveled against it. These are that autonomy-self-determination is impossible because there are no selves; autonomy is impossible because selves cannot “determine” themselves: human actions are merely links in chains of interpersonal interactions; autonomy is impossible because selves cannot determine themselves: they cannot understand themselves accurately; autonomy is possible but not genuinely valuable, and may even be positively harmful, especially to socially subordinated or oppressed groups; autonomy is possible and genuinely valuable, but has been restricted in practice to elite social groups; and that autonomy is possible and genuinely valuable but can be, and has been, distorted in practice into something harmful.
Romantic Love and Personal Autonomy
Authors: Friedman Marilyn 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the ideal of a merger, fusion, or union of lovers in heterosexual romantic love. It explores a recent cultural ideal of love that places value on personal autonomy in romantic relationships, and sketches out some persistent gender asymmetries that compromise those trends. It is argued that even women who place overriding importance on romantic relationships need some degree of autonomy in love.
Domestic Violence against Women and Autonomy
Authors: Friedman Marilyn 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines autonomy in regard to domestic violence. It discusses how intimate partner abuse diminishes autonomy. It is argued that professional care-givers should usually provide uncritical support for abused women who choose to remain in abusive relationships rather than trying rationally to persuade them to change their minds. Legal policy must treat individual cases with consideration for the material and symbolic impact of that treatment on a whole population.
Cultural Minorities and Women's Rights
Authors: Friedman Marilyn 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter aims to identify a common ground between liberals and defenders of cultural minorities that can serve as the basis for a mutually acceptable, yet still liberal, policy toward the treatment of women and girls by the cultural minority groups to which they belong. It also aims to defend the very project of a liberal policy by responding to some of the criticisms that Okin and others have received for defending women's rights in apparent opposition to some minority cultural traditions.
Religious Lawmakers on Moral Identity and Abortion Law
Authors: Peach Lucinda 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines the role that religion may play in the life of political leaders. It looks at how several prominent American political leaders have articulated the place of religion in their political and lawmaking activities, and the influence of their religious convictions in their public policy making on abortion. These include former New York governor Mario Cuomo, Judge John Noonan, Congressman Henry Hyde, Senator Mark Hatfield, former president Ronald Reagan, and Reverend Jesse Jackson. The views of these political leaders on religious public policy-making illustrate some of the inaccuracies of both liberal and communitarian theories of moral identity.
Communitarian Views of Religious Lawmaking
Authors: Peach Lucinda 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines communitarian approaches to religious lawmaking, focusing on the work of law professor Michael Perry. It is argued that although Perry’s views on religious lawmaking diverge in some respects from those of more traditional communitarian theorists, his approach shares certain deficiencies with other communitarian proposals. A satisfactory approach to religious lawmaking must be able to effectively address the potential conflicts engendered by religious lawmaking in a pluralistic society, the centrality that religion may have to the moral identity of lawmakers, and the social reality of gender and other inequalities in society.