bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
REACTIONS BETWEEN SOLIDS IN THE ABSENCE OF A LIQUID PHASE*
Authors: TAYLOR NELSON W. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTFinely divided solids in intimate contact frequently react chemically with one another. Although the reaction may be greatly accelerated by the presence of a liquid phase, the liquid is not necessary for the reaction. In the presence of a liquid the direction of reaction is usually determined by the formation of an insoluble product or by the production of a gas, but in the absence of a liquid the direction and driving force of the reactions are measured by the free energy change which may be expressed in terms of the lattice or crystal energy of the constituents.The reactivity of an ionic type of solid is enhanced by those factors which weaken the inter‐ionic forces. Such factors are heat, structure rearrangement at transition temperatures, ionic distortion due to polarization, solid solution, etc. Specific‐heat curves of solids show temperatures at which they are acquiring considerable vibrational or rotational energy and therefore indicate temperatures at which reactions are possible. High‐temperature specific‐heat data are greatly needed in connection with the study of reactions of solids.The lattice type of a crystal of an inorganic substance may be true ionic or it may be essentially an oxide lattice, e.g., A++BO4= or AO.BO3 and the mechanism of reaction will be different. In a reaction like A'O + ABO4= A'B04 + AO, if BO3 is a volatile oxide, the reaction may consist essentially in a distillation of BOI from A0 to A'O.The velocity of a solid‐phase reaction is primarily determined by the heat of activation, or “work of loosening” of the constituents. This quantity can be obtained from the kinetic data itself and varies in magnitude from a few hundred calories per mol to rather large values. The greater the value of the heat of activation, the slower is the reaction. Another important factor in controlling the speed is the particle size.Solid‐phase reactions permit the preparation of many materials which can not be made in the wet way. Silica reacts with alkali earth oxides at temperatures as low as 400°C. Lime reacts with sillimanite as low as 530°C to give calcium metasilicate and alumina. In the field of ceramics many structural changes frequently occur far below the eutectic temperature of the system. One example of this is indicated by the marked heat evolution which occurs in kaolin at about 900°C. An important reaction of the Portland cement industry is the dissociation of tricalcium silicate, 3CaO.SiO2→ 2Cao.SiO2+ CaO, which runs with maximum speed at about 1150°C.Some practical applications to refractories are mentioned.
A METHOD OF MEASURING THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AT FURNACE TEMPERATURES*
Authors: WEINLAND CLARENCE E. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTAn apparatus of original design for the measurement of the thermal conductivities of insulating and refractory materials at temperatures up to 2600°F was constructed. The primary heat was supplied by Globar resistors, and the rate of heat flow measured by a calibrated “heat‐meter,” means for the calibration of which were incorporated in the apparatus itself. The test specimen consisted of eight standard‐size brick forming a section 18 by 18 by 2 1/2 inches in size.The results of six complete tests are given: one of a high‐temperature insulating brick, one of a fireclay brick, and four tests of refractory insulating brick. In two cases, comparative results from tests in a different type of apparatus are shown. The accuracy of the results obtained in testing insulating and refractory insulating brick is believed to be fully equal to the requirements of engineering use.
MAGNESIA REFRACTORIES IN BASIC OPEN‐HEARTH STEEL FURNACES*
Authors: ANDERSEN OLAF 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTBy microscopic examination of new and old magnesia bottoms of open‐hearth furnaces it has been shown that the periclase (MgO) and the slag matrix in the bottoms undergo considerable changes during the campaign of a furnace. The periclase absorbs large amounts of iron oxide. Thus examples described show that the iron oxide (contained in solid solution as MgO.Fe2O3) in periclase may be 3% in dead‐burned magnesia, 9% in a new bottom made of a 3:l magnesia‐slag mixture, and as much as 50% in the upper layers of an old bottom. At the same time the microstructure of the bottom changes materially. The periclase in a new bottom occurs as separate, rounded grains of diameters up to 0.2 millimeter, each grain entirely surrounded by a silicate matrix which is liquid at furnace temperatures. The periclase grains in the upper layers of an old bottom may have diameters up to 0.5 millimeter; the grains are no longer separated, but are joined to a more or less continuous aggregate while the silicates (together with some calcium ferrite) now may be gathered in scattered aggregates often surrounded by periclase. The changes have been produced by the influence of slags high in iron oxide and lime. Sometimes these slags have penetrated through cracks or pores to the deeper layers of the bottom where they have changed parts of the bottom to a dark aggregate containing a periclase high in iron oxide. Reducing gases given off by the molten metal may also have produced changes in the bottom especially by reducing the iron oxide in the periclase from the ferric to the ferrous state and thus irnparting a light color to this dominating constituent and to the aggregates in which it occurs. These light aggregates are often irregularly mixed with the dark aggregates formed through the influence of slags.Studies have been made of the reactions between magnesia brick used in end walls of open‐hearth furnaces and the furnace dust, rich in iron oxides, which accumulates on the inside surfaces of the walls. The reactions result in a gradual melting of the magnesia brick. Mag‐nesioferrite‐magnetite solid solutions and periclase‐magnesioferrite solid solutions partake, together with silicates, in this process of melting. The solid solutions must be formed before any appreciable melting of the magnesia in the brick can take place. The rate of melting will depend largely upon the rate of formation and the ultimate properties of the solid solutions. Low porosity of the brick and an oxidizing atmosphere are likely to prolong the life of the brick.
X‐RAY DETERMINATION OF THE STRUCTURE OF GLASS*
Authors: WARREN B. E. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTA method has been developed for analyzing the X‐ray diffraction patterns of amorphous solids, and the atomic arrangement in two simple glasses has been completely worked out. In SO2, for example, each silicon is tetra‐hedrally surrounded by 4 oxygens at a distance 1.60 AIR, and each oxygen is shared between two such tetrahedral groups. The mutual orientation of the two groups about their common direction of bonding is random, and hence it is a random three‐dimensional network which is built up. The configuration does not repeat at regular intervals and hence is noncrystalline; it is this feature which distinguishes the glassy state from the crystalline.
CONDENSABLE VAPORS IN A TANK FURNACE MELTING A SALTCAKE BATCH*
Authors: GREGORIUS J. S. , MAHAFFEY W. A. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTVapors arising from the surface of a tank melting a saltcake batch were collected on water‐cooled condensers. The condensates were analyzed and these data, together with analyses of checker chamber slag and flue débris, permitted certain interpretations of superstructure corrosion by vapors.
VISCOSITY AND REBOILING OF BLUE GROUND COATS*
Authors: DANIELSON R. R. , TETRICK J. D. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTThe evolution of gases during the firing or refiring of ground coats on sheet iron or steel may be the cause of certain types of copperheading in the ground coat or in blistering of the cover enamel. The fluidity of the ground coat in the melted state on the ware has an important bearing on its ability to free itself of the gases.The calculated refractory value of an enamel is an index of its fusibility and fluidity during the firing operations. It is therefore an aid in the compounding of enamels which will minimize the defects arising from the evolution of gases during the firing of the enamels.
MICROSCOPIC CONTROL OF PARTICLE SIZE IN REFRACTORY MANUFACTURE*
Authors: Fabianic W. L. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTA comparison is made of the results of particle‐size determinations by screening, elutriation, and microscopic count. Particular stress is laid on those sizes under 325‐mesh (44 microns). The results obtained indicate that the microscope offers a quick practical method of sufficient accuracy to warrant its use in such work.
REACTIONS IMPORTANT FOR ADHERENCE WHEN FIRING GROUND COATS CONTAINING NO ADHERENCE‐PROMOTING OXIDES*
Authors: Dietzel A. , Meures K. , King R. M. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTA study was made of the reactions occurring in adherence when firing ground coats containing no adherence‐promoting oxides. Enamel coatings were fired on trial pieces of steel through three stages or zones and the results of each firing were noted. It was found that in laboratory tests, enamels which do not contain cobalt and nickel oxides have good adhering qualities if they are correctly fired. Iron oxide increases the refractive index of the enamel.
THE RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENTS OF THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF REFRACTORY BRICK*
Authors: Austin J. B. , Pierce R. H. H. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTIn the report on the cooperative tests on heat transfer through refractories presented at the Symposium in Cincinnati last February two important points, (1) the reproducibility of the measurement on a given brick in the same apparatus and (2) the possibility of variation in the brick tested at the different laboratories, were not adequately discussed. A thorough test of these points would require a large number of measurements on one brick and a rather large number of specimens, with a statistical treatment of the results, but a preliminary study on a smaller amount of data has led to some useful conclusions.The examination of a set of silica brick similar to those used in the coöperative tests and of the set of silica brick used by Wilkes in his measurements shows that with our apparatus, which is of the Wilkes' type, the individual readings taken on a single brick do not deviate from the average of a number of readings by more than 5%; and the real variation in the thermal conductivity of these brick appears to be less than can be detected in our apparatus. It is concluded, therefore, that the source of the differences existing in the values reported by the several cooperating laboratories lies not in the sample but almost entirely in the methods employed.In addition to the results on the silica brick mentioned, data are given for the thermal conductivity of three brands of silica splits and for fireclay splits.A detailed description of the apparatus is also given.
A STUDY OF THE WORKING PROPERTIES OF SILICA MORTARS*
Authors: Cole Sandford S. 
Published: October 2006

AESRACTA method of testing the consistency of silica mortars is described which is a modification of the flow test for concrete and building mortars. The effect of added colloids and PH on the working properties is described. The use of colloids will produce marked improvements in mortars and will prevent settling out of the aggregate.
CONSTITUENTS AND PROPERTIES OF “RADEX” MAGNESITE BRICK*
Authors: Budnikoff P. P. , Pines B. J. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTPhysical and chemical data on “Radex” magnesite brick are given, macro‐ and micro‐structure studies described, and details of X‐ray tests are noted. The brick is highly resistant to basic slag, and has spalling resistance under rapid temperature fluctuations.
THE GUARDED RADIATION PLATE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF REFRACTORIES AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES*
Authors: Peterson C. A. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTA new hot‐plate apparatus and method for measuring thermal conductivities at elevated temperatures are shown and an accurate means of measuring the rate of heat flow through the test piece by means of a calibrated heat loss or “radiation” plate is described. Normal heat flow is assured by means of guard heaters around both hot plate and radiation plate. Test pieces can be cut from one‐half of a 9‐inch straight brick. The calculation of results is shortened to a few minutes, calibration can be checked in place, and construction details are shown. The results on products in the market will be given in a subsequent paper.
THE TESTING OF GLASS CONTAINERS FOR CHEMICAL DURABILITY*
Authors: Turner W. E. S. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTAny standard method prescribed for testing the chemical durability of glass as, for example, in the form of bottles, must be set out and subsequently applied with meticulous attention to detail. For bottles of any one composition, the alkali extracted by water can be modified by the annealing conditions and by the period and conditions of storage. Individual bottles in a set may, for these reasons, not give very closely agreeing results. Standard tests must have reference to a particular size and shape of bottle. Within the limits of time tested (5 to 6 hours), the total extraction by water is proportional to the area of surface exposed; the concentration of Na2O in the solution obtained falls off as bottle capacity increases. Besides alkali extraction, pitting and cracking, when boiled with water, and flaking must be taken into account when assessing the chemical durability. Bottles after storage and subsequent washing usually yield a smaller amount of Na2O to water than when new; on the other hand, the tendency to produce flaking is increased. Aqueous alcohol more readily leads to the production of flakes than water alone, a maximum effect being associated with the mixture containing approximately 40% by volume of alcohol. Alkali extraction, however, is greater with water than with the alcohol‐water mixtures.
MECHANICS OF ENAMEL SUSPENSION, I Exchangeable Base and Viscosity Measurements on Some Vallendar Clays*
Authors: Terry G. E. , King R. M. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTThe results of viscosity measurements upon untreated and electrodialyzed Vallendar clay slips, using borax as an electrolyte in varying concentrations, are set forth and discussed. Several Vallendar clays have been analyzed for exchangeable base content and the results are given.
LITHIUM OXIDE AS A CONSTITUENT OF GLASSES‐ITS EFFECT THERMAL EXPANSION*
Authors: Navias Louis 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTWinkelmann and Schott give the factors of 10.0 to Na2O, 8.5 to K2O, and 2.0 to Li2O to indicate the effect of these oxides upon thermal expansion. A review of the literature of glasses containing Li2O and some measurements made on new glasses indicate that, in respect to thermal expansion, Li2O is as effective as Na2O in promoting high expansibility.
NOTE ON THE RELATION BETWEEN COBALT AND NICKEL‐OXIDE CONTENT AND REBOILING OF SHEET‐STEEL GROUND COATS*
Authors: Cayford J. M. , King R. M. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTTo a selected enamel varying amounts of cobalt and nickel oxides were added and the duration and persistence of reboiling were determined. These oxides were found to have a definite influence on reboiling.
THE USE OF A NICKEL DIP IN ENAMELING PRACTICE*
Authors: Hansen J. E. , Irwin J. T. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTThe compositions of various nickel salt solutions now being used commercially in enameling practice and reasons for their use are given. The advantages to be gained are better adherence of enamel to the metal, decreased fishscaling, and control of copperheading conditions. Methods for control of PH and for analysis of solutions are given.
SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE ACTION OF STEAM ON GLASS*
Authors: Burch O. O. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTThe action of saturated steam on glass is apparently an action of superheated water. Filtration of saturated steam with partial removal of entrained water materially decreases the rate of decomposition of glass in contact with the steam, while dry steam has no apparent effect on glass. The decomposition of blown glass articles by saturated steam is influenced by the size, shape, and thickness of the articles and by their past history.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF GLASS IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE*
Authors: Badger A. E. , Silverman W. B. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTThe modulus of elasticity of a glass was determined at various temperatures by measuring the elongation of a glass fiber under load. The rate of decrease of modulus with temperature showed an abrupt change between 250°C and 300°C. It was considered that this phenomenon was connected with the increased rate of expansion which occurs in glasses near these temperatures.A description is given of an interferometric method of measuring the deflection of compressed specimens at temperatures up to the softening point of the glass.
NOTE ON THE EFFECT OF ZIRCONIA ON THE CHEMICAL DURABILITY OF SOME BOROSILICATE GLASSES*
Authors: Horak William , Sharp Donald E. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTFour meltings were made on a small scale of a borosilicate glass in which ZrO2 was progressively substituted for Al2O3 Determinations of chemical durability showed that the substitution increased the resistance of the glasses to weathering.
THE USE OF SODIUM CYANIDE IN A NEUTRALIZING BATH IN PICKLING SHEET IRON FOR ENAMELING*
Authors: Shands E. H. , Bruton G. L. , Grimes G. J. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTSodium cyanide has been found to be effective as a neutralizer when used in equal parts with soda ash. Its principal advantages are (1) lengthened life of the solution, (2) increased speed of the neutralizing reaction, (3) more thorough penetration into the pores of the steel, and (4) economy in plant operation.
INVESTIGATION OF THE USE OF MAGNESIUM ALUMINATE (SPINEL) AS A MATERIAL FOR GLASSMELTING CONTAINERS*
Authors: Parmelee C. W. , Lyon K. C. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTCrucibles were formed from spinel raw materials and commercial spinel grains, with and without admixtures of other chemicals. Bottle glass was melted in these and the behavior was compared with similar containers made from fueclay grog and mullite (Corhart).The tests consisted of heating bottle glass in the crucibles at 1400°C for four hours and noting the appearance of the crucibles after the treatment. The results indicated that. under the conditions used, magnesia spinel is not suited for glass refractory material.
MECHANICAL METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF THE PLASTICITY OF CLAYS AND MIXTURES OF CLAYS*
Authors: Whittemore J. W. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTA method of measuring the plasticity of clays and mixtures of clays is presented. An apparatus is described by which the penetration of a constantly loaded hemisphere into a plastic clay mass during a definite time period is measured. The data indicate that the formula, d= atP, expresses the relationship between t, the amount of penetration, during t, the time periods studied for any clay. Undoubtedly α is related to the load used, the diameter of the hemisphere, and some of the properties of the clay; P, in the formula, is a measure of the plastic properties of the clay. The data also show, through the variations in the value of P, the marked change in plasticity of a clay caused by changes in grinding, aging, and de‐airing of a clay.
THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARDIZATION OF COLORS*
Authors: Maerz A. 
Published: October 2006

ABSTRACTColors may be referred to by names or by systematic symbols. Of the latter, a number of systems has been proposed during the course of years, but none has ever found general or lasting acceptance. The reasons for this are brought out in an outline of the development of such systems and in an analysis and comparison of the whole group. A history of this kind has never been drawn up before and, without it as a background, the standardization of colors and of an accepted nomenclature can not be understood. The custom of referring to colors by names is examined in detail to determine whether a more systematic and standardized usage of names is not possible.
EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE ON PLASTICITY OF KAOLINITE*
Authors: Whittaker H. 
Published: October 2006

AbstractA Kentucky ball clay and a Georgia kaolin were resolved into seven practically monodisperse fractions, ranging from 0.2 to 20.0 microns in mean size. The distribution of sizes and the physical characteristics of the fractions were determined to place the fractions on a comparable basis. Plasticity, drying shrinkage, and dry strength measurements were made on the fractions. There was no definite relationship between drying shrinkage and particle size, but, in general, the drying shrinkage increased with decreasing particle size. The drying shrinkage measurements, however, afforded a means for computing the thickness of water films at the maximum plasticity developed. This computed thickness was between 90 and 160 Angstrom units at maximum plasticity. The dry strength increased up to a certain limit in direct relation with increased area of surface or decreased particle size. The optimum plasticity value, taken as the product of yield and strain, increased with increasing surface area according to the relation.Log S = AP + B.Where S= surface available per 100 g. clay. P= plasticity. A and B= constants.The constant, B, is equal to 180 × 104 for the kaolinite used in this investigation. This means that there must be more than 180 × 104 square centimeters of total surface per 100 grams of clay on the basis of platelike particles before the material will exhibit plasticity. This surface represents a monodisperse system of particles approximately 2 microns in diameter; systems containing particles more than 2 microns in diameter exhibit the Osborne‐Reynolds close‐packing effect.
SOME FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF NEPHELINE SYENITE*
Authors: Koenig C. J. 
Published: October 2006

AbstractThe fundamental properties of nepheline syenite, such as thermal expansion and fusion characteristics, are given. Test specimens of twelve bodies, comprising various flux combinations of nepheline syenites and potash feldspars with talc, whiting, magnesium carbonate, and pyrophyllite, were fired to seven different cones. The firing linear shrinkage curves of combinations of nepheline syenite with the. various materials are somewhat similar to such combinations with potash feldspar except that the syenite combinations are active at lower temperatures. That the sintering ranges of nepheline syenites are longer than those of potash feldspar is explained thermochemically.
FUNDAMENTALS OF COLOR IN PORCELAIN ENAMELS*
Authors: Andrews Andrew I. , Zwermann Carl H. 
Published: October 2006

AbstractSeveral different colored stains were prepared and added separately to a transparent enamel. The effect of fineness of the enamel, thickness of application, and various heat treatments on the colors obtained with application on both white and black undercoats were studied by analyzing the resulting colors with a K. & E. spectrophotometer. The percentage of reflectance for each wave‐length in the visible spectrum was plotted. Microscopic and X‐ray examinations were also made in order to study the factors producing the color changes noted.