bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
How valves work
Authors: Clayden David O. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter presents background information on valves. A valve consists of an evacuated glass envelope containing a number of electrodes. These are connected to the outside by wires passing though special seals. The innermost electrode is the cathode, which consists of a metal tube coated with a material that emits electrons when it is heated. In the simplest form of valve, called a diode, the cathode is surrounded by a metal cylinder called the anode. If the anode is connected to a voltage that is positive relative to the cathode, the anode attracts electrons from the cathode and a current flows. Valves as amplifiers and switches, power consumption, and valve specifications are described.
Circuit design of the Pilot ACE and the Big ACE
Authors: Clayden David O. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter describes circuit design of the Pilot ACE and Big ACE. Topics covered include the advantages of the long tailed pair in digital circuits, the half-adder and adder circuits, signal coupling, the circulation unit, wide band DC coupling, data distribution and control, the assisted cathode follower, and the magnetic drum store of the ACE Pilot Model and Big Ace.
Proposed electronic calculator (1945)
Authors: Turing Alan M. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter presents Alan M. Turing's report, ‘Proposed Electronic Calculator’. The report was submitted to the Executive Committee of the National Physical Laboratory in February 1946, under the description ‘Report by Dr. A. M. Turing on Proposals for the Development of an Automatic Computing Engine (ACE)’. The design set out in ‘Proposed Electronic Calculator’ was the basis for all the ACE computers.
Notes on memory (1945)
Authors: Turing Alan M. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter presents fragments from Turing's draft of ‘Proposed Electronic Calculator’. This material is of interest chiefly because of its remarks concerning the universal machine of Turing's 1936 paper ‘On Computable Numbers’. In 1947, Turing described electronic stored-programme digital computers as ‘practical versions of the universal machine’ and it is clear that in designing the ACE, his aim was to replace the paper tape of the universal machine with a practical form of memory for holding instructions and data, and to replace the abstract ‘scanner’ of the universal machine by a ‘central pool of electronic equipment’.
The Turing–Wilkinson lecture series (1946–7)
Authors: Turing Alan M. , Wilkinson James H. 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter presents the nine lectures given by Turing and his assistant Jim Wilkinson from December 1946 to February 1947. The lectures add substantially to the understanding of the evolution of the design of the ACE. Turing and Wilkinson describe Versions V, VI, and VII of the design.
The Photoperiodic Pathway of Floral Induction
Authors: Glover Beverley J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractLong day plants and short day plants experience photoperiodic induction of flowering, and so flower in certain daylengths. This chapter considers the photoperiodic regulation of flowering in Arabidopsis, which is a facultative long day plant (that is, one whose flowering is brought forward by long days, rather than one with an absolute requirement for them). Understanding the photoperiodic induction pathway requires an analysis of how light is perceived, how time is measured, and how the two signals are integrated to activate responses. Phytochromes and cryptochromes are necessary for light perception, an endogenous circadian clock measures time, and several proteins interact to integrate these signals.
Colouring the Flower
Authors: Glover Beverley J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractOne of the most obvious ways in which flowers differ from one another is in their colour. This colour is usually the result of pigment deposition in the petals, but in some species brightly coloured bracts, sepals or stamens can provide a similarly striking display. The colour of a flower has traditionally been viewed as one of the ways in which plants attract pollinating animals, and there is considerable literature on the preferences of different pollinators for different colours. In recent years these data have often been reinterpreted, with the emphasis more on contrast and search images, rather than on particular colours as ‘favourites’ of particular animals. This chapter considers the different biochemical pathways through which flowers can become coloured.
Are Flowers under Selective Pressure to Increase Pollinator Attention?
Authors: Glover Beverley J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThe underlying assumption of much of the work on flower development and morphology is that these features serve to increase the attractiveness of the flower to pollinating animals, thus maximizing pollinator attention, and consequently seed set and fitness. It has long been believed that these elaborations are the consequence of adapting to attract particular pollinating animals, resulting in pollination syndromes. Before the existence of pollination syndromes and how frequently they are needed are examined, this chapter considers whether there is evidence that the underlying assumptions are met. This chapter addresses one fundamental issue: do plants actually benefit from increased pollinator attention and should floral attractiveness therefore be expected to increase across generations?
Pollination Syndromes—The Evidence
Authors: Glover Beverley J. 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThe concept of the pollination syndrome has underlain much of floral biology for many years. This chapter assesses the usefulness of the concept in understanding flowers and flowering. It begins by considering why and how the pollination syndrome concept has become so entrenched in the literature on flowering, and then examines whether the key assumptions that underlie it are met. Finally, it assesses the experimental evidence that pollination syndromes do exist, and the experimental evidence which shows them to be false — those cases where the major pollinator in the native habitat is not that which the flower's morphology would lead you to predict. The chapter also provides a brief overview of the relative importance of generalization and specialization in pollination ecology.
2 The field-theoretical approach to GWs
Authors: Maggiore Michele 
Published: January 2008

AbstractGeneral relativity can also be seen as a classical field theory of a spin-2 field living in a flat background, to which all standard field-theoretical methods can be applied. The fact that the beautiful geometric interpretation of general relativity is hidden is compensated by the fact that the conceptual issues discussed in Chapter 1 can be put into the broader theoretical framework of classical field theory. The geometric and the field-theoretical perspectives are indeed complementary; some aspects of GW physics can be better understood from the former perspective, some from the latter. A study of GWs from both vantage points results in a deeper overall understanding. How the energy, momentum, and angular momentum of GWs from the Noether theorem are obtained, how field-theoretical considerations fix the form of the Pauli-Fierz action for linearized gravity, and how the non-linearities of general relativity can be recovered from linearized gravity are then detailed.
5 GW generation by post-Newtonian sources
Authors: Maggiore Michele 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis chapter discusses how to go beyond the limit of sources moving in flat space-time. For a self-gravitating system such as a binary star, assuming that space-time is flat means that its dynamics is described using Newtonian gravity, rather than general relativity. When dealing with a (moderately) relativistic system, held together by gravitational forces, the source is better described by a post-Newtonian formalism. After recalling the post-Newtonian expansion in general relativity and how to obtain the lowest-order correction to the Newtonian equations of motion, GW generation by post-Newtonian sources is described, and the application to sources with strong gravitational fields, such as neutron stars and black holes, is then presented. The results of this chapter have an intrinsic conceptual interest, since the full non-linear structure of general relativity at work can be seen here. Furthermore, this formalism is of paramount importance in the computation of the waveform from an inspiraling binary system, and its extraction from the data of interferometric GW detectors.
Military Institutions and Fiscal Growth
Authors: Gunn Steven , Grummitt David , Cools Hans 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter analyses the development of military and fiscal institutions in England and the Netherlands. Their armies were composed of different mixtures of noble retinues, militias, garrison and artillery forces, mercenaries, auxiliaries, and standing companies; their navies likewise a blend of converted merchant ships and purpose-built warships. It was England that developed the more permanent navy in this period, the Netherlands the more permanent army. Their arsenals, navies, and logistics showed some signs of increasing bureaucracy. War drove on fiscal expansion and demesne revenues, taxation, coinage debasement, and borrowing were all exploited as rulers sought to construct a tax state. The process involved tense negotiation with their subjects in representative institutions, and rebellions and showed clear limits to the growth of state power.
Introduction
Authors: Gunn Steven , Grummitt David , Cools Hans 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter introduces the variety of towns found in England and the Netherlands: towns large and small, centres of industry, trade, and administration; booming like Antwerp or in crisis like Coventry; governed by a tight oligarchy or with wide popular participation. In general, towns in the Netherlands were larger, more politically powerful, and more confrontational in their relationship with princely power than those in England. In England these numbered five large towns: Canterbury, Exeter, Norwich, Salisbury, and York, together with the smaller Beverley, Hull, and Rye. In the Netherlands, all were large, but they were spread geographically from Valenciennes in Hainaut and Douai in Walloon Flanders to Haarlem and Leiden in Holland, from Antwerp in the west of Brabant to 's-Hertogenbosch in the east.
Urban Military Resources
Authors: Gunn Steven , Grummitt David , Cools Hans 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines the direct contributions made by towns to their princes' wars. Town councils had constantly to manoeuvre between the sometimes exorbitant demands of their princes, the reluctance of the townsfolk to meet the costs of war, and the necessity to keep the town safe from attack. They raised companies of troops for field service, especially in England, as well as defending themselves with their own militias or shooting guilds. Some towns, such as York and 's-Hertogenbosch, were more militarized than others. Some supplied ships or encouraged privateers. Most developed their holdings of artillery and maintained arsenals, and nearly all paid some attention to their fortifications, though those on the coast or military frontiers did so more urgently. The costly bastions of the new trace italienne style appeared with increasing frequency in the Netherlands but not — except perhaps as temporary earthworks — in England.
Life During Wartime
Authors: Gunn Steven , Grummitt David , Cools Hans 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter shows how towns contributed to the war effort in more indirect ways. They generally kept watches and maintained warning beacons, but they were wary of hosting garrisons or billeting other troops until they felt immediately threatened, for troops threatened to bring both disorder and political subjection. Keeping prisoners of war and supplying food and carts for army logistics might each be a source of profit or a burden. English towns drew less benefit from the arms trade than those in the Netherlands. Refugees and discharged soldiers strained urban poor relief systems, but encouraged their elaboration.
War, Towns, and the State
Authors: Gunn Steven , Grummitt David , Cools Hans 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter concludes the discussion of towns by drawing out the similarities and differences between the impact of war on towns in England and the Netherlands, stressing the geographical and political variations within each polity. Towns in the Netherlands were more independent than their English equivalents, yet in some respects, war brought them more directly under princely tutelage. The processes that developed the prince's ability to deploy urban resources for war, however, might also consolidate urban communities and the power of their magistrates over them, and might result in a concentration of power in provincial states, where urban leaders might combine to direct military policy in the interests of their towns.
Nobles in Command
Authors: Gunn Steven , Grummitt David , Cools Hans 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter investigates the special position of noblemen who acted as leading military commanders. The appointment of provincial governors, lords lieutenant, wardens of the marches, and deputies in Ireland might both focus the social power and military ambition of the nobility in the service of the prince and reinforce noble power with a framework of public authority, but incompetent exercise of such offices could wreck noble reputations. Skill in administration, firmness in disciplining troops, wisdom in taking counsel, and splendour in living nobly all contributed to effective generalship. Distant campaigns in Germany, Ireland, Italy, or Spain, and relations cultivated with foreign princes and their commanders could make or break careers as readily as defending one's neighbours and friends. Negotiating and collecting taxation or suppressing revolts could do as much for the war effort as front-line command.
War, Subjects, and the State
Authors: Gunn Steven , Grummitt David , Cools Hans 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter concludes the discussion of the effects of war in constructing individuals as subjects of the ruler and the state. War increased the princes' claims over their subjects in many ways, but their realization was often partial at best and interacted with other forces for growing state power over individuals, judicial, political, and ideological — sometimes amplifying their effects, sometimes interfering with them. War constrained the subject to serve the state, but also helped make the subject a citizen engaged, however indistinctly, in dialogue with the prince about the aims and effects of war. War drew individuals together in common action and a common identity, but that identity need not be a recognizably national identity. Questions of identity, of the strains of war, and of the limits of princely power were all more complex and acute in the Netherlands than in England.
Ingredients for a Theory of Agreements
Authors: Ray Debraj 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter describes the essential ingredients of a theory of coalition formation. Three aspects receive emphasis. First, it is important to settle on a particular methodology. One might picture the process of negotiation as a classical game, with all decisions centered on individual choices, or one might choose the group (or coalition) as the fundamental unit of analysis. Second, one must construct a theory that permits players to go beyond the myopic consequences of their immediate actions, to take account of potential repercussions. Finally, one must take account of the degree of commitment in a joint undertaking. Are all commitments irreversible, or potentially changeable, perhaps at a cost to the agents involved? Different assumptions regarding either of these aspects will necessarily generate different theories of coalition formation.
Coalitions, Cooperation and Noncooperation
Authors: Ray Debraj 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter describes in greater detail what the phrases ‘cooperation within coalitions’ and ‘non-cooperation across coalitions’ mean in this book. It develops the idea of coalitional equilibrium, which captures ‘non-cooperative play’ across coalitions. It then uses coalitional equilibrium to construct partition functions, which embody specifications of the worth or value of every coalition in every ambient coalition structure. Partition functions will be used intensively in the rest of the book. Several examples of partition functions are provided, drawn from different social situations.
Irreversible Agreements: Symmetric Games
Authors: Ray Debraj 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter studies a special case of the framework introduced in Chapter 4, one that relies on ‘symmetry’. It focuses on symmetric partition functions: such functions have the property that the worth of a coalition depends only on the number of individuals in that coalition and the ambient ‘numerical coalition structure’ — the ambient structure described only by the vector of membership sizes. It develops an algorithm that generates a distinguished coalition structure from any symmetric partition function. The heart of the chapter connects the coalition structure of this algorithm to the actual equilibria of coalitional bargaining. The resulting characterization is one of the basic results of this book.
Blocking
Authors: Ray Debraj 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter begins a second approach to coalition formation, one firmly grounded in coalitions as fundamental behavioral units. A central notion is that of blocking and the attendant concepts that stem from it — blocking coalitions and the core — are important ideas in the theory of cooperative games. Using the core as a starting point, two ingredients of this book's general approach are reintroduced. First, the notion of farsightedness is re-examined: the idea that a deviating coalition should not simply look at the immediate consequences of its actions. Second, the fundamental prediction problem is reconsidered: a coalition must attempt to forecast what other players might do, in an attempt to predict its own worth. These two features will play an important role in the two chapters that follow.
The Blocking Approach in Real Time
Authors: Ray Debraj 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter studies reversible agreements under the blocking framework. It presumes that negotiations can open and reopen over an indefinite period of time. As before, a study of this phenomenon requires an explicitly dynamic model of coalition formation, though the task is now to construct a parallel theory under the ‘blocking approach’. The central contribution of this chapter is the development and examination of a new solution concept: an equilibrium process of coalition formation. This concept is carefully linked to traditional concepts such as the core, as well as newer concepts such as the largest consistent set, and is applied to a variety of situations. The chapter concludes the examination of a theory of coalition formation, though there are several permutations of the general methodology described in Chapter 2 that are left unexplored in this book.
Colonization
Authors: Kallendorf Craig 
Published: January 2008

AbstractThis chapter develops the connection between the Aeneid and the imperial projects of the 15th and 16th centuries. It was easy for the colonizers to cast themselves in the role of Aeneas and the conquering Trojans, and this approach accorded well with the demands of the schools, which tended then, as now, to eschew moral complexity. But then as now, again, more mature readers in different environments were able to see that Virgil presented both what is lost as well as what is gained in conquest, so that as early as Bartolomé de Las Casas, some Europeans were able, like Virgil, to see imperialism from the other side. Some of them, like Alonso de Ercilla and Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, are still known to specialists and to educated people in their own countries; and others, like William Shakespeare, are known wherever Western culture has penetrated. All of them, however, turned the model text of the colonizers against them, focusing on the ‘other voices’ in the Aeneid in a series of protests that became more insistent as the Virgilian imitations moved from epic to drama to lyric. This line of argument suggests, in turn, that Virgil's place in the ideology of the Ancien Régime is also more complicated than traditional historiography suggests.
Defining the Romantic Symbol
Authors: Halmi Nicholas 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the concept of the symbol as articulated by a number of German writers and Samuel Taylor Coleridge in the period designated as the age of Goethe in German literary history and the Romantic period in British literary history, in the years between 1770 and 1830. It argues that the theorization of the symbol in the Romantic period may be understood as an attempt to foster a sense of the harmony of the human mind with nature, of the unity of seemingly disparate intellectual disciplines, and of the compatibility of individual freedom with a cohesive social structure — all for the sake of reducing anxiety about the place of the individual in bourgeois society (especially in the aftermath of the French Revolution and ensuing European wars) and about the increasing dominance of mechanistic science. To the extent that it sought to effect a re-enchantment of the world by reforming perception, the symbolist theory of the philosophically minded Romantics, for the most part Germans, was closely related to the poetic project of English poets like Wordsworth and Shelley, who sought to reveal the extraordinary in the ordinary and thereby transform human understanding of the external world.
Uses of Mythology
Authors: Halmi Nicholas 
Published: January 2008

Abstract
The ‘discovery’ of the symbol in antiquity may be understood as a response to the obstacles confronting the creation of a ‘new mythology’, a project conceived by the early German Romantics in explicit opposition to classical mythology. Although the purpose of an oppositional definition is to privilege one term at the expense of another, the logic of opposition renders the term to be privileged entirely dependent on the one to be suppressed: having determined to distinguish their prospective mythology from an existing one, the Romantics could hardly avoid referring to the latter. But it was not only for definitional reasons that the one mythology proved impossible to disentangle fully from the other. Just as the Querelle des anciens et des modernes, inaugurated in the late 17th century as an assertion of advancements in knowledge and manners since antiquity, paradoxically stimulated a half-century of intense interest in and identification with antiquity — the age of Winckelmann and Thomas Percy — so the Romantics wound up answering their call for a new mythology by seeking assistance from the old. This chapter argues that there were limits to the amount of assistance they could accept, and that one of those limits was reached in the project of a new mythology, with which the early German Romantics sought to continue the emancipatory work of enlightenment by the very means from which the Enlightenment had imagined itself to have been emancipated.