bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The early formation of the skull in extant and Paleozoic amphibians
Authors: Schoch Rainer R. 
Published: July 2006

Understanding of evolutionary changes in the vertebrate skull is greatly influenced by the knowledge of ontogeny. Extant amphibians are an outstanding example in this field, because their life cycles are complex and have been intensively studied. At the same time, fossil material of Paleozoic amphibians has become available that sheds light on the ontogeny of a long-extinct clade, prompting comparison with recent forms. In this paper, the formation of the skull of a Paleozoic amphibian (the branchiosaurid temnospondylApateon) is analyzed in comparison with that of an extant salamander (the hynobiidRanodon). Both temporal patterns (sequence of ossification) and spatial patterns (morphological changes) are described. The general results are that (1) the sequence of ossification is similar in many aspects, and (2) most dermal bones share fundamental similarities in morphogenesis, although sometimes the morphological result in adults may differ conspicuously.The comparison reveals that the parasphenoid, premaxillae, maxillae, frontals, parietals, squamosals, and prefrontals are strikingly similar in their mode of growth. In particular, the appearance of the earliest primordia and the subsequent stages of morphological transformation are almost identical. The development of the pterygoids and nasals is different in the earliest stages, but the ontogenetic trajectories converge in later stages. InRanodonand other transforming urodeles, the pterygoids and vomers experience extensive resorption during metamorphic climax, whereas in branchiosaurids the morphology of this region remains stable throughout ontogeny.In the sequence of cranial ossifications, the early appearance of the premaxilla and tooth-bearing elements of the palate characterize both genera, but the maxilla forms much later inRanodon.The ectopterygoid, absent in all salamanders, is the last palatal element to appear in branchiosaurids. In the skull roof, the parietals, frontals, and squamosals are the first bones to form in both groups. Conversely, the circumorbital elements and tabular are among the last ossifications in branchiosaurids, and the prefrontal and lacrimal (the only circumorbital bones present in salamanders) form within the same interval in urodele ontogeny. The septomaxilla is the last dermal element to ossify in both groups. Comparison with caecilians and anurans indicates that salamanders are much more similar to Paleozoic branchiosaurids than to other extant lissamphibians. A major difference between salamanders and branchiosaurids is that the morphology of the latter is much less affected by developmental perturbations, such as larval specializations and metamorphosis.
Heisenberg-type ferromagnetic films with a sandwich structure
Authors: Kecer Ján , Ilkovič Vladimír 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Green’s function theory is applied to an alternating two-element multilayer ferromagnetic film. The Hamiltonian is based on the Heisenberg model with a second-order uniaxial single-ion anisotropy and with the interaction between the layer in the interfaces. Magnetization and the phase transition in such system are derived for several sets of material parameters.
Handling and Restraint
Authors: Donovan John , Brown Patricia 
Published: July 2006

AbstractFor the safety of the handler and the animal, proper methods for handling and restraining laboratory animals should be followed. Improper handling can result in increased stress and injury to the animal. In addition, the handler risks injury from bite wounds or scratches inflicted when the animal becomes fearful or anxious. By using sure, direct movements with a determined attitude, the animal can be easily handled and restrained. Animals can be restrained either manually or in a plastic restrainer. The protocols in this unit describe handling and manual restraint of mice, rats, hamsters, and rabbits. Alternate protocols describe restraint using the plastic restrainer.
Euthanasia
Authors: Donovan John , Brown Patricia 
Published: July 2006

AbstractEuthanasia of laboratory animals must be performed by trained personnel using appropriate techniques, equipment, and reagents in order to effect a death that is humane and satisfies research requirements. Acceptable methods of euthanasia are painless or minimize distress, and are quick and easy to perform, safe for those performing the procedure, and efficient and economic. They are aesthetically acceptable and are done in the absence of other animals. In addition, these methods do not result in gross histological or histochemical changes that would adversely affect research results. This unit offers protocols for euthanasia employing carbon dioxide asphyxiation (see Basic Protocol 1), pentobarbital overdose (see Basic Protocol 2), exsanguination, and cervical dislocation for the mouse, rat, hamster, and rabbit.
Recycling, Metals
Authors: Richardson H. Wayne , Makar Harry V. ,   Updated by Staff
Published: July 2006

Abstract
The methods of recycle for various nonferrous metals of economic importance are detailed. Principal metals are aluminum, copper, lead, and zinc, although cobalt, nickel, tin, and precious metals such as gold, silver, and palladium are also recycled. Types and sources of scrap and waste metal are given. Much recyclable material arises from discarded automobile parts, beverage cans, and industrial metal industry wastes. Factors that influence the decision to recycle by pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical means are discussed. These processes are described, including the types of furnaces employed for smelting operations and the extractants used for solvent extraction systems. Recycling of nonferrous metals is heavily dependent on the economics of using secondary metal feed rather than ore. The role of waste management is also considered.

Ferrous scrap recycling is a principal worldwide activity. The primary consumers of ferrous scrap are steel mills and iron and steel foundries. These depend on scrap for a large fraction of their iron‐based raw materials. The U.S. is the leading exporter of ferrous scrap. It exported about 10.9 × 10
6
t in 2004.

The several sources and types or grades of ferrous scrap are presented including descriptions of supply, demand, and exports. Primary uses of ferrous scrap are discussed. Concerns about residual elements from both environmental and product quality point of view are discussed. Standards and environmental regulations are reported. Recycling of ferrous scrap is dependent on iron and steel industry processes and demands. Low residual scrap is preferred.
Vanadium and Vanadium Alloys
Authors: Baroch Edmund F. ,   Updated by Staff
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Vanadium is widely distributed throughout the earth but in low abundance. Trace amounts of vanadium have been found in meteorites and seawater, and it has been identified in the spectrum of many stars, including the earth’s sun. The occurrence of vanadium in oak and beech trees and some forms of aquatic sea life indicates its biological importance. Physical properties, chemical properties, manufacture, fabrication, economic aspects, health and safety factors, and uses are thoroughly discussed.
Dendrimers
Authors: Svenson Sönke 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Dendritic polymers (dendrimers) are synthesized in a layer‐by‐layer fashion around a core molecule. Depending on the number of chemical functionalities and the shape of the core, dendrimers of various shapes and complexities can be produced with very low polydispersity. The high level of control over the architecture of dendrimers, their size, shape, branching length and density, and their surface functionality, makes these compounds ideal materials in medical and technical applications, such as drug delivery, gene transfection, imaging, luminescence, quantum dot stabilization, catalysis and waste remediation. The active agents may either be encapsulated into the interior of the dendrimers or they can be chemically attached or physically adsorbed onto the dendrimer surface, with the option to tailor the properties of the dendritic carrier to the specific needs of the active material in its specific applications. Surface modified dendrimers themselves may act as nanodrugs against tumors, bacteria, and viruses. Recent successes in simplifying the synthesis of dendrimers, such as the “lego” and “click” approaches, have provided a vastly expanded variety of dendritic compounds, while at the same time reducing the cost of their production.
Searching WormBase for Information about Caenorhabditis elegans
Authors: Schwarz Erich M. , Sternberg Paul W. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractWormBase is the major public biological database for the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. It is meant to be useful to any biologist who wants to use C. elegans, whatever his or her specialty. WormBase contains information about the genomic sequence of C. elegans, its genes and their products, and its higher‐level traits such as gene expression patterns and neuronal connectivity. WormBase also contains genomic sequences and gene structures of C. briggsae and C. remanei, two closely related worms. These data are interconnected, so that a search beginning with one object (such as a gene) can be directed to related objects of a different type (e.g., the DNA sequence of the gene or the cells in which the gene is active). One can also perform searches for complex data sets. The WormBase developers group actively invites suggestions for improvements from the database users. WormBase's source code and underlying database are freely available for local installation and modification.
Polyimides
Authors: Bryant Robert G. 
Published: July 2006

AbstractPolyimides are a class of high performance polymers that contain an imide group, defined as an sp3nitrogen bonded to two adjacent carbonyls. This imide structure is most commonly found as part of a five‐ or six‐membered ring. Aromatic polyimides are noted for their mechanical properties, chemical resistance, and dielectric strength. They exist as thermoplastics and thermosets and are available in many formats. Polyimides are used as hot melt adhesives, matrix resins for composites, dielectric films, photoimageable coatings, flex circuits, foams, wire insulation, thin‐walled tubing, molding resins, and high performance bushings and seals. Products that compete with polyimides for niche applications include aerospace epoxies (Dow, Ciba, and Shell), cyanate resins (Dow), polysulfones (Solvay), filled polycarbonates and polyesters (Dow, Amoco, and GE), polybenzimidazoles (Hoechst‐Celanese), and some highTg‐filled phenolics. Although polyimides command a premium price, their versatility, reliability, and demonstrated performance makes them suitable use in high performance applications where failure and replacement costs are high.
The Importance of Prognosis in Cancer Medicine
Authors: Mackillop William J. 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Prognostic judgment remains an essential element of modern, medical practice. It meets patients' needs for information about the future that they can use to plan their lives, and it provides a basis for rational medical decisions. In the future, the importance of prognosis in oncology is likely to increase as new predictors of the prognosis permit increasingly accurate predictions of the outcomes of treatment. Over the last 30 years, advances in clinical epidemiology have greatly improved the practice of oncology; we understand much better today how to establish the “generalizability” of clinical observations. In future, however, the challenge will be to increase the “particularizability” of medical knowledge in such a way that the individual characteristics of the patient and the tumor are appropriately factored into treatment decisions. This will require characterizing patients, not only in terms of the diagnostic group to which they belong, but also in terms of all those individual characteristics that may influence the outcome of treatment. Hence, the importance of continuing to study prognostic factors in oncology, and learning to use them correctly.
Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Larynx Cancer
Authors: Bourhis Jean 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, and larynx occur with a yearly incidence of around 500,000 new cases. They are frequent in developed countries, about equally in North America and the European Community where they have a particularly high incidence in France. Most of these cancers are squamous‐cell carcinomas (SCCs) occurring in rather debilitated patients after a long history of tobacco consumption and alcohol abuse. The vast majority of patients are males aged around 50 years, but there is a tendency to an increasing incidence in females and young adults. In addition, the sociocultural profile of patients suffering from head and neck SCC is often poor. In general, SCCs of the head and neck often proliferate rapidly, are locally aggressive, and carry a high tendency to metastasize to cervical lymph nodes. In presentations with very large lymph nodes, or when lymph nodes are very numerous, the possibility of distant metastasis increases significantly. This natural history explains why that these SCCs are most often diagnosed at an advanced stage, requiring combined therapies. The outcome for this patient population is poor for several reasons: the risk of failure for the index tumor; the risk of developing subsequent SCCs along the upper aerodigestive tract, esophagus, and lung; and the frequency of intercurrent diseases. The risks from comorbity and second cancers arise almost exclusively from the common etiologic association with alcohol and tobacco abuse. SCCs of the oral cavity, pharynx, and larynx are a major public health problem. Apart from large campaigns against tobacco use and alcohol abuse and information that may encourage earlier diagnosis, efforts should be made to assess prognostic factors capable of predicting both outcome and the response to various treatments. In turn, this should help select appropriate therapeutic protocols.
Paranasal Sinus Cancer
Authors: Waldron John N. 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Malignant disease arising in the maxillary, ethmoid, frontal, or sphenoid sinuses, collectively known as the paranasal sinuses, is rare. Paranasal sinus cancer represents less than 5% of all head and neck malignancy, which in turn comprises less than 10% of malignancy overall. The majority of paranasal sinus cancers arise within the maxillary sinus (70–80%) followed by the ethmoid sinus (10–20%). Because of this, much of the literature (including the present chapter) focuses on data derived from description of tumors arising at these two sites. Cancers arising in the sphenoid or frontal sinuses are extremely rare. The outcome of patients presenting with paranasal sinus cancer is generally poor, with most centers reporting 5‐year survival rates in the range of 30–40%.
As with any rare disease, the task of reliably identifying and validating independent prognostic factors for paranasal sinus cancer is complicated by the lack of prospectively collected data and the variability of data reported in the retrospective literature that spans many decades, with most series containing relatively small numbers of patients. Reports frequently describe patients with a wide range of tumor extent and histology treated with variable treatment approaches. Outcomes are often analyzed and reported with respect to different endpoints. Prognostication and empiric management recommendations are regularly based on conclusions drawn from the comparison of inhomogeneous treatment groups. In this chapter we attempt to identify prognostic factors that are supported by currently available data and, of equal importance, those that do not enjoy this support.
Skin Cancer
Authors: Poulsen Michael 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
The great majority of skin cancers will be cured and this has resulted in a certain degree of complacency in its management. Despite the overall favorable outlook there remains a subset of patients who remain at higher risk of relapse and indeed may even succumb to the disease. There are many prognostic factors known, but the relationships between these variables are complex and it is difficult to differentiate the independent variables from the dependent ones.
In contrast to the low recurrence rate, the risk of subsequent skin cancer elsewhere is about 50% at 5 years. The factors, which are prognostic for recurrence, are not the same as the factors, that predict for further skin cancer. Fair skin, male gender, high accumulation of solar exposure, and multiple previous basal cell carcinoma (BCC) or squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) predict for further skin cancers.
The major types of nonmelanomatous skin cancer (NMSC) to be considered in this chapter are BCC, SCC and Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC).
Prostate Cancer
Authors: Denis Louis Jean , Warde Padraig R. 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Prostate cancer became an endemic disease in the Western world mainly because of the aging of the population. The peak age incidence hovers around 70. The introduction of prostatic‐specific antigen (PSA) assay for the diagnosis of prostate cancer resulted in a considerable shift in the detection of disease toward earlier stages that are potentially curable. In countries where PSA is widely used for the detection of prostate cancer, up to 75% of patients present with localized disease. This has given great expectations to patients and their physicians. However, conclusive proof that mortality is decreasing due to population screening is still lacking. The problem is enhanced by the heterogeneous behavior of the prostate.
The International Union Against Cancer (UICC) TNM (tumor, nodules, metastasis) classification of malignant tumors is the means by which the prognosis of most solid cancers can be staged and defined at diagnosis. However, the TNM system does not include all relevant prognostic parameters in prostate cancer, especially the PSA. There is a need to evaluate prognostic factors not only at diagnosis but also after treatment. The need to fine‐tune the staging process in early prostate cancer drives the search for better prognostic markers. Needed measures to predict the outcome and support treatment decisions at diagnosis include biologic, pathologic, genetic, molecular, and other nonanatomic prognostic factors. Prognosis could be enhanced further using a neural network methodology, especially for an analysis of risk for each patient. However, despite efforts and hopes, no superior marker to the anatomic disease, extent, histologic grade, on PSA is available today.
Within the scope of this chapter, we will present prognostic factors relevant for the treatment and outcomes in localized and advanced prostate cancer according to relationship to the tumor, the host, and the environment. A relevance‐based subdivision into essential, additional, and promising prognostic factors is also presented.
Germ Cell Testis Tumors
Authors: Chung Peter W. , Schmoll Hans‐Joachim 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Prognostic factors are of major importance for the treatment and cure of patients with testicular cancer. The histologic type, seminoma versus nonseminomatous germ‐cell tumors (NSGCT) and the (TNM) stage constitute the fundamental prognostic factors that govern clinical practice. For early stages, prognostic factors are the critical determinants for the decisions about treatment. They don't necessarily predict the survival, which is greater than 98% independent of treatment strategy, but for the risk of relapse with different treatment options. In advanced stages, prognostic factors indicate the chance of survival following chemotherapy, either first‐line or salvage. In this chapter, the different prognostic factors, relevant for decision making in early and late stage germ‐cell testis tumors, are discussed.
Renal Cell Cancer
Authors: Ghysel Christophe , Joniau Steven , van Poppel Hendrik 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
A significant problem for clinicians who treat cancer is the application of the known determinants of disease outcome to the individual patient. The clinical course can be affected by the inherent properties of the tumor, the host‐related factors, and the treatment applied. Renal‐cell carcinoma (RCC) has the reputation of an individual unpredictable outcome with rare cases of spontaneous tumor regression and extended survival despite the presence of metastases. This unpredictable outcome is determined by the genotypic biological behavior and the tumor‐host interaction. Refinement of our ability to predict the outcome should facilitate the rational choice of treatment alternatives and provide more reliability in the interaction with the patient. In case of RCC the absence of other effective treatment modalities besides surgery, renders these considerations even more important.
Bladder Cancer
Authors: Sylvester Richard J. , van der Meijden Adrian P.M. 
Published: July 2006

Abstract
Transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder is the second most common malignancy of the genitourinary tract, and the second most common cause of death among all genitourinary tumors, the 11th most common cancer on a worldwide basis, accounting for 3–4% of all malignancies. Annually, about 220,000 new cases are being diagnosed; three‐fourths of these patients are men and a disproportional (two‐thirds) number of cases occur in developed countries.
It's important to underline that a distinction between superficial bladder cancer (stages Ta, T1, Tis) and invasive bladder cancer (stages T2–T4) must be taken into account due to the different prognosis and treatment approaches. As a matter of fact, bladder cancer is a heterogeneous disease with considerable variations of its natural history with 5‐year survival rates ranging from 97% to 98% of a single, well‐differentiated, and small papillary tumor to less than 10% of an invasive bladder cancer extending throughout the bladder wall with distant metastases. Among superficial bladder cancer, tumor recurrence after initial therapy varies from 30% in patients with a solitary papillary tumor to more than 90% in patients with multiple tumors. Intense research efforts are being made to identify and characterize the different types of bladder cancer and their variable biological potential. The desire to predict which superficial bladder cancer will recur or progress to invasive cancer, and which invasive bladder cancer will metastatize has spurred the development of a variety of potential prognostic factors.
In this chapter we provide a contemporary review of such prognostic factors with a particular emphasis to the reliable or potential use in the clinical practice.