bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Before Words Were Signs
Authors: Cary Phillip 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
To see what is new about Augustine's theory of signs, it is useful to notice that Greek semiotics was concerned with the epistemology of empirical inference and included no theory of language or expression. This is illustrated in Plato, in Aristotle's On Interpretation (where an Augustinian semiotics is often read into the text anachronistically), in the treatises on physiognomics in the Aristotelian corpus (where bodies are signs of the soul), in the semiotics and theory of language developed by Stoicism, and in the scepticism of Sextus Empiricus. The recurrent problem, emphasized by the more sceptical side in philosophical debates, is that signs are ambiguous whenever they are “common” to more than one thing signified. Augustine's theory of signs resembles Sextus's sceptical concept of “reminding signs,” which are both indispensably useful and epistemically inadequate.
Music's Empire
Authors: Agnew Vanessa 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
In examining the status of music in the cross-cultural encounter, this chapter focuses on Captain Cook's second voyage (1772-5) and the role played by Burney's son James and the German naturalist Georg Forster in transcribing and commenting on Polynesian music. It shows that the discovery of part singing in New Zealand and Tonga conflicted with Rousseauvian assertions about polyphony as an exclusively European invention. Music scholars like Charles Burney, Johann Nicolaus Forkel, Eduard Hanslick, and August Wilhelm Ambros subsequently played down the polyphonic and affective character of Polynesian music so as to uphold theories about music's universal progress and its hierarchical ordering. The chapter argues that this move, and others like it, had lasting implications for the development of western musicology and ethnomusicology, which would come to be predicated on a series of radical distinctions between the European and non-European. Where Orpheus had once signified the harmonizing powers of music, he would now be transformed into a cautionary tale about musical difference and the dangers of music's instrumentality.
Conclusion
Authors: Agnew Vanessa 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Disagreeing with contemporary scholarship that posits an aesthetic break c.1800, this chapter argues that the ancient discourse on musical utility did not come to an end with end of the 18th century. It shows that music's instrumentality is preserved within Romantic and later conceptions of aesthetic autonomy. Writers and music scholars adopted Orphic claims about the power of music in order to promote serious music, professionalize music scholarship, and advance various social, cultural, and political agendas. The parts played by E. T. A. Hoffmann, Karl Philipp Moritz, and Immanuel Kant are mentioned in the chapter. This came at the price of both other kinds of music and other forms of musical knowledge making. The book concludes with an appeal for disciplinary reconciliation within the present study of music. It also makes a case for broad and dangerous listening.
The Festival of the Goddess Vatsalā
Authors: Michaels Axel 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter explores the main festival of Deopatan, the Vatsalājātrā, i.e. the rituals and processions that celebrate the goddess Vatsalā who is regarded as both an independent deity and the consort of Śiva. The climax of the festival is a ritual clash between both deities because Śiva rejects Vatsalā because she accepted animal sacrifices and great amounts of alcohol. The rituals also provide indications of former human sacrifices.
The Goddess of the Secret and Her Procession (Guhyeśvarījātrā)
Authors: Michaels Axel 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter deals with the history and mythology of Guhyeśvarī, the Goddess of the Secret and her procession (Guhyeśvarījātrā). The focus of the chapter is on the various (Hindu, Buddhist, Folk) identities of Hindu goddesses.
The Great Night of Śiva (Mahāśivarātri)
Authors: Michaels Axel 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter deals with the Great Night of Śiva (Mahāśivarātri), the main festival of the Smārta Hindus in Deopatan, celebrated by pilgrimage and night vigils. It discusses the calendrical, historical and mythological problems of the festival. As it seems, the Śāha kings of Nepal have strongly supported it by attracting pilgrims and revered ascetics from India in order to promote the pure, vegetarian religiosity in Nepal.
10 Duke Bluebeard's Castle
Authors: Antokoletz Elliott 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter looks at Doors II (Armoury), III (Treasure Chamber), and IV (Garden) and develops Judith's “Fate” motif and the leitmotif of Stefi Geyer, including the transformation between Judith's (Stefi's) motif of the seventh-chord and the chromatic motif of “Blood”. Descending third transpositions of variant seventh chords produce chromatic collisions as an implication of the “Blood” motif. Interaction of diatonic and whole-tone spheres produce dissonance and the move toward ultimate fate.
The Children‘s Chant
Authors: van der Merwe Peter 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
The foundation of melody — psychologically, historically, and theoretically — is the children's chant, a little tune confined to three pitches (together making a minor third with a superimposed major second) that children in all cultures begin to sing at the age of about three. It is not confined to children, or to musically primitive cultures, but underlies all melody. This chapter looks at its relation to the major triad and its development into more complex patterns, and introduces three fundamental properties of music, all present in this chant: (1) chordality, or the bonding together of the intervals within the major triad; (2) melodic consonance, or the relative lack of tension between the same notes (the only entirely consonant interval is the octave); and (3) ambiguity, or multiplicity of relationships between melodic notes or rhythmic values.
Romanticism
Authors: van der Merwe Peter 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter deals with those strains in 19th-century music that would seem to be furthest removed from the vernacular discussed in the previous chapter. It begins with a general discussion of musical nationalism and its relation to Romanticism, then proceeds to the mainly Teutonic symphonic tradition, which was generally at odds the tendencies of the time but sometimes in harmony with them. Finally, Wagner's musical language and its relation to the vernacular is analyzed.
1 Concepts in Resource Property Rights
Authors: Scott Anthony 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis opening chapter explains how the ‘completeness’ of a property right is measured by the extent to which it has all of six ‘characteristics’. These are exclusivity, duration, flexibility, quality of title, transferability, and divisibility. Each set of chapters, dealing with rights over a particular resource: water, fisheries, minerals, or forest, examines the amount and types of characteristic with which its rights are equipped. Rights are distinguished from the ‘powers’. The chapter presents ‘demand’ and ‘supply’ for characteristics as holders interact. ‘Demand’ has flowed from owners who in the course of disputes have found their rights' characteristics to be inadequate. The chapter examines sources of ‘supply’ in detail: the courts — hearing cases in property, tort or contract law; government — legislating rights and taxes directly or making rules for public-land disposal; manorial custom; and military invasion.
Before the State
Authors: Osiander Andreas 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis book challenges the habit of conventional historiography of taking the ‘essential’ state – a ‘bounded entity’ equipped with a ‘sovereign’ central power — for granted in any period and of not taking period political terminology seriously. It refutes the idea, current both in historiography and in International Relations theory (in particular Realism), that the fundamental nature of ‘international’ politics is historically immutable. Nothing akin to what we call the ‘state’ existed before the 19th century: it is a recent invention and the assumption that it is timeless, necessary for society, is simply part of its legitimating myth. The development over the past three millennia of the political structures of western civilization is shown here to have been a succession of unrepeatable but path-dependent stages. In examining structural change, the book adopts a constructivist approach based on the analysis of period political discourse. This approach both reflects and illuminates the evolution of western political thought: on the one hand, political thought is a vehicle of the political discourse of its period. On the other hand, the assumption that political theory must in any age somehow be centred on the ‘state’ has forced our understanding of it into a straight-jacket: abandoning this assumption permits fresh and unexpected insights into the political thinking of earlier eras. Close attention, however, is also paid to the material constraints and opportunities (e.g., ecological and economic factors, or military technology) impacting on the evolution of society.
Introduction
Authors: Tracy James D. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
If William of Orange's grand strategy for the Revolt was, as has been argued, frustrated by fractious provinces, wealthy Holland should get the blame. Yet Holland had a rival strategy, more workable than Orange's. Militarily, the priority was to defend Holland's borders first, and only then extend protection to neighboring towns. The States of Holland kept control of the purse strings (limiting the authority of the States General), and the eighteen towns represented in the provincial parliament managed to preserve consensus on the aims of the war. It was thus a province that gave birth to a nation, the United Provinces; this is why foreigners (not Dutch people) commonly refer to the whole country as “Holland”.
The Habsburg Netherlands, 1549–1567
Authors: Tracy James D. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
In the forty years between 1520 and 1559, the Habsburg and Valois dynasties were at war for twenty years. This struggle for hegemony in Europe entailed not just recurring warfare along the Franco‐Netherlandish frontier, but also a leapfrogging competition in military technology (artillery, and fortresses built to withstand bombardment) and military organization (building mercenary armies from specialized units recruited in different nations). In the 1540s and especially the 1550s, French attacks came by sea as well as by land, forcing the Netherlands government, for the first time, to think about how to control the North Sea. At sea and on land, commanders who acquired up‐to‐date military skills by fighting for the Habsburgs in the 1550s would in the 1570s fight one another.
Holland as a Body Politic, I: The Habsburg Era, to 1567
Authors: Tracy James D. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Was Holland a mere collection of towns? Or was it a body politic? Clearly it was both. Towns were divided not just by local rivalries but by repeated clashes over the inland waterway: while cities tied to decaying industries (Leiden, Gouda) clung to the traditional route, those profiting from the growth of maritime trade (Amsterdam, Rotterdam) incessantly cut new channels. Yet outside forces pushed the towns to make common cause. Holland's vital Baltic trade was threatened by the Hanseatic League (Lübeck), supported by the populous county of Flanders. Attacks from the duchy of Guelders, a French ally, gave all of Holland a common foe. Finally, the government's anti‐heresy campaign, setting aside cherished legal privileges, roused universal opposition, as if all the provinces made up a single country. As iconoclast rioters moved from town to town and province to province (1566), the government faced its worst crisis.
Holland as a Body Politic, II: Seeds of Discord
Authors: Tracy James D. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Holland's Baltic trade flourished as never before, and skilled immigrants helped revive local industries. But prosperity raised a political issue: should Holland trade with provinces loyal to Spain? The more Holland's leaders pushed for free trade, the more confederates in the Union of Utrecht saw them as selling out the cause to boost profits. Meanwhile, Holland upheld the public supremacy of the Reformed religion. Yet Reformed religion embraced two theologies. One, based in Geneva, required a church free of state control; the other, based in Zurich, sanctioned governance of the Church by magistrates. Most Holland clergy preferred the former view, while magistrates favored the latter. Thus several towns had major conflicts over appointment of preachers; at the provincial level, each side ignored the other's pronouncements on church governance.
Holland's Pyramid of Credit
Authors: Tracy James D. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
As Holland's “common means” became the chief revenue of the confederate provinces, the Lords States managed to fend off efforts, by Orange and then by Leicester, to impose centralized control on these precious cash receipts. To cover the gap between income and war expenses, Holland continued borrowing, using burgher loans organized by the magistrates. To pay off enough debt to keep the loans coming, the states raised the rates for real property taxes (underline verpondingen); magistrates used receipts to repay their burghers. But still more was needed for debt settlement; in 1586 the states revised the use of long‐term underline renten, now to be issued by the towns, in the name of the Lords States. Holland's war debt thus rested on a pyramid of credit, with the states at the top, burgher‐lenders at the bottom, and town magistrates playing the crucial role of fiscal intermediation.
PHASE-CONTRAST AND HOLOGRAPHIC TOMOGRAPHY
Authors: Peele Andrew G. , Nugent Keith A. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter reviews how X-ray phase contrast can be applied to tomographic imaging. Topics discussed include propagation of light and phase contrast, interferometry for phase tomography, differential interferometry, Zernike phase contrast for tomography, diffraction-enhanced imaging, coherent diffractive imaging, and polychromatic phase imaging.
SCANNING TOMOGRAPHY
Authors: Simionovici Alexandre , Bleuet Pierre , Golosio Bruno , Schroer Christian 
Published: May 2008

AbstractIn cases where the effect of interest changes the direction of the incoming radiation, the image pixels are no longer decoupled and the sample has to be scanned sequentially using a small focused beam to avoid the information from different regions of the sample being convoluted irreversibly. This chapter describes such scanning methods. Three examples are presented: tomography using fluorescent X-ray radiation, tomography exploiting the absorption fine structure near the absorption edges, and tomography utilizing small-angle scattering from mesoscopic structures within the sample.
NEUTRON-REFRACTION AND SMALL-ANGLE SCATTERING TOMOGRAPHY
Authors: Treimer Wolfgang 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Refraction and small-angle scattering can provide unique imaging signals in situations where absorption- or other attenuation-based effects are insufficient. Attenuation contrast is low in cases where either the absolute values of the attenuation coefficients of the individual components of the object are low, or the differences between the various components are small. In such cases, other contrast mechanisms have to be employed for imaging such as the phase contrast described in the previous chapter. This chapter discusses two additional contrast mechanisms: refraction tomography and small-angle scattering tomography. Experimental results for both techniques are presented.
1 Norms, Their Influence, and How They Can Be Studied
Authors: Percy Sarah 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter sets out the theoretical framework of the book. It adopts a constructivist approach, which explains how norms influence behaviour and how their impact can be studied. The first section explains what a norm is, and defines proscriptive norms. It moves on to explain the three main theoretical approaches to defining norms, and argues that a constructivist approach is the most appropriate for capturing the influence of the norm against mercenary use. The third section outlines the relationships between norms and the related concepts of law, morality, and interests. In the fourth section, the ways in which norms influence politics and state behaviour are examined. The fifth section argues that a narrative methodology is most appropriate to describe and explain the influence of norms on state behaviour. The chapter concludes by addressing some of the challenges inherent in a study of norms.
4 Competing Explanations for the Nineteenth-Century Shift Away from Mercenary Use
Authors: Percy Sarah 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the three arguments that seek to explain why states stopped using mercenaries in the 19th century. The first argument is largely realist, making the case that material changes pressured states to adopt citizen armies. The second argument is based more on the role of ideas, arguing that the developing relationship between states and citizens and the increasing role of neutrality in international law combined to render the use of mercenaries obsolete. The third argument suggests that while ideas and material pressures are important antecedent conditions, the change to a citizen army is best explained by domestic politics and path dependency.
6 The Norm against Mercenary Use and International Law
Authors: Percy Sarah 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter examines the absence of an effective international regulatory regime for mercenaries. The first section examines the argument, made most forcefully by the international lawyer Antonio Cassese, that the international law on mercenaries, particularly the definition found in Article 47 of Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions, is full of loopholes intentionally left by states, who were uninfluenced by any moral dislike of mercenaries and who could and did pursue the creation of law that was more about preserving advantage than enshrining concern over mercenaries. The second section of this chapter takes a close look at the argument that only states directly affected by mercenaries, those in Africa, had any interest in dealing with mercenaries through the creation of international law. The third section examines a different facet of the argument that anti-mercenary sentiment was not universal.
Conclusion
Authors: Percy Sarah 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter presents a synthesis of the discussions in the preceding chapters. It shows that the norm against mercenary use has explained four different puzzles in international history. First, anti-mercenary feeling can help illustrate why states gained control over the independent mercenary and established a controlled international trade in mercenaries. Second, it can help explain why, even though the controlled trade in private fighters was effective, it was abandoned in favour of citizen armies across Europe in the 19th century. Third, it is impossible to understand why international law on mercenaries is so flawed without understanding that states were attempting to adhere to a very strong norm against mercenary use which was difficult to translate into law, and was simultaneously supported by the norms of national self-determination and undermined by the norms of state responsibility and freedom of movement. Fourth, the growth of PMCs, their disappearance, and the rise of PSCs cannot be understood without understanding the normative obstacles modern-day mercenaries face, and the international community's response to the emergence of PMCs is likewise impossible to understand without attention to widespread normative discomfort with the use of private force.
6 Historical Perspectives in the Mind of Joseph Priestley
Authors: Kennedy Alison 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines Priestley's different perspectives as a historian. The discussion is divided into three parts: the first is concerned with Joseph Priestley the historian, the second with Priestley the theologian as historian and Biblical critic, and the third with the importance of his legacy in this latter respect. A brief comparison is made between Priestley's approach to the relationship between religion and history and that of David Hume and Edward Gibbon, two great historians of the 18th century. Two works by Priestley are analyzed: Lectures on History and General Policy, delivered at Warrington Academy in the late 1760s and revised and finally published in 1788, which deals with his secular approach to history; and An History of the Corruptions of Christianity, published six years earlier, in 1782. The latter reveals a different approach to historical understanding within a theological context.
Structural Chemistry of Group 13 Elements
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
About 80% of this chapter is devoted to the particularly rich structural chemistry of boron. There are sections on elemental boron, metal and non-metal borides, boranes and carboranes, boric acids, and borates. In the section on boranes and carboranes, electron-counting rules are introduced to account for the relationship between the bonding and structures of these compounds. For the remaining Group 13 elements, there are sections on their organometallic compounds with novel features (such as bridged structures, M-M bonding, π bonding, etc.) and on naked anionic metalloid clusters.
Metal–Metal Bonds and Transition-Metal Clusters
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter summarizes developments in the study of (transition) metal clusters held by metal-metal bonds. Similar to the case of boranes and carboranes, electron-counting rules have been devised to correlate the bonding and structure of metal clusters. Three sections are devoted to clusters with two to seven metal atoms, followed by a section on iso-bond valence and iso-structural series. The final section covers selected areas of metal-metal interaction, including aurophilicity, argentophilicity, metal string molecules, and metal-based infinite chains and networks.
Supramolecular Structural Chemistry
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter on supramolecular chemistry is the longest one in the book. According to J.-M. Lehn, who shared the 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with D. J. Cram and C. J. Pedersen, supramolecular chemistry is the study of organized entities of higher complexity (supermolecule) resulting from the association of two or more chemical species consolidated by intermolecular forces. Fundamental concepts such as the nature of intermolecular interactions, molecular recognition, self-assembly, crystal engineering, and supramolecular synthon are systematically introduced. Several examples are presented to shed light on this fascinating and ever-evolving research area.