bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Comparative Factorial Ecology: Some New Zealand Examples
Authors: Timms D W G 
Published: October 2006

The use of factorial ecology in the analysis of residential differentiation is illustrated by data on the four main urban areas in New Zealand and by some historical data on Auckland. The article concludes by examining some of the implications of factorial ecology for urban theory. Recent community analyses have indicated a renewed interest in one of the chief concerns of the early human ecologists: the effects and implications of residential differentiation and segregation. A notable aspect of the trend has been the application of factor-analytic methods to data generated for urban sub-communities(1). Analyses of census tract or enumeration district data in several North American, Scandinavian, and Australasian cities have shown that much of the detailed variation in the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of the urban population may be expressed in terms of a small number of underlying factors relating to social rank, style of life or family type and, in ethnically heterogeneous populations, ethnic composition. Beshers (1962) suggests that the axes of differentiation are so clear that virtually any form of analysis will reveal their existence. Within the general pattern, however, it may be anticipated that local and regional differences in socio-cultural, economic, and political circumstances will result in variations in ecological structure. An attempt to delineate these variations is essential if the goal of developing a genuinely cross-cultural model of urban society is to be attained. It is in the pursuit of this end that the procedures of factorial ecology promise most. According to Sweetser (1965, p.219): “Modern factor analysis, using factor structure as a model for ecological structure, is the method par excellence for comparing cross-nationally (and intranationally) the ecological differentiation of residential areas in urban and metropolitan communities”. In the present example data from New Zealand is used to examine the usefulness of the factorial ecology approach for comparative studies at both the inter-city and the temporal levels.
Volkswirtschaftliche Probleme Des Wohnungsbaus
Authors: Vogt K 
Published: October 2006

Der Versuch die Probleme des Wohnungsbaus aus der volkswirtschaftlichen Perspektive auszuleuchten, macht zweierlich deutlich: Die sozialpolitisch motivierte Wohnungsbauförderung bedarf offenbar einer Ergänzung des wirtschaftspolitischen Instrumentariums der Globalsteuerung, damit ein zufriedenstellender Zielerreichungsgrad erwartet werden kann. Der Weg weist in Richtung auf eine räumlich und sektoral stärkere Differenzierung der herkömmlichen Globalsteuerung wirtschaftlicher Abläufe. Gleichzeitig muß die sozialpolitisch motivierte Wohnungsbauförderung künftig restriktiver wirkenden wirtschaftspolitischen Anforderungen gerecht werden, damit sie wirtschafts- und infrastrukturpolitisch tragbar wird und ihrerseits den Zielerreichungsgrad dieser Sektoren nicht unnötig herunternivelliert. Hier weist der Weg in Richtung auf einen verstärkten Ausbau der Individualförderung einerseits und einen mehr städtebaulich orientierten Wohnungsbau andererseits.
Optimal Control Strategies for Air Quality Standards and Regulatory Policy
Authors: Gorr W L , Gustafson S -Å , Kortanek K O 
Published: October 2006

The setting of air quality standards for classes of air pollution in a region is one approach to the protection of public health and welfare by defining limits on levels of pollution in the air. We present methods to determine regional emission regulations that are (1) feasible in the sense that they lead to compliance with air quality standards and (2) optimal in the sense that the total economic impact due to implementation is minimized. Under goal (1) we set forth a procedure more sophisticated than heuristic procedures such as those guaranteeing compliance on a fixed rectangular set of grid receptor points in a region. We discuss various modifications responding to issues of regulatory policy, thereby obtaining a more accurate picture of the total impact of implementation of control strategies. We also indicate how damage functions may be incorporated, where now the standard (or the set of multiple standards) is a variable to be determined, together with emission rate reductions, so as to minimize the joint sum of individual control costs for the region and the total of damage costs, while keeping pollutant emissions below standards (to be determined) at all point coordinates in the region. In this way control strategies and emission standards may be derived jointly in a framework that automatically balances decrements of damage due to improved air quality with increased control costs associated with tighter standards. Furthermore the model determines the location of the maximum concentration intensities, which may not necessarily be on grid points, and hence indicates where to place sampling stations in order to guarantee compliance at all coordinates in the region over the prescribed period of time.
Equilibrium Models of Cities: 2. Single-Species Cities
Authors: Amson J C 
Published: October 2006

This second part of a study of a city as an ‘urban gravitational plasma’ investigates in detail the case where the city consists of only one species of civic matter, and is circularly symmetric. To increase the relevance of the theory to actual urban situations, this civic matter is assumed throughout to be a citizen population, though the theory would apply just as well if other illustrations, such as floor space or traffic flows, etc., were to be chosen instead. The population is assumed to attract itself in a way which tends to increase its density in high density regions and to decrease it in low density regions. This ‘clumping’ effect is offset by another inducement on the population to relocate itself in places where some ‘dissatisfaction potential’ is less. Again, for illustration, it is assumed throughout that the dissatisfaction has the form of a housing rental, that is, the price of the composite bundle of ‘housing’ commodities and utilities. It is shown that the competition between the two civic forces of attraction and dispersal can lead to equilibrium distributions of the population in which the forces are everywhere in balance. The forms of these distributions depend greatly on the extent to which the housing rental is proportional to the local population density. Different degrees of this dependence are shown to give rise to many different forms of the equilibrium configurations available to a city. These are classified according to a regular scheme, and their properties explored and illustrated in detail. The manner in which one equilibrium configuration may grow into another, with or without any change in the total population in the city, leads to the idea of an ‘equilibrium growth’ in a city. Again their different possible types are examined in detail. Finally, certain classes of the equilibrium configurations are shown to resemble closely the familiar negative exponential and gaussian distributions of population density. The resemblance can be so close as to make it extremely likely that many actual cities, that have been shown elsewhere to exhibit population density distributions of those forms, may in fact be exhibiting equilibrium distributions of the kind deduced in this study.
A Disaggregated Model of Urban Spatial Structure: Theoretical Framework
Authors: Echenique M , Feo A , Herrera R , Riquezes J 
Published: October 2006

This paper describes a disaggregated model of urban spatial structure which combines the framework provided by the macroscale approach of social physics, to which most models developed to date belong, and the advantages derived from the use of the microscale approach provided by economic theory. The model attempts to integrate both approaches by means of the use of maximum entropy techniques together with concepts from microeconomic theory. The former provides an operational basis for the model, while the latter provides a theoretical explanation of the process. At a general level the model introduces the addition of a land market submodel and a transport submodel to the framework provided by Lowry (1964). At a more detailed level the model transforms the employment in the city into economic sectors, socioeconomic groups, and income groups. This allows for the conception of the urban spatial structure in terms of a market where transactions take place between buyers and sellers of goods. The disaggregated model presented here has been designed to provide a large number of variables which can be manipulated and controlled as part of policy decision making and planning analysis—this includes, for example, the normal planning controls such as density restriction and changes in the location of manufacturing, government, and agricultural employment. Also, the effect of changes in the costs of transport (car prices, fares, and routing) can be analysed. Taxes and subsidies on income, housing, and housing interest rates can be manipulated within the model.
Optimal Allocation of Resources to the Educational Sector in a System of Regions
Authors: Felderer B 
Published: October 2006

After a review of different approaches to educational planning, the usefulness of various optimization models for regional educational planning is examined. These models are criticized for not making a distinction between education as an investment and education as a consumption good. Also they do not distinguish between supply of and demand for education, which leads to serious problems. In optimization models for the whole economy the solution depends on a large number of coefficient matrices. Each of these matrices is subject to errors of measurement. These can lead to very large errors in the variables concerning the educational system. The probability of error is drastically reduced if we limit ourselves to a sectoral model of the educational system, in which the future manpower requirement is an exogenous variable. The optimization model presented in this paper is an attempt along these lines, and takes into account a regional decision structure.
A Typological Approach to Individual Urban Travel Behavior Prediction
Authors: Oppenheim N 
Published: October 2006

With the use of cluster analysis a sample of 1018 residents of the San Francisco Bay Area was classified into eleven types of urban residents on the basis of overall similarity of personal and environmental characteristics, and independently into nine types of travel behavior. The relations between the two typologies, and the comparative travel behavior of the types of urban resident were investigated in an attempt to gain insight into the determinants of urban travel. The probability of the correct assignment of a travel behaviour type to an urban resident type was of the order of 0·30. Monte Carlo simulation methods were used to test empirically whether the value of a given travel behavior characteristic for a given urban resident type can be assumed to be higher (or lower) than the value in the general population, thus testing the predictability of the travel behavior of the various urban resident types. Conversely, the prediction of the urban traveler's personal characteristics given his travel behavior type was also evaluated. This typological approach made the prediction of the usage of the San Francisco Bay Area rapid transit system (for going to work, for going to shop, for going out for leisure, or for some other purpose) possible, in about 15% of the cases, from the knowledge of the urban resident type and, in about 25% of the cases, from the knowledge of the travel behavior type.
Urban Residential Analysis: 1. Spatial Consumer Behaviour
Authors: Papageorgiou G J 
Published: October 2006

Equilibrium efficiency and optimum are fundamental concepts that characterize the form of ideal cities. Such forms, coupled with the ‘closed’–‘open’ distinction, provide a rich gamut of urban structures. Yet transcending this diversity of types and individualistic attributes there is a more general, unified level of analysis. Long (1971) has worked at this level, and the trend is continued in this paper. Externalities, policies, and public goods are fundamental issues underlining the recent strong concern for normative analysis. Such issues are typically related to questions of environmental quality. Indeed the impact of environmental quality upon urban structure is decisive: the message emerges clearly as the main conclusion of this essay. The gist of the analysis concerns relations among environmental quality, composition of society, and spatial choice. These relations are general in the sense that they apply both to positive and to normative models of cities.
Some Evidence from Japan on the Efficiency of Land Markets
Authors: Vining D R , Hiraguchi H 
Published: October 2006

When an investor enters the real-estate market, can he detect a profitable parcel of land simply by observing how its price (or, more realistically, prices of like parcels in its general vicinity) has behaved in the immediate past? For example, if we observe land prices in a certain area of a city or even of a country to be rising at a rapid rate, is it reasonable to expect prices there to continue to rise at this rapid rate? If so, the market is said to be ‘inefficient’. Current prices in that market do not fully capitalize expected future price changes. This paper asks if the Tokyo land market is inefficient and concludes that it is. If the government data on this market can be trusted, there are wide divergences in mean rates of appreciation across parcels that cannot be explained by differences in risk and that are not being closed through arbitrage. It appears that an investor in land can make an above average return on his funds by discovering where land prices have been rising at an above average rate and by investing in land in this area. If sustained by similar analyses of other land markets, this finding will give quantitative content to land economists' intuition that land markets are different from other speculative markets (for example, the stock and commodities markets), which are well known to be highly efficient.
Corporate Space Preferences: A New Zealand Example
Authors: Taylor M J 
Published: October 2006

The paper demonstrates the problems encountered in the measurement of corporate space preferences which are not present in the residential space preference context—most notably the assignment of people to levels in a decisionmaking hierarchy, and the weighting that is necessary to reflect the contribution that each level makes to any final decision. The greater complexity of the corporate situation highlights the conceptual inadequacy of the principal components technique for the construction of mental maps, with a simple psychological scaling technique appearing to be conceptually more adequate and equally as effective. But, it is the number of items on which data are collected which emerges as the issue of greatest consequence in this type of study, the suggestion having been made that respondents should not be asked to select more than say nine or ten locations from a list of alternatives. The example of a corporate mental map, constructed in the light of the methodological discussion, was shown to have important implications for the spatial learning model proposed by Taylor (1975b), which had been derived from industrial linkage studies. Instead it was suggested that a metric reflecting the organisation of a national space economy into a series of hierarchically arranged and reasonably discrete regional space economies should replace simple euclidean measures of distance (that is, geographic space) within the model.
An Analysis of Intraurban Residential Ownership Patterns
Authors: Walsh J A 
Published: October 2006

This paper examines intraurban variation in residential ownership patterns. An entropy-maximizing model of the spatial–social distribution of rented urban residential units is presented, a number of formal properties of the model are established, and the model is then tested against data from fourteen Canadian cities at three different time periods. On the average, in 1961 and 1971, residences were more likely to be rented in urban districts where a large proportion of the family heads were under thirty-five years old. In any city, all residences, whether located in rich or poor districts, were almost equally likely to be rented. In 1971 over two-fifths of the intraurban variation in ownership patterns was accounted for by the distance separating residences from the city centre. Between 1951 and 1971 there was a significant suburbanization of rented residential units. Although the empirical patterns broadly conform to the theoretical one, there is considerable spatial and temporal intraurban variation.
The Individual, the Community, and the Authority in the Planning Process
Authors: Brotchie J F 
Published: October 2006

This paper discusses a rational basis for urban decisionmaking including the role of individual freedom of choice. It identifies the differing objectives of the various parties involved (the individual, the community, and the authority) and the resulting different choices of those parties. If the problem is specified in such a way that the authority is indifferent to the options offered, the objectives of the remaining parties, the individuals and the community, are more closely aligned and conflicts in choices between the parties are reduced. Subject to this condition of the indifference of the authority, contours of equal cost to the community are identified in the decision-parameter space. A two-level decision process is then feasible, in which choices between points along a contour, that is, between options of equal community cost, may be offered to individuals acting independently, but decisions to move between contours, that is, to change community cost, must be made by the community as a whole. Decisions made at the individual level also provide feedback for use at the community level. It is recognized that in this decision process the individual decisionmakers are not a homogeneous group, and the effects of this diversity on perceived utility values and on choices is also examined. This diversity must in fact be matched by diversity in the solutions supplied, if the needs of all individuals are to be met. The mechanism for matching diverse supply to diverse demand is freedom of choice. The losses incurred when this freedom is restricted, for example, by restricting diversity, are formulated. Community objectives may be blurred by the diversity of individual preferences, by the inability to define or measure these preferences, and by the facts that they are many, that they interact, and that the weightings on them are not known. A technique which seeks the perceived optimal plan in the light of these blurred objectives is presented. All these various concepts are considered in relationship to public participation in planning.
Ecological Studies and Political Decisions
Authors: O'Riordan T 
Published: October 2006

Resource management is a process of striking a balance between improving the well-being of people and causing undesirable environmental change. Politicians are responsible for making the appropriate decisions, but they are increasingly influenced by the advice of professionals, especially planners, ecologists, and administrators (budgeting officials, legal experts, personnel managers). This paper looks at the resource-management process as it operates in the Norfolk Broads region of England. It illustrates how different parties involved in using and managing the area disagree about what precisely are the causes of environmental deterioration and thus about suitable courses of action. Within this context the trained ecologist may find it difficult to maintain a stance of detached objectivity. The author recommends that ecologists become more familiar with the wider social and institutional aspects of resource management and that they play a more active role in informing people of the consequences of various courses of action.
An Application of Economic Interaction Models to the Analysis of Spatial Effects of Economic Integration
Authors: Bröcker J 
Published: October 2006

Classical partial-equilibrium analysis of integration in a spaceless world is extended by introducing the spatial dimension into the model. It is argued, however, that this model, owing to its unrealistic homogeneity assumptions, generates an extremely rigid response by the endogenous variables to tariff reductions. Therefore two approaches are discussed for introducing heterogeneity into the model: A deterministic utility-maximization approach and a probabilistic choice approach. Both approaches lead to a substitution of the transportation model, which is embedded in the homogeneous model, by a trade-distribution model of the gravity type. In the framework of this model, regional shadow prices are derived which play the same role as the shadow prices of the transportation model and can be used for measuring the impact of economic integration on regional access to input and output markets. Finally a family of elastically constrained gravity models is considered, which are derived by linking price-elastic supply and demand with the trade-distribution model. These models can be empirically applied for calculating simultaneously the effects of tariff reductions on regional supply and demand as well as on interregional trade.
Flows, Hierarchies, Potentials
Authors: Sonis M 
Published: October 2006

This work deals with the analysis of interregional flows. The central idea is the decomposition of the origin–destination flow matrix into the additive weighted sum of basic matrices. Each basic matrix represents an extremal flow which optimizes some objective function corresponding to some extremal tendency acting in the real flow. The weight of the extremal flow can be treated as the frequency of the choice of the fixed extremal tendency. The geometrical and algebraic algorithm of the decomposition of the flow matrix is based on the Minkovsky theorem about the center of gravity of convex polyhedra. Its spatial content is Weber's well-known principle of industrial location (in inverted form), and Stouffer's principle of intervening opportunities. Each extremal flow defines the spatially represented hierarchy of the regions of origin and destination. The successive selection of the ‘most probable’ tendencies defines the set of changing hierarchy relationships between the regions. The construction of the successive hierarchies is an elaboration of Nystuen and Dacey's ideas about the use of graph theory in flow theory. The most interesting and important fact is the nonuniqueness of the expansion of the real flow by the shares of extremal tendencies, that is, nonuniqueness of results of analysis. This ensues from the fundamental statement that the analysis depends on the investigator's point of view.