bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
7 The ‘Arianism’ of the ‘Eusebians’
Authors: Gwynn David M. 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter assesses Athanasius’ presentation of the ‘Eusebians’ as ‘Arian’. After a brief introduction to Athanasius’ highly polarized heresiological polemic, it traces Athanasius’ construction of the ‘Arianism’ which he imposes upon his opponents. A comparison between this ‘Athanasian Arianism’, the doctrines of Arius himself, and the known doctrines of Eusebius of Nicomedia and Asterius ‘the Sophist’ reveals that these two alleged ‘Eusebians’ differ theologically both from Arius’ and from Athanasius’ definition of ‘Arianism’. Indeed, Eusebius and Asterius appear to have been representative of a widespread theological position held by a significant number of eastern bishops in the first half of the 4th century, a theology expressed above all by the ‘Dedication Creed’ of the Council of Antioch in 341. The chapter then turns to the methodology through which Athanasius created his distorted polarized construct of the ‘Arian Controversy’, and concludes with a brief assessment of how this construct influences Athanasius’ interpretation of the Council of Nicaea and the Nicene Creed.
Emotion in Response to Art
Authors: Levinson Jerrold 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This essay surveys the range of philosophical problems that can be encompassed under the rubric, emotion in response to art. It details five such problems, according most of its attention to the nature of the emotional responses had to art, and the puzzle of emotional responses to fictional entities known to be fictional (what is often labeled ‘the paradox of fiction’). Attention is also given to the puzzle of how people derive satisfaction from art expressive or evocative of negative emotion (what is often labeled ‘the paradox of tragedy’), and to the question of how abstract works of art (such as pieces of instrumental music) manage to express or evoke emotions at all.
Nonexistent Artforms and the Case of Visual Music
Authors: Levinson Jerrold 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This essay has two parts. The first proposes some ways of thinking about the field of nonexistent arts as whole, in effect making some advance inroads into it. The second part tries to cast light on why certain artforms that seem eminently possible in fact fail to exist, through a case study of one such would-be art, that of visual music, i.e., a structured organization of coloured presentations in time, such as might be provided through the medium of colour film.
Wollheim on Pictorial Representation
Authors: Levinson Jerrold 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This essay was written as a contribution to a symposium in honour of the distinguished aesthetician Richard Wollheim, and begins with a sympathetic summary of his highly influential account of depiction in terms of the successfully realized intention that viewers have a certain sort ofseeing-inexperience faced with a picture depicting a given subject. While agreeing with the basic thrust of Wollheim's account, which makes a certain sort of visual experience in appropriate viewers criterial of achieved depiction, it differs with Wollheim as to whether that experience is invariably one of seeing in, given the twofold attention to subject and surface that the notion, as Wollheim conceives it, necessarily involves. An alternative account is sketched, Wollheimian in spirit, but closer than most recent proposals to the classic Gombrichian view of depiction as involving something akin to illusion. It is proposed that a picture that depicts a subject is one fashioned so as to yield an experience ofas-if seeingof its subject, but not an experience that engenders the false beliefs typical of illusion.
Erotic Art and Pornographic Pictures
Authors: Levinson Jerrold 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This essay was written in response to a 2001 essay of Matthew Kieran, itself prompted in part by remarks on the distinction between the erotic and the pornographic offered at the end of the essay, ‘What Is Erotic Art?’. Whereas Kieran holds that there is no incompatibility, and even precious little tension, between something's being pornography and something's being erotic art, it is argued that there is indeed such tension, and that the two statuses are in fact incompatible. Nothing is entailed as to whether pornography, though it is not art, may or may not be, for various reasons, of value.
What are Aesthetic Properties?
Authors: Levinson Jerrold 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This essay presents a defence of aesthetic realism, focusing on the issue of how properties in general and aesthetic properties in particular should be conceived. It is proposed that at least paradigm cases of the latter are to be understood ashigher-order perceptual ways of appearing. In the course of developing this proposal, the vexed issue of whether or not aesthetic properties areresponse-dependent, or such that they cannot be conceived or analyzed except in terms of kinds of responses in relevant perceivers is addressed. It is suggested that there is a spectrum, among properties usually thought of as aesthetic, from ones that are clearly response-dependent to ones that are clearly non-response-dependent, with many gradations in-between.
Introduction
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew 
Published: February 2007

AbstractWhat is a theory of virtue about? It is about what constitutes a good moral character, or a good quality of character. It is not about what makes an action right or wrong, though virtuous people generally act rightly. The evaluation of character as good or bad and the evaluation of actions as right or wrong are different departments of ethical theory. Neither can be reduced to the other, and there is reason to care about both of them. This chapter explains and defends these theses, and the remaining chapters of the book are sketched in outline.
Altruism
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew 
Published: February 2007

AbstractFinding an appropriate way of evaluating altruistic benevolence is a crucial test of a theory of virtue as a sort of intrinsic excellence. Some may think that altruism is sufficiently commended by its social benefits without any thought of such excellence. Consideration of Nietzsche's critique of altruism leads, however, to an argument that it is morally important that altruism be intrinsically excellent. This is followed by an argument that altruism has indeed such excellence. Not that altruism must (or indeed should) be unmixed with other motives. Relations between altruism and self-sacrifice on the one hand, and agent-centered or self-regarding motives such as conscientiousness and self-respect on the other, are explored.
Do the Virtues All Imply Each Other?
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter defends the fragmentariness of virtue suggested in Chapter 8 against the ancient thesis of the unity of the virtues, which holds that one cannot have any virtue without having all of them. As examples, the virtues of courage, wisdom, and benevolence are analyzed in some detail. It is argued that courage and wisdom themselves are not one, and that some (though not all) significant deficiencies or faults in moral motivation are compatible with virtuous forms of benevolence.
Plural and Integrated Virtue
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines questions about holistic ascriptions of virtue or good character. It argues that such ascriptions may imply possession of some but not all particular virtues. Some virtues may find a place only in certain situations, vocations, or ways of life. Personal moral integration remains an important goal of moral aspiration, though it probably will, and should, never be finished, but rather require recurrent renegotiation.
Introduction
Authors: Bourne Craig 
Published: February 2007

AbstractI begin by discussing what a theory of time is and what it should aim to do. Then discusses the initial plausible candidates for a theory of time; shows how best to frame the debate between tensed and tenseless theories of time; and discusses the tenseless theory, and the various tense theories, such as the growing block view of Tooley, the branching‐future view of McCall, and presentism.
The Present Dialectic in Special Relativity
Authors: Bourne Craig 
Published: February 2007

AbstractI discuss the argument (put forward by Putnam and others) that special relativity is incompatible with presentism. I reject some ways (such as Stein's) to solve the problem, but suggest that the problem lies in Einstein's definition of simultaneity. I offer an alternative way of understanding and defining simultaneity and show how the Lorentz transformations are to be understood in light of it. After defending the position against possible attack, I go on to show its positive benefits.
Financial Development and the Effects of Volatility on Growth
Authors: Aghion Phillippe , Banerjee Abhijit 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter argues, based on Aghino-Angeletos-Banerjee-Manova (AABM), that the presence of credit constraints can help us understand why volatility is so costly for growth. The basic idea behind this explanation is rather obvious: The long-term productivity-enhancing investment in the model developed in the previous chapter creates a need for liquidity; with perfect credit markets the necessary liquidity is always supplied. Not so with imperfect credit markets: The liquidity shock is only financed when the firm has enough profits, because only profitable firms can borrow a lot. A negative productivity shock, by making firms less profitable, makes it less likely that the liquidity need would not be met. As a result, a fraction of the potentially productivity-enhancing long-term investments will go to waste, with obvious consequences for growth.
CHAPTER 3Normative Commitments and the Very Idea of Normativity
Authors: Millar Alan 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter outlines a conception of the normative commitments incurred by beliefs and intentions. Close attention is paid to the idea that believing something commits you to believing what is implied by what you believe (an implication commitment), and that intending something commits you to doing what is necessary for you to do what you intend (a means-end commitment). The concept of a normative commitment also figures in an account of practices, conceived as essentially rule-governed activities. It is argued that just by virtue of participating in a practice one incurs a commitment to following the rules governing the practice. The chapter concludes by discussing a conception of a normative statement as a statement implying that there is a normative reason to believe or do something. Complexities arising from this way of thinking are explored.
CHAPTER 7The Problem of Explanatory Relevance
Authors: Millar Alan 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThe explanatory insight provided by rationalizing explanations is causal and tied to appropriate generalizations. Because of this, it is not clear what rationalizing adds to such explanations. It is argued that the problem is not solved merely by having causal connections among propositional attitudes and actions mirror appropriate reason-giving connections. Among other things, this approach does not deal with messy rationalization — the sort implicated when people believe things or do things for reasons that are bad on grounds other than the falsity of the considerations that constitute the reasons. The problem is addressed by invoking two plausible assumptions: (a) that belief or action for a reason is belief or action on the understanding that the relevant reason-constituting considerations are relevant normative reasons; (b) that normative considerations themselves — not just people’s acceptance of such considerations — play an explanatory role.
CHAPTER 9Limits
Authors: Millar Alan 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter argues that while rationalizing explanations are genuine explanations, the explanatory insight they supply is limited. This is a limitation of the power of available explanations. The position is contrasted with that of enthusiasts for the explanatory power of intentional psychology, notably Jerry Fodor, and sceptics about such explanatory power, notably Paul Churchland. Fodor’s approach is contrasted with one according to which familiarity with relevant practices, in the sense previously explained, has a central role in both the explanation and prediction of what people think and do. In this connection, particular attention is paid to practices implicated by roles in institutions. It is further argued that not only are available rationalizing explanations limited in scope, but that there are limits to the availability of rationalizing explanations even with the domain in which commonsense sense thinking aspires to explanations.
Introduction: Democracy in Europe
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the challenges faced by national democracies in Europe. It examines the concept of ‘Europeanization’, or how member states adapt their democracies to the evolving European public sphere. A more helpful way of thinking about the EU is proposed, i.e., that the EU is best understood as a regional union of nation-states in which national differentiation persists alongside integration. An overview of the succeeding chapters is presented.
5 Theorizing Democracy in Europe
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A. 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter provides a brief recap of the argument about the EU as a regional state and the general question of its democratic legitimacy before considering, in turn, theories about the EU’s impact on national institutions, ideas, and discourse. It argues that European integration is at risk, not so much because of the institutional changes related to Europeanization, but because of the lack of new ideas and discourse that address those changes at the national level. Although the EU has had a greater impact on simple polities than on compound ones, both kinds of polities have nevertheless had to deal with EU-related changes in governance practices and challenges to traditional ideas about democracy. Moreover, even though simple polities may have an advantage with regard to addressing the issues through the communicative discourse, they have not used that ability to the fullest.
THE VIRTUES OF CRACKED REASONING
Authors: Wilson Mark 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
Drawing upon the rich experience gathered within applied mathematics, various ‘facade patterns’ are examined that frequently develop when an originating usage enlarges its descriptive scope through patch-to-patch prolongation. The completed results can generate a global structure that is syntactically inconsistent as a whole, yet avoids logical ruination through simple restrictions upon data exportation from one patch to another (a ‘Riemann surface’ represents a standard mathematical prototype of the phenomenon). It is argued that not only do such facades often represent the natural end products of ordinary linguistic development, they often provide particularly effective forms of linguistic engineering. Philosophical puzzles sometimes arise when these alternative patterns of semantic design get mistaken for classical models, as the troubled history of ‘force’ effectively illustrates. The fact that we can rarely determine whether an initial collection of descriptive vocabulary is destined to develop into a facade rather than implementing a simpler pattern of word/world alignment provides a convenient indication of the degree to which a classical picture of conceptual grasp exaggerates our capacity to augur the fate of our descriptive words over time.
Interlude: The Place and Role of Model Theory
Authors: Shapiro Stewart 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter is a short introduction on the purpose and function of formal logic. The key item of interest is the role and function of model theory. It adopts a perspective that model theory provides a mathematical model of certain aspects of the correct use of certain terms, in roughly the same sense as the Bohr model is a model of the atom, and a point-mass is a model of an extended physical object.
The Scale of Virtues
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J. 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
The path to divinization involves the ascent of the soul through a scale of virtues. The Neoplatonic theory of a scale of virtues, as a path to divinization, is traced here in its evolution from Plotinus to its more elaborate versions in later Neoplatonism, with particular reference to the conception and level of ‘political virtue’.
The Curriculum
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J. 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter discusses the curriculum of texts stipulated in the Late Antique Neoplatonic schools as the material to be studied for the purpose of ascending the scales of virtue and sciences. The texts of Aristotle and Plato thought to correspond to political virtue and political science are identified, as are other texts related to these subjects. This produces a Neoplatonic ‘library’ of texts thought by Neoplatonic philosophers to relate to political philosophy.
The Political Function of Religion
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J. 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter concerns the political importance of religion. Plato’s views on this theme are briefly sketched, as is the Neoplatonic interpretation of these views, with particular reference to Julian the Emperor’s political programme, Iamblichus’ views on religious cults, the place of public and private cult, and of theurgy in the divinization of the soul.
7 John Bagnall Bebbington
Authors: Larsen Timothy 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
John Bagnall Bebbington, in addition to writing and lecturing in favour of Secularism, was also a patron of freethinking endeavours. He was the chairman of the Temple Secular Society and the editor of the Propagandist. He was particularly influenced by the thought of David Hume. He gave the reasons for his reconversion in Why I Was An Atheist and Why I Am Now A Christian.
The Enchantment of Words
Authors: McManus Denis 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis book is a study of Wittgenstein’s early masterpiece, the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. It argues that Wittgenstein’s aim in that deeply puzzling work is to show that the ‘intelligibility of thought’ and the ‘meaningfulness of language’, which logical truths would delimit, and metaphysics and the philosophy of mind and language would explain are issues constituted by confusions. What is exposed is a mirage of a kind of self-consciousness, a misperception of the ways in which we happen to think, talk, and act as reasons why we ought to think, talk, and act as we do. The root of that misperception is our confusedly endowing words with a life of their own: we enchant and are enchanted by words, colluding in a confusion that transposes on to them and the world which we then see them as ‘fitting’, responsibilities that are actually ours to bear. Such words promise to spare us the trouble not only of thinking, but of living. In presenting this view, the book offers readings of all of the major themes of the Tractatus, including its discussion of logical truth, objects, names, inferential relations, subjectivity, solipsism, and the inexpressible. It offers novel explanations of what is at stake in Wittgenstein’s comparison of propositions with pictures, of why Wittgenstein declared the point of the Tractatus to be ethical, of how a book — which infamously declares itself to be nonsensical— can clarify our thoughts and require of us that we exercise our capacity to reason in reading it, and of how Wittgenstein later came to re-evaluate the achievement of the Tractatus.
Some Historical Preliminaries
Authors: McManus Denis 
Published: February 2007

AbstractFrege and Russell were particularly important influences on the early Wittgenstein, and this chapter presents a brief sketch of some themes in their work. Two themes in particular are emphasized: (1) the notion that philosophical problems can be exposed as pseudo-problems through logical analysis of propositions; and (2) the question of the nature of logical truth. Later chapters in the book argue that Wittgenstein develops in radical ways the thought of Frege and Russell on these themes.
Logical and Ontological Types
Authors: McManus Denis 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter discusses how Wittgenstein’s conception of ‘the illogical’ as sign/symbol confusion affects our understanding of logical and ontological ‘types’. It explores the notion that the confusion that ‘the illogical’ embodies needs to be addressed by introducing novel notations rather than constructing theories of logical and ontological ‘types’. It considers what talk of such ‘types’ amounts to if there is no real task for such theories to perform.
Subjectivity
Authors: McManus Denis 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines the Tractatus’ discussion of thought and subjectivity, particularly its remarks concerning the ‘internal relatedness’ of thoughts and their constituents, thoughts and facts, and subject and world. By reflecting on the notion of first language learning, a sense is identified in which subject and world might be said to be ‘internally related’: we can make no sense of the notion of the subject ‘coming to’ or indeed already being ‘in contact with’ its world. On this basis, a reading is presented of Wittgenstein’s puzzling and apparently sympathetic remarks about solipsism. In discussing and criticising alternative interpretations of the ‘internal relation’ between subject and world, further light is shed on the notion that Wittgenstein is casting doubt on whether we have a clear idea of what it is for thought to be ‘intelligible’ and for language to be ‘meaningful’ to ‘work’.
Conclusion
Authors: McManus Denis 
Published: February 2007

AbstractThis chapter reviews how the author’s reading presents those features of the Tractatus (described in Ch. 1) that Wittgenstein himself described as crucial. It clarifies the interpretation of the say/show distinction and explains how that theme runs through the many and superficially diverse interests of the book. It offers an interpretation of why Wittgenstein said that the ‘point’ of the Tractatus is ethical and connects this interpretation to his reflections on logical truth. Crucial to the diverse forms of philosophical confusion discussed is a spiritually significant willingness to confusedly endow words with a life of their own: this enchanting of, and enchantment by words transposes on to them, and the world which we then see them as ‘fitting’, responsibilities that are actually ours to bear.
3 Calendrical Customs and Alternative Beliefs
Authors: Holmes Andrew R. 
Published: February 2007

Abstract
This chapter describes and assesses the various customs and beliefs in which Presbyterians indulged at springtime, Halloween, and Christmas. Presbyterians observed holidays because they marked the passing of the seasons and allowed them the opportunity to relax. They utilized alternative beliefs and practices because they made practical sense and accorded with a belief in God who was omnipresent, omniscient, and omnipotent. The efforts of reformers to eradicate anti-social and superstitious aspects are addressed, and comments are made about the persistence of these customs and beliefs.