bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sick Morality
Authors: Martin Mike W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter focuses on therapeutic critiques of morality. Both Freud and Nietzsche attack traditional morality as unhealthy and sick — as psychologically unrealistic in its demands to care about others, neglectful of human needs for self-affirmation, and the source of needless depression and anxiety. Both identify guilt as the culprit: society generates “the deep sickness” of guilt (bad conscience) and lessens happiness “through the heightening of the sense of guilt.”. In calling for a healthy value perspective, Freud and Nietzsche caution about the excesses of guilt and blame conventional morality, but they underestimate the positive role of guilt. Freud and Nietzsche also call for greater psychological realism in acknowledging predominant needs for self-love and self-assertion, but they fail to acknowledge that psychological realism also implies appreciating human capacities of caring for others. Their one-sided focus on the self, to the neglect of altruism and obligations, illustrates a danger in many therapeutic perspectives.
Responsibility in Community
Authors: Martin Mike W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Critics have interpreted the therapeutic trend as a replacement of community-oriented morality with self-oriented therapeutic values such as self-esteem, self-fulfilment, and authenticity. They charge that exporting therapeutic attitudes from the clinic to the community erodes moral responsibility by fostering moral subjectivity and shallowness, lowering moral aspiration, and encouraging selfishness and a victim mentality. This chapter responds to these charges, including their application to self-help groups and moral education, and argues that the critics identify genuine dangers but exaggerate them. For the most part, the therapeutic trend integrates morality with therapy, albeit with varying degrees of success, rather than abandoning it.
Alcoholism
Authors: Martin Mike W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter presents an integrated, moral-therapeutic perspective on alcoholism. Beginning in the mid-1930s, Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) invigorated the therapeutic trend by convincing health professionals and the American public that alcoholism is a disease rather than a morally bad habit. In contrast, it is argued that alcoholism is both a sickness and a morally bad habit. It is a disorder of agency that has physical, psychological, and moral dimensions. The chapter concludes that beneath the disagreements about alcoholism, there is agreement on many key points: alcoholism raises major medical and moral issues; alcoholism is not dictated by a simple biochemical abnormality; most alcoholics retain significant episodic control; most have difficulty (in varying degrees) in controlling their overall patterns of drinking and need help; drinkers have responsibility to avoid causing harm, to cooperate in solving their drinking problems, and to make amends for the harm they cause; and self-righteous blaming and destructive self-blaming are objectionable on both moral and therapeutic grounds. These conclusions provide a partial roadmap for thinking about additional forms of wrongdoing as sickness.
Healthy Love
Authors: Martin Mike W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter begins by illustrating how love can simultaneously involve sickness and immorality, using examples of jealousy, unrequited love, and sadomasochism. It then outlines a virtue-oriented conception of healthy love, illustrating how moral and therapeutic conceptions of love overlap. The chapter concludes by replying to Robert Bellah's criticisms of the therapeutic trend regarding love.
Meaningful Work
Authors: Martin Mike W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The promise of the global economy is matched by its perils to meaningful work: increased layoffs, extended unemployment, job stress from longer working hours and demands for increased productivity, and preoccupation with money in every area of life. An integrated, moral-therapeutic perspective cannot remove these threats, but it can help us cope with them. This chapter illustrates some therapeutic contributions in dealing with moral matters concerning stress and alienation. It begins with Herman Melville's short story, “Bartleby.” It then turns to positive conceptions of mental health in thinking about meaningful work — work that combines ethics with excellence.
Introduction
Authors: Martin Mike W. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This introductory chapter begins by laying out the theoretical foundations of this book, namely, that (1) sound morality is healthy; (2) we are responsible for our health, mental as well as physical; and (3) moral values permeate psychotherapy and conceptions of mental health. It then considers some moral controversies, such as drugs, homosexuality, and child abuse that illustrate the cultural ambivalence about how morality and mental health are related. The integration of morality and therapy, and pragmatism and virtue ethics are discussed.
Understanding Poverty
Authors: Banerjee Abhijit Vinayak , Bénabou Roland , Mookherjee Dilip 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This volume presents 28 essays on poverty by some of the leading experts in the field of economics. The book is divided into three sections, beginning with an essay about how poverty is measured. The first section is about the causes of poverty and its persistence, and the ideas range from the impact of colonialism and globalization to the problems of “excessive” population growth, corruption, and ethnic conflict. The second section is about policy: how should we fight poverty? The essays discuss issues such as how to get drug companies to produce more vaccines for the diseases of the poor, what we should and should not expect from micro-credit, what we should do about child labor, and how to design welfare policies that work better. The third section presents new ways of thinking about poverty such as the integration of psychology and economics, nonmarket institutions, and interconnections between race and economic inequality.
Colonialism, Inequality, and Long-Run Paths of Development
Authors: Engerman Stanley L. , Sokoloff Kenneth L. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis essay explores the hypothesis that extreme differences in inequality across European colonies in the Americas gave rise to systematic differences in the ways institutions evolved, and in turn, on the paths of development. European colonization altered the composition of the populations in the colonized societies. Because colonization generally meant implanting communities that were greatly advantaged over natives in terms of human capital and legal status, and because the trajectories of institutional development were sensitive to the incidence of extreme inequality that often followed, European colonial activity had long, lingering effects. Colonies in the Americas with extreme inequality, compared with those with relative equality, were systematically more likely to evolve institutions that restricted access to economic opportunities and to generate lower rates of public investment in schools and other infrastructure considered conducive to growth. These patterns of institutional development, which tend to persist over time in economic performance, may help explain why many societies that began with extreme inequality continue to suffer from the same condition.
The Kuznets Curve: Yesterday and Tomorrow
Authors: Piketty Thomas 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe Kuznets curve hypothesis has been one of the most debated issues in development economics since the mid-1950s. In a nutshell, the hypothesis simply states that income inequality should follow an inverse-U shape along the development process: first rising with industrialization and then declining, as more and more workers join the high-productivity sectors of the economy. Today, the Kuznets curve is widely held to have doubled back on itself, especially in the United States, with the period of falling inequality during the first half of the 20th century being followed by a sharp reversal of the trend since the 1970s. This essay looks at this “technical change” view of inequality dynamics, whereby waves of technological innovations generated waves of inverse-U curves. It considers the inequality decline that took place in the West during the first half of the 20th century, arguing that recent historical research is rather damaging for Kuznets’s interpretation: the reasons why inequality declined in rich countries seem to be due to very specific shocks and circumstances that do not have much to do with the migration process described by Kuznets, and that are very unlikely to occur again in today’s poor countries. It takes a broader perspective on the technical change view of inequality dynamics, drawing both from historical experience and from more recent trends. It argues that this view has proven to be excessively naïve and that country-specific institutions often play a role that is at least as important as technological waves.
New Growth Approach to Poverty Alleviation
Authors: Aghion Philippe , Aghion Beatriz Armendáriz de 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis essay attempts to break the divide between growth and development economics. Using the example of India over the past decades, it argues that innovation and/or productivity growth have been main engines of poverty reduction in that country. It also argues that new growth theories can shed light on this process and explain why growth and poverty reduction have not occurred in Latin America. The remainder of this essay is organized as follows. The second section summarizes what is currently known about the evolution of growth and poverty indicators in India since the 1960s. The third section provides a very brief presentation of new growth theory and of some of its main predictions. The fourth section uses the description of new growth theory to analyze the reform process in India. The fifth section shows that the 1991 reforms had unequalizing effects on productivity and profitability across industries and states. Finally, it reflects upon the contrasting experiences of Asia and Latin America with regard to productivity growth and poverty alleviation.
Globalization and All That
Authors: Banerjee Abhijit Vinayak 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This essay begins with a discussion of the Samuelson-Stolper Theorem, which states that if a labor-abundant country is opened to trade with a labor-scarce country, laborers in the first country and the employers in the second will profit at the expense of the workers in the second country and the employers in the first. It then looks at the trade following World War II under the supervision of the newly created guardians of the world trading system: the World Bank, the IMF, and the GATT, as well as trade liberalization in Mexico, Latin America, and Asia. It discusses the issue of reputation: what it means to countries and how it determines what a country ends up exporting to the world.
The Global Economy and the Poor
Authors: Bardhan Pranab 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis essay explores the issue of globalization, focusing on damage caused to jobs, wages, and incomes of poor people by the dislocations and competition of international trade and foreign investment, and the weakening of the ability of the state to compensate for this damage and alleviate poverty. It discusses the poor as self-employed workers, as wage workers, and as users of public services and common property resources. It argues that in the medium-to-long run, globalization need not make the poor much worse off if appropriate domestic policies and institutions are in place and appropriate coordination among the involved parties can be organized. If the institutional prerequisites can be managed, globalization opens the door for some new opportunities even for the poor.
Ethnic Diversity and Poverty Reduction
Authors: Miguel Edward 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This essay begins with a discussion of the recent social science literature on the impact of ethnic, racial, and religious divisions, and then proposes a set of policies that less-developed countries should follow to help them overcome ethnic conflict. It advocates the adoption of “nation-building” policies that foster the development of a common national identity. The case of Tanzania, and the contrast of Tanzania with its East African neighbor, Kenya, is the focus of this essay. It is argued that Tanzania’s serious approach to forging a common national identity attractive across ethnic groups — which takes the form of extensive linguistic, educational, and institutional reforms — offers a model for other less-developed countries that inherited ethnic divisions in the post-independence period. An overview of empirical evidence based on original field data collection is presented, which shows that this nation-building approach has allowed ethnically diverse communities in rural Tanzania to achieve considerable success in local fund-raising for primary schools, while ethnically diverse Kenyan communities have largely failed in this task.
Redistribution toward Low Incomes in Richer Countries
Authors: Saez Emmanuel 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This essay presents a critical overview of the findings of economic research on the problem of redistribution toward low incomes in developed countries. The discussion is organized as follows. The second section briefly describes the positive and empirical analysis (for which numerous good surveys are available) and focuses mostly on the normative analysis. The third section starts with a discussion of the optimal structure of cash transfer programs, then extends the analysis of optimal transfer programs along various new dimensions. The fourth section discusses how the results of the third section might be affected in situations where individuals may not be able to make the best choices for themselves. The fifth section provides a conclusion and an educated view on what should be done for redistribution toward low incomes.
Transfers and Safety Nets in Poor Countries: Revisiting the Trade-Offs and Policy Options
Authors: Ravallion Martin 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This essay examines the role of targeted transfers in poor countries in the light of the new theories on the social costs of unmitigated inequalities and uninsured risks. Recognizing that the policy implications depend crucially on whether there is good empirical evidence to support the theoretical arguments, the bulk of the first half of the essay discusses the evidence. The essay then takes up a key question for policy: Can the potential for efficient redistribution be realized in practice using targeted transfers, given the constraints faced in poor countries? It is argued that there can be too much uninsured risk and inequality, when judged solely from the viewpoint of aggregate output. For example, credit market failures can mean that it is the poor who are unable to exploit new economic opportunities; the more poor people, the fewer the opportunities that get exploited, and thus the lower the rate of growth. Persistent concentrations of poverty in poor environments can also arise from market failures, given geographic externalities whereby living in a poor area is a cause of poverty. This body of theory and evidence offers a new perspective on social protection policies in poor countries, suggesting that there is scope for using these policies to compensate for the market failures that help perpetuate poverty, particularly in high-inequality settings.
Poverty Persistence and Design of Antipoverty Policies
Authors: Mookherjee Dilip 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This essay argues that economists have ignored a crucial dimension of poverty: its intrinsically dynamic characteristic of being locked into a low-level trap of asset (or capability) deprivation, resulting in exclusion from social and economic life on a par with the rest of society. Long-term poverty is fundamentally self-perpetuating. Hence, poverty alleviation in the long run must address incentives for the poor to acquire capabilities and assets that will enable them (or their children) to escape poverty in the future. In the Mirrlees model, for instance, the income-earning capability of every household is exogenously given, hence the root causes of current poverty are not addressed. A dynamic extension of this framework would be needed to include investment decisions by households, which would affect the evolution of their future abilities. Such a framework more directly addresses some of the general public concerns concerning the tendency of comprehensive welfare systems to breed long-term dependence. At the same time, the argument for superiority of cash over in-kind transfers ceases to be valid, even within the conventional utilitarian framework where consumer “rationality” is not questioned.
Public Policies to Stimulate Development of Vaccines for Neglected Diseases
Authors: Kremer Michael 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This essay focuses on the impact of intellectual property rights (IPRs) on low-and middle-income countries’ health care. There are two different reasons why poor countries may not have access to needed vaccines and drugs. In the case of global diseases, such as diabetes or cancer, patents may hinder the diffusion of pharmaceuticals. In the case of neglected or tropical diseases, such as malaria, tuberculosis, and leishmaniasis, the corresponding vaccines or drugs are not developed because of low profitability due to the poverty of potential customers. The important role of compulsory licensing for low- and middle-income countries is discussed.
Microinsurance: The Next Revolution?
Authors: Morduch Jonathan 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis essay focuses on the design of insurance products for poor customers. Several promising innovations are described: credit life insurance, health insurance partnerships, and weather insurance. Each was created to serve populations that were previously unserved, and workable institutional solutions are emerging. The next step must be to shift from the question of what creates workable institutions to the question of how to refine designs to best serve low-income populations. In doing so, current approaches must be reassessed in order to most improve clients’ lives and to avoid doing unintended harm.
Natural Moralities
Authors: Wong David B. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractTo be called a relativist, especially a moral relativist, is to be condemned as someone who holds that “anything goes”. Frequently the term is part of a dichotomy: either accept relativism or accept universalism: the view that only one true morality exists. This book defends a new version of relativism that is both an alternative to, and fits between, universalism and relativism as usually defined. Pluralistic relativism does accord with one aspect of relativism as usually defined: there is no single true morality. Beyond that, it is argued that there can be a plurality of true moralities, moralities that exist across different traditions and cultures, all of which address facets of the same problem: how we are to live well together. A comparative and naturalistic approach is applied to the understanding of moralities, with discussion of a wide array of positions and texts within the Western canon as well as in Chinese philosophy, and drawing on not only philosophy, but also psychology, evolutionary theory, history, and literature in making a case for the importance of pluralism in moral life and in establishing the virtues of acceptance and accommodation. A central theme is that there is no single value or principle or ordering of values and principles that offers a uniquely true path for human living, but variations according to different contexts that carry within them a common core of human values. We should thus be modest about our own morality, learn from other approaches, and accommodate different practices in our pluralistic society.
Objections and Replies
Authors: Wong David B. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter responds to the following objections against pluralistic relativism: it is unable to explain moral disagreement; it undermines confidence in one’s moral commitments; it makes learning from other cultures impossible; the notion of “local” criteria of adequacy for moralities cannot be regarded as criteria at all; it is not a form of relativism but rather a form of pluralism simpliciter; there is nothing like the fixed human nature presupposed in the argument for it; the functional conception of morality is biased toward consequentialist moralities.
Identity, Flourishing, and Relationship
Authors: Wong David B. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter and the next two concern the ways that the functions of morality, human nature, and the particular circumstances of a group at a given time all work together to impose constraints of varying levels of generality on what constitutes an adequate morality for that group. Drawing from the Chinese Confucian and Western communitarian traditions and their conceptions of human nature as social, this chapter explains why personal values must be present in all adequate moralities. A conception of practical identities is presented, along with the necessary conditions for such identities to possess the properties of effective agency (constituted by abilities to formulate reasonably clear priorities among one’s moral ends, and to plan and perform actions that have a reasonable chance of realizing those ends, given all the conditions beyond one’s control). Drawing from an array of studies in psychology, this chapter argues that effective moral agency requires special relationships that are shaped and guided by special moral duties.
Does Psychological Realism Constrain the Content of Moralities?
Authors: Wong David B. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter discusses a possible constraint on moralities based on psychological realism, and in particular what is realistic to expect in the way of adherence to impersonal values when most human beings strongly favor personal values such as special relationships and personal projects and commitments. A focus of the discussion is a possible constraint on the achievement of strong forms of equality. It is argued that such a constraint seems most plausible when one focuses on the strength of acquisitive and competitive motives as they appear in places such as the United States, but the existence of cultural variability in what is viewed as acceptable inequalities weighs against taking the strength of such motives for granted. A stronger case can be made for the conclusion that commitments to impersonal values are best mediated through personal values such as commitments to community.
Morality and Need
Authors: Wong David B. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Morality can enter deeply into human identity, but we can question whether its influence is a good thing for us. Though a traditional goal of moral philosophy is to establish that the individual’s flourishing requires morality, this chapter explores the more modest and achievable goal of showing that morality is consistent with flourishing. Criticism is directed at the pessimistic stance, based on Foucault, that morality’s constitution of individual selves is necessarily an exercise in power and domination. A case is made, partly through the exploration of an argument from Xunzi, that morality answers to powerful needs in human beings, and partly through discussion of the story of John Sassall, a country doctor who found fulfillment not only in caring for his patients but in bearing witness to their lives. He also found deep depression in recognizing the limits on what he could do for his patients, and this leads to the conclusion that any vindication of morality must be incomplete as long as those who seek to accomplish moral ends must do so in oppressive structures that drastically limit the life prospects of many.