bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sleep Disorders: Disorders of Arousal?
Authors: Broughton Roger J. 
Published: October 2006

In summary, the classical sleep disorders of nocturnal enuresis, somnambulism, the nightmare, and the sleep terror occur preferentially during arousal from slow-wave sleep and are virtually never associated with the rapid-eye-movement dreaming state. Original data are reported here which indicate that physiological differences from normal subjects, of a type predisposing the individual to a particular attack pattern, are presentthroughoutthe night. The episode, at least in the case of enuresis, appears to be simply a reinforcement of these differences to a clinically overt level.A number of features are common to all four sleep disorders. These had been shown previously to be attributable to the arousal itself. New data obtained by means of evoked potential techniques suggest that these common symptoms of the confusional period that follows non-REM sleep are related to alterations of cerebral reactivity, at least of the visual system.The symptoms which distinguish the individual attack types (that is, micturition, prolonged confusional fugues, overt terror) appear to be based upon physiological changes present throughout sleep which are markedly accentuated during arousal from slow-wave sleep. These changes may in some way be related to diurnal psychic conflicts. But, to date, it has proved impossible to demonstrate potentially causal psychological activity, dreaming or other forms of mental activity, or even a psychological void in sleep just preceding the attacks.The presence of all-night or even daytime predisposing physiological changes and the difficulty in obtaining any solid evidence of a preceding psychological cause explain, no doubt, why the results of efforts to cure the disorders at the moment of their occurrence (for example, by conditioning procedures in nocturnal enuresis) have been far from satisfactory.I stress the points that the attacks are best considered disorders of arousal and that the slow-wave sleep arousal episode which sets the stage for these attacks is a normal cyclic event. Indeed it is the most intense recurrent arousal that an individual regularly experiences.The most fruitful possibilities for future research would appear to be more detailed studies of those physiological changes that predispose individuals to certain types of attacks when they undergo intense arousal or stress; the reversal of these changes by psychological or pharmacological means; and more refined investigations of the physiological and psychological characteristics of the process of cyclic arousal from non-REM sleep.
Effects of Brief Separation from Mother on Rhesus Monkeys
Authors: Hinde R. A. , Spencer-Booth Yvette 
Published: October 2006

To summarize, data on the course of development of mother-infant relations in rhesus monkeys have been presented; a method for teasing apart the relative roles of mother and infant in causing changes or differences in the interaction described; and the complexity of the social nexus, within which the relationship is set, stressed. When the mother is removed for a few days, the infant calls a great deal at first and then shows depressed locomotor and play activity. These symptoms may last for a month after the mother's return. Simple tests given 6 months and even 2 years later strongly suggest that the differences (between infants that have had such a separation experience and infants that have not) are persistent.
Are these data relevant to the human case? The rhesus monkey has no verbal language and a much less complex social development than man. Furthermore, its social environment is quite different from that found in any human culture. Parallels between monkey and man must therefore be scrutinized carefully before being used as a basis for generalization. But the facts show that a brief separation experience produces in rhesus monkey infants symptoms that are very similar (except for the apparent absence of a "phase of detachment" on reunion) to those in human infants. While age of separation, within the rather narrow limits used here, was a variable of minor importance, the effects of the separation varied, as in the human case, with the length of the separation experience and the sex of the infant. Differences in the techniques of experimenters, as well as differences in the species, prevent precise comparisons of the roles of the mother-infant relationships; nevertheless, the nature of the relationship appears to be an important variable in both monkey and man. There would seem, therefore, to be strong reasons for thinking that we are dealing with comparable phenomena. If that is the case, the fact that monkeys function at a simpler conceptual level than man limits the complexity of the explanatory hypotheses necessary in the human case. In addition, the finding that such a brief separation experience, involving removal of the mother but no exposure to a strange environment, can produce effects lasting for months or years in rhesus monkeys strengthens the evidence that long-term effects may occur also in man. Finally, this analysis provides bases for attempts to predict individual differences in the effects of a period of separation on rhesus infants, and the parallels with man suggest that examination of the same variables in the human case would be worthwhile.
Genetic Technology and Agricultural Development
Authors: Staub William J. , Blase Melvin G. 
Published: October 2006

The genetic technologies being adopted in South Asia are significant factors in the agricultural development of the area. But, labeling them "miracle seeds," solely responsible for recent agricultural growth, is misleading. Certainly the introduction of new genetic technology has catalyzed South Asian agriculture and has instilled a new dynamism essential to economic development. Somewhat similar phenomena have, however, been observed in other parts of the world in other periods of history.
The nature of these genetic technologies, how they are being applied, and their limits and potential have been explored above. Also, the effects of these varieties on the generation of employment, and the distribution of benefits accruing from them have been examined in preliminary fashion.
Stemming from the preceding discussion, two areas of priority appear obvious. First, the close association of genetic technologies with irrigation suggests that irrigation should receive more attention than it has in the past. Large-scale public irrigation schemes are expensive and have tended to yield low rates of return. However, there appears to be room for marginal increases in, or improvements of, existing irrigation facilities.
Second, even with a rapid spread of the practices associated with high-yield varieties, it may be too much to expect the farm sector to absorb the expected increases in the rural labor force. The generation of employment is a major problem in India as well as in most other developing countries. Hence, possibilities for expanding rural, nonfarm employment and controlling population growth should be sought vigorously.
Welfare Reform 1973: The Social Services Dimension
Authors: Morris Robert 
Published: October 2006

The model outlined above is an advance over other proposals in the following respects.
1) The objectives of the public social services are related to the realities of at-risk target populations, but in a moderate and attainable fashion, borrowing from the approach already advanced by HEW.
2) It has proposed a composite target population, which permits the dimensions of the public social service program to be outlined and then reorganized by central function, rather than by coordination among conceptually unrelated units.
3) The laundry listing of service programs has been regrouped into a limited number of service functions, each of which has a relatively well-defined function and permits measurement.
4) The aims, service typologies, and populations at risk have all been developed in some coherent and consistent relationship with each other so that progress in the development of a service and the achievement of the aims in relation to manageable populations can be achieved over time.
5) These steps are consistent with preliminary actions already taken by HEW and by some state superagencies.
This interrelationship among aims, service conception, and populations at risk seems to be an essential characteristic of any welfare reform if the public social services are to have a capacity for synergism—that is, a capacity to use experience, to develop greater overall power for the achievement of desired ends than is now attainable by individual, unconnected segments. This pattern of interrelationships permits a testing of various service components in relation to populations and in relation to objectives, with an ultimate substitution of more successful approaches over time, and with the consequent emergence of a science of human services.
Electromagnetic Separation of Isotopes at Oak Ridge
Authors: Love L. O. 
Published: October 2006

In 1960 I attended a European conference on isotope separation, after which I visited the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen. A staff member there ventured the opinion that the separation of isotopes will be first on the list of important contributions to the peaceful uses of the atom when the Atomic Energy Commission's memoirs are written in the year 2000.
In 1968 the AEC Division of Research contracted with the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences to conduct a review of the AEC program for the separation of stable isotopes by electromagnetic and thermal diffusion methods. This ad hoc panel comprised seven scientists from the fields of chemistry, classical physics, geochemistry, geophysics, medicine, and physics. In their final report on national uses and needs for separated stable isotopes, they referred to the store of separated isotopes as a "real national asset that attains increasing value as science and technology develop" and recommended "continuation of the program as a national resource of great value to the United States."
Later, in a discussion of this report with A. M. Weinberg, J. Koch, himself a pioneer in electromagnetic isotope separation and member of the Danish Atomic Energy Program, said he would correct the statement that the Oak Ridge electromagnetic facility is a "national asset" to read "international asset."
From my narrow viewpoint after an extended and complete engrossment with this program for so many years, it is gratifying to learn that such men as those mentioned above share my belief that the work has indeed been worthwhile.
The Relative Operating Characteristic in Psychology
Authors: Swets John A. 
Published: October 2006

The clinician looking, listening, or feeling for signs of a disease may far prefer a false alarm to a miss, particularly if the disease is serious and contagious. On the other hand, he may believe that the available therapy is marginally effective, expensive, and debilitating. The pilot seeing the landing lights only when they are a few yards away may decide that his plane is adequately aligned with the runway if he is alone and familiar with that plight. He may be more inclined to circle the field before another try at landing if he has many passengers and recent memory of another plane crashing under those circumstances. The Food and Drug administrator suspecting botulism in a canned food may not want to accept even a remote threat to the public health. But he may be less clearly biased if a recent false alarm has cost a canning company millions of dollars and left some damaged reputations. The making of almost any fine discrimination is beset with such considerations of probability and utility, which are extraneous and potentially confounding when one is attempting to measure the acuity of discrimination per se.
The ROC is an analytical technique, with origins in statistical decision theory and electronic detection theory, that quite effectively isolates the effects of the observer's response bias, or decision criterion, in the study of discrimination behavior. This capability, pursued through a century of psychological testing, provides a relatively pure measure of the discriminability of different stimuli and of the capacity of organisms to discriminate. The ROC also treats quantitatively the response, or decision, aspects of choice behavior. The decision parameter can then be functionally related to the probabilities of the stimulus alternatives and to the utilities of the various stimulus-response pairs, or to the observer's expectations and motivations. In separating and quantifying discrimination and decision processes, the ROC promises a more reliable and valid solution to some practical problems and enhances our understanding of the perceptual and cognitive phenomena that depend directly on these fundamental processes. In several problem areas in psychology, effects that were supposed to reflect properties of the discrimination process have been shown by the ROC analysis to reflect instead properties of the decision process.
Small Area Variations in Health Care Delivery
Authors: Wennberg John , Gittelsohn Alan 
Published: October 2006

Health information about total populations is a prerequisite for sound decision-making and planning in the health care field. Experience with a population-based health data system in Vermont reveals that there are wide variations in resource input, utilization of services, and expenditures among neighboring communities. Results show prima facie inequalities in the input of resources that are associated with income transfer from areas of lower expenditure to areas of higher expenditure. Variations in utilization indicate that there is considerable uncertainty about the effectiveness of different levels of aggregate, as well as specific kinds of, health services.
Informed choices in the public regulation of the health care sector require knowledge of the relation between medical care systems and the population groups being served, and they should take into account the effect of regulation on equality and effectiveness. When population-based data on small areas are available, decisions to expand hospitals, currently based on institutional pressures, can take into account a community's regional ranking in regard to bed input and utilization rates. Proposals by hospitals for unit price increases and the regulation of the actuarial rate of insurance programs can be evaluated in terms of per capita expenditures and income transfer between geographically defined populations. The PSRO's can evaluate the wide variations in level of services among residents of different communities. Coordinated exercise of the authority vested in these regulatory programs may lead to explicit strategies to deal directly with inequality and uncertainty concerning the effectiveness of health care delivery. Population-based health information systems, because they can provide information on the performance of health care systems and regulatory agencies, are an important step in the development of rational public policy for health.
Beginnings of Fruit Growing in the Old World
Authors: Zohary Daniel , Spiegel-Roy Pinhas 
Published: October 2006

The article reviews the available information on the start of fruit tree cultivation in the Old World. On the basis of (i) evaluation of the available archeological remains and (ii) examination of the wild relatives of the cultivated crops, it was concluded that olive, grape, date, and fig were the first important horticultural additions to the Mediterranean grain agriculture. They were most likely domesticated in the Near East in protohistoric time (fourth and third millennia B.C.) and they emerge as important food elements in the early Bronze Age.
Domestication of all four fruit trees was based on a shift from sexual reproduction (in the wild) to vegetative propagation of clones (under domestication). Olive, grape, date, and fig can be vegetatively propagated by simple techniques (cuttings, basal knobs, suckers) and were thus preadapted for domestication early in the development of agriculture.
The shift to clonal propagation placed serious limitations on selection and on fruit set under cultivation. We have examined the consequences of this shift in terms of the genetic makeup of the cultivars and traced the various countermeasures that evolved to ensure fruit set.
Finally, it was pointed out that in each of these classic fruit trees we are confronted with a variable complex of genuinely wild types, secondary weedy derivatives and feral plants, and groups of the domesticated clones, which are all interfertile and interconnected by occasional hybridization. It was concluded that introgression from the diversified wild gene pool facilitated the rapid buildup of variation in the domesticated crops.
An Intercontinental Array—A Next-Generation Radio Telescope
Authors: Swenson G. W. , Kellermann K. I. 
Published: October 2006

It is difficult to estimate accurately the cost of constructing a large scientific instrument that involves many techniques. On the other hand, most of the component parts of the VLBA consist of antennas and electronic systems that already exist or are being fabricated. The kind of 25-m antennas being constructed for the VLA will cost about $900,000 each and will work at wavelengths as short as 1 cm. A multifrequency radiometer, hydrogen maser frequency standard, small control computer, control building, and wide-band instrumentation recorder bring the cost to about $1.5 million per element, or $15 million for a ten-element array using tape recorders. A multistation playback facility, with ten recorders and enough correlators to handle all interferometer pairs simultaneously, together with the necessary computers to control the processor and reduce the data, may add $5 million. The total cost is thus about $20 million at current prices, including an adequate supply of magnetic tape. This is comparable to the cost of existing large radio telescopes and arrays.
An array that used a geostationary communication satellite to transmit the data to a real-time correlator would cost $30 million to $50 million more, but this is still within the price range of other space astronomy projects.
It is thus feasible to construct at reasonable cost an intercontinental very long baseline array which has sub-milliarcsecond resolution. This would complement the Very Large Array now being constructed, which is much more sensitive to objects of low surface brightness. This next step would permit the study of the universe with unprecedented angular resolution.
RNA Processing and RNA Tumor Virus Origin and Evolution
Authors: Gillespie David , Gallo Robert C. 
Published: October 2006

The results of molecular hybridization experiments with high-molecular-weight RNA isolated from RNA tumor viruses and DNA from normal cells suggest that RNA tumor virus genomes originate from cell genes. Some RNA tumor viruses (here called class 1) appear to have been generated in recent times in that their RNA is closely related in nucleotide sequence to certain cell genes (class 1 genes). A second class of RNA tumor viruses (here called class 2) is more distantly related to genomic information of normal cells. Structural properties of the RNA of RNA tumor viruses lead us to propose that the tumor virus RNA is originated when RNA transcripts of class 1 genes are processed by a mechanism we call "paraprocessing." We postulate that RNA paraprocessing is normally used only at particular times during differentiation and is characterized by the cytoplasmic appearance of high-molecular-weight RNA chains containing terminal polyadenylic acid (200 residues). Paraprocessing of class 1 gene transcripts in committed or differentiated cells is considered to be aberrant in transcription that can lead to the generation of an RNA tumor virus genome. If the paraprocessed class 1 gene transcript codes for a reverse transcriptase, replication of the RNA becomes possible. Transfer of the replicating RNA to a new cell can result in genetic change such that the virus genome mutates, differing from the original progenitor genes. We propose that this genetic change causes class 1 viruses to become class 2. These ideas are applied to evidence concerning the biology of infection of RNA tumor viruses and concerning the involvement of RNA tumor viruses in human cancer.
Genetic change can also occur during the origination of an RNA tumor virus genome by repeated reverse transcription and recombination or by genetic alteration of particularly changeable cell genes ("hot spots").
A Method for Purification of Extracts Containing the Growth-Promoting Principle of the Anterior Hypophysis
Authors: Teel Harold M. 
Published: October 2006

(1) The growth-promoting principle of the anterior hypophysis may be salted out of the more crude extracts by means of sodium sulphate.
(2) Attempts to further fractionate the globulin group of proteins in which the growth-promoting principle comes down resulted in a division of the substances between the fractions.
Salary Scales of Trained Men and Women
Authors: True Rodney H. 
Published: October 2006

A comparison of salary scales of trained men shows rather clearly at the present time that
(1) The pay scale of endowed and state universities and agricultural colleges is approximately like that of the commissioned officers of the army and the navy, but lacks the advantage of the retiring pension of three fourths pay. This pension often relieves the military and naval officer of the necessity of saving for old age. The saving required of the academic man to give him an equivalent retiring fund is not practicable at the present salary scale.
(2) It shows that the academic salary scale is appreciably lower than that of the professional and scientific services of the national government at Washington. The retiring allowance of the government employee, though small, and in part contributed by the employee himself, gives him a distinct advantage.
(3) The salaries of all groups above mentioned are very much lower than those paid in manufacturing enterprises to positions above the wage-earners.
In order to make a concrete comparison, I will enumerate the positions that on the average command salaries of $3,000, $6,000 and $9,000 respectively in these different lines of work.
Some Soil Factors Affecting Tree Growth
Authors: Salter Robt. M. 
Published: October 2006

(1) It becomes increasingly evident that continued root growth with the establishment of new root-soil contacts is necessary for the normal entrance of both water and mineral nutrients into the root. This concept emphasizes the ecological importance of factors tending either to impede or favor the spread and permeation of roots in the soil.
(2) The characteristics of soils with respect to (1) available water capacity, (2) permeability to water and (3) permeability to air are largely determined by the volume and size distribution of the soil pore space. The latter is conveniently characterized by measuring the water held by a soil at varying moisture tensions.
(3) In recognition of the foregoing, it may be concluded that a better understanding of root-soil relationships should result from more general application of interpretative studies of soil pore space conditions to root development, and from the development and application of micro-methods for studying the conditions, both physical and chemical, existing at the actual root soil interface.