bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Three‐dimensional carpal kinematics of trotting horses
Authors: CLAYTON H. M. , SHA D. , STICK J. A. , MULLINEAUX D. R. 
Published: April 2007

SummaryReasons for performing study: Descriptions of 3D kinematics assist in understanding joint function and dysfunction, and are an essential step toward 3D inverse dynamic analysis.Objectives: To measure 3D carpal joint motion during trotting.Methods: Three‐dimensional trajectories of bone‐fixed markers on the radius and third metacarpus of the right forelimb of 3 healthy horses were recorded at 120 Hz using a 6‐camera analysis system. Joint kinematics were calculated in terms of helical angles between the 2 segments using a spatial attitude method.Results: All horses showed carpal extension and internal rotation of the metacarpus relative to the radius as the carpus assumed the close‐packed position. In late stance, the carpus began a cycle of flexion that continued through midswing, accompanied by a small cycle of internal rotation. The direction of abduction/adduction varied between horses. The predominant rotational movement was flexion/extension, which showed a range of motion of 15 ± 6° in stance and 76 ± 13° in swing.Conclusions: Carpal motions were generally similar between horses with the exception of abduction/adduction.Potential relevance: Knowledge of carpal joint motion should assist in understanding the pathogenesis of carpal injuries. However, it seems probable that real differences exist between individuals; therefore, further investigations of the effect of conformation on carpal motion should be performed in a much larger population of horses.
Three‐dimensional kinematic analysis of horses with induced tarsal synovitis
Authors: KHUMSAP S. , LANOVAZ J. L. , CLAYTON H. M. 
Published: April 2007

SummaryReasons for performing study: Techniques for 3D analysis have recently been developed. This study applied 3D kinematic analysis to describe the effects of lameness in the distal intertarsal (DIT) and tarsometatarsal (TMT) joints; complex joints such as this may show measurable amounts of movement outside the sagittal plane that may change in response to pathological conditions.Hypothesis: Three‐dimensional motions of the tarsal joint change after the induction of synovitis at the DIT and TMT joints.Methods: Twelve retroreflective markers, attached on the skin over the right limb, were used to develop 3D coordinate systems for tibial and metatarsal segments. Data were collected at trot from 4 horses on 2 occasions, before (sound condition) and after (lame condition) induction of synovitis of the DIT and TMT joints. Ranges of 3D motions of the metatarsal segment relative to the tibial segment were compared between sound and lame conditions usingttests.Results: There were significant decreases (P<0.05) in tarsal joint flexion and cranial translation of the metatarsus relative to the tibia during stance, and in proximal translation of the metatarsus during swing.Conclusions and potential relevance: In the lame condition, reduced cranial translation at the DIT and TMT joints may lead to a reduction in the motion of the articular cartilage surfaces relative to each other, which may have adverse effects on cartilage nutrition and function. Further studies of tarsal 3D kinematics in horses with bone spavin could allow quantification of the biomechanical effects of the special shoes used for conservative treatment.
Surface strains around the midshaft of the third metacarpal bone during turning
Authors: DAVIES H. M. S. , MERRITT J. S. 
Published: April 2007

SummaryReasons for performing study: Bone strains quantify skeletal effects of specific exercise and hence assist in designing training programmes to avoid bone injury.Objective: To test whether compressive strains increase on the lateral surface of the inside third metacarpal bone (McIII) and the medial surface of the outside McIII in a turn.Methods: Rosette strain gauges on dorsal, medial and lateral surfaces of the midshaft of the left McIII in 2 Thoroughbred geldings were recorded simultaneously during turning at the walk on a bitumen surface.Results: Medial surface: Compression peaks were larger in the outside limb. Tension peaks were larger in the inside limb and in a tighter turn. On the lateral surface compression and tension peaks were larger on the inside limb, which showed the largest recorded strains (compression of ‐1400 microstrains). Dorsal compression strains were larger on the outside limb and on a larger circle. Tensile strains were similar in both directions and larger on a larger circle.Conclusions: Compressive strains increased on the lateral surface of the inside McIII and medial surface of the outside McIII in a turn.Potential relevance: Slow‐speed turning exercise may be sufficient to maintain bone mechanical characteristics in the inside limb lateral McIII cortex. Further work is needed to confirm these findings and to determine whether faster gaits and/or tighter turns are sufficient to cause bone modelling levels of strain in the medial and lateral McIII cortex.
Mepivacaine local anaesthetic duration in equine palmar digital nerve blocks
Authors: BIDWELL L. A. , BROWN K. E. , CORDIER A. , MULLINEAUX D. R. , CLAYTON H. M. 
Published: April 2007

SummaryReasons for performing study: Perineural analgesics are used for lameness diagnosis but the duration of effect, knowledge of which would provide valuable information when performing subsequent blocks, is unknown.Objective: To evaluate the duration of a palmar digital nerve block using force plate measurements.Methods: Ten horses diagnosed with unilateral navicular syndrome were trotted at range of 3 ± 0.15 m/sec over a force plate to record ground reaction forces for 5 trials of each forelimb. Data were recorded before nerve block, and then at 15 mins, 1, 2 and 24 h post nerve block.Results: Before nerve block, peak vertical force (mean ± s.e.) was significantly higher in the contralateral forelimb (CL = 5345 ± 188 N) than in the lame forelimb (L = 4256 ± 204 N; P<0.05). At 15 mins post nerve block there was no significant difference between the 2 forelimbs (CL = 5140 ± 184 N; L = 5126 ± 129 N), and this remained the case for 1 h. By 2 h, the mean score for the lame leg had decreased (L = 4642 ± 182 N) but was still greater than preblock. By 24 h, vertical forces had returned to preblock values.Conclusions: The palmar digital nerve block was fully effective between 15 mins and 1 h. The analgesic effect began to subside between 1 and 2 h but sufficient analgesia persisted to affect gait characteristics beyond 2 h.Potential relevance: When using a palmar digital nerve block, it is important to perform lameness evaluations between 15 mins and 1 h to be sure of effective nerve blockade.
Detection of spinal ataxia in horses using fuzzy clustering of body position uncertainty
Authors: KEEGAN K. G. , ARAFAT S. , SKUBIC M. , WILSON D. A. , KRAMER J. , MESSER N. M. , JOHNSON P. J. , O'BRIEN D. P. , JOHNSON G. 
Published: April 2007

Summary Reasons for performing study: Subjective neurological evaluation in horses is prone to bias. An objective method of spinal ataxia detection is not subject to these limitations and could be of use in equine practice and research. Hypothesis: Kinematic data in the walking horse can differentiate normal and spinal ataxic horses. Methods: Twelve normal and 12 spinal ataxic horses were evaluated by kinematic analysis walking on a treadmill. Each body position signal was reduced to a scalar measure of uncertainty then fuzzy clustered into normal or ataxic groups. Correct classification percentage (CCP) was then calculated using membership values of each horse in the 2 groups. Subsequently, a guided search for measure combinations with high CCP was performed. Results: Eight measures of body position resulted in CCP≥70%. Several combinations of 4–5 measures resulted in 100% CCP. All combinations with 100% CCP could be obtained with one body marker on the back measuring vertical and horizontal movement and one body marker each on the right fore‐ and hindlimb measuring vertical movement. Conclusions and potential relevance: Kinematic gait analysis using simple body marker combinations can be used objectively to detect spinal ataxia in horses.
Ground reaction forces and limb function in tölting Icelandic horses
Authors: BIKNEVICIUS A. R. , MULLINEAUX D. R. , CLAYTON H. M. 
Published: April 2007

SummaryReasons for performing study: Gaited horses employ 4‐beat stepping (singlefoot) gaits that extend into speeds typical of trots. Ground reaction force (GRF) patterns of these specialised gaits have not been reported; therefore, appraisal of these gaits using nongaited horse kinetics may lead to clinical misjudgements.Hypothesis: GRFs of tölting Icelandic horses will be comparable in profile and magnitude with those of trotting horses.Methods: Forelimb and hindlimb GRFs were obtained for 10 Icelandic horses ridden at a tölt. These data were evaluated across 3 speed ranges: <2, 2.5–5 and >5 m/sec.Results: Virtually all vertical force tracings were single‐peaked. Forelimbs typically had greater peak vertical forces and impulses compared with hindlimbs. Support duration and forelimb vertical impulse were correlated negatively with speed, whereas peak vertical, braking and propulsive forces and hindlimb braking and propulsive impulses were correlated positively with speed.Conclusions: GRF profiles of tölting Icelandic horses are more similar to profiles of trots than walks, suggesting that tölts follow bouncing mechanics.Potential relevance: Greater overlap of limb support in 4‐beat gaits (even at high speeds) is associated with lower peak vertical force magnitudes of tölts compared with those reported for trots at comparable speeds, which may help limit the occurrence of overloading injuries in Icelandic horses.
Influence of support boots on fetlock joint angle of the forelimb of the horse at walk and trot
Authors: KICKER C. J. , PEHAM C. , GIRTLER D. , LICKA T. 
Published: April 2007

SummaryReasons for performing study: Support boots are thought to reduce tension on the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDTF) of the horse and are frequently recommended for horses convalescing after tendonitis, but evidence of their effectiveness is conflicting.Objective: To document the effects of 4 different types of support boots on fetlock joint angle in comparison to the unprotected fetlock.Methods: In 26 horses, the kinematics of the forelimb fetlock joint angle was measured at walk and trot on a treadmill when wearing 3 different types of support boots and 1 protective boot, as well as without boots. As outcome parameters, maximum extension of the fetlock joint and the moment at which maximum extension occurred in the stride cycle were determined.Results: At walk, 2 of the support boots reduced the maximum extension significantly by 0.8 and 0.9°, respectively (P<0.05). Additionally, one type of boots also delayed the occurrence of maximal extension within the stride cycle. At trot, all support boots reduced maximum extension significantly by 0.56–1.44° (P<0.01), and the protective boot reduced maximum extension by 0.56° (P<0.05).Conclusions and potential relevance: The results demonstrate the effectiveness of support boots in reducing maximum extension of the fetlock, which can be assumed to reduce tension in the suspensory apparatus and SDFT. The delay of the moment of maximal extension may be relevant in reducing dynamic forces. However, it should be noted that the long‐term consequences of reduction of maximum fetlock extension are still uncertain. Such a reduction over a prolonged period might negatively affect fibre alignment in the healing tendon.
Kinematic evaluation of the back in the sport horse with back pain
Authors: WENNERSTRAND J. , JOHNSTON C. , ROETHLISBERGER‐HOLM K. , ERICHSEN C. , EKSELL P. , DREVEMO S. 
Published: April 2007

SummaryReasons for performing study: Earlier studies have developed a clinical tool to evaluate objectively the function of the equine back. The ability to differentiate horses with back pain from asymptomatic, fully functioning horses using kinematic measures from this tool has not been evaluated.Objectives: To compare the kinematics of the back at walk and trot in riding horses with back dysfunction to the same parameters in asymptomatic sport horses.Methods: The kinematics of the back in 12 horses with impaired performance and back pain were studied at walk and trot on a treadmill. Data were captured for 10 secs at 240 Hz. Range of movement (ROM) and intravertebral pattern symmetry of movement for flexion and extension (FE), lateral bending (LB) and axial rotation (AR) were derived from angular motion pattern data and the results compared to an earlier established database on asymptomatic riding horses.Results: At walk, horses with back dysfunction had a ROM smaller for dorsoventral FE in the caudal thoracic region (T13 = 7.50°, T17 = 7.71°; P<0.05), greater for LB at T13 (8.13°; P<0.001) and smaller for AR of the pelvis (10.97°; P<0.05) compared to asymptomatic horses (FE‐T13 = 8.28°, FE‐T17 = 8.49°, LB‐T13 = 6.34°, AR‐pelvis = 12.77°). At trot, dysfunctional horses had a smaller (P<0.05) ROM for FE at the thoracic lumbar junction (T17 = 2.46°, L1 = 2.60°) compared to asymptomatic horses (FE‐T17 = 3.07°, FE‐L1 = 3.12°).Conclusions: The objective measurement technique can detect differences between back kinematics in riding horses with signs of back dysfunction and asymptomatic horses. The clinical manifestation of back pain results in diminished flexion/extension movement at or near the thoracic lumbar junction. However, before applying the method more extensively in practice it is necessary to evaluate it further, including measurements of patients whose diagnoses can be confirmed and long‐term follow‐ups of back patients after treatment.Potential relevance: Since the objective measurement technique can detect small movement differences in back kinematics, it should help to clinically describe and, importantly, objectively detect horses with back pain and dysfunction.
Compensatory load redistribution of horses with induced weightbearing hindlimb lameness trotting on a treadmill
Authors: WEISHAUPT M. A. , WIESTNER T. , HOGG H. P. , JORDAN P. , AUER J. A. 
Published: April 2007

SummaryReasons for performing study: The compensatory mechanisms of horses with weightbearing hindlimb lameness are still not fully understood.Hypothesis: That weightbearing, unilateral hindlimb lameness would not only alter stride characteristics to diminish structural stress in the affected limb but also induce compensatory load adjustments in the other supporting limbs.Objective: To document the load and time shifting mechanisms of horses with unilateral weightbearing hindlimb lameness.Methods: Reversible lameness was induced in 8 clinically sound horses by applying a solar pressure model. Three degrees of lameness (subtle, mild and moderate) were induced and compared with the nonlame (sound) control measurement. Vertical ground reaction forces were recorded for all 4 limbs simultaneously on an instrumented treadmill.Results: Compared to the sound situation, moderate hindlimb hoof lameness induced a decrease in stride duration (‐3.3%) and stride impulse (‐3.1%). Diagonal impulse decreased selectively in the lame diagonal stance (‐7.7%). Within the diagonal limb pair, vertical impulse was shifted to the forelimb during the lame diagonal stance (+6.5%) and to the hindlimb during the sound diagonal stance (+3.2%). Peak vertical force and vertical impulse decreased in the lame limb (‐15%), but only vertical impulse increased in the contralateral hindlimb (+5.7%). Stance duration was prolonged in both hindlimbs (+2.5%). Suspension duration was reduced to a greater extent after push‐off of the lame diagonal limb pair (‐21%) than after the sound diagonal limb pair (‐9.2%).Conclusions: Four compensatory mechanisms could be identified that served to reduce structural stress, i.e. peak vertical force on the affected limb: 1) reduction of the total vertical impulse per stride; 2) diagonal impulse decreased selectively in the lame diagonal; 3) impulse was shifted within the lame diagonal to the forelimb and in the sound diagonal to the hindlimb; and 4) the rate of loading and peak forces were reduced by prolonging the stance duration.Potential relevance: Load shifting mechanisms are not only effective in diminishing peak forces in the affected limb, but also suppress compensatory overload in other limbs. Selected force and time parameters allow the unequivocal identification of the lame limb. Future studies have to examine how far these compensatory mechanisms may be generalised for other defined orthopaedic problems in the hindlimb.
The displaced equine soft palate as a source of abnormal respiratory noise during expiration
Authors: FRANKLIN S. H. , PRICE C. , BURN J. F. 
Published: April 2007

SummaryReasons for performing study: To develop the technique of respiratory sound analysis for the diagnosis of dorsal displacement of the equine soft palate.Objectives: To show that 1) the displaced soft palate can spontaneously vibrate in the presence of expiratory airflow; 2) the observed frequency of vibration can be detected in respiratory sound recordings; and 3) the frequency of vibrations measured in cadaveric specimens are similar to those obtained from audio spectra in exercising horses with DDSP.Methods: Palatal movements and respiratory sounds were recorded from artificially ventilated cadaveric heads. The fundamental mode of palate vibrations calculated from high‐speed videoendoscopic recordings was compared with frequencies detected in the audio spectra and with data collected from exercising horses with DDSP.Results: Palate vibrations occurred when air was blown through the trachea. The fundamental mode of vibrations was present in the audio spectra and was not significantly different from those recordedin vivo.Conclusions: Vibrations of the soft palate are the probable source of expiratory sounds recorded in horses with DDSP.Potential relevance: This study strengthens the case for the application of respiratory sound analysis in the diagnosis of DDSP in exercising horses.
Longitudinal development of equine conformation from weanling to age 3 years in the Thoroughbred
Authors: ANDERSON T. M. , McILWRAITH C. W. 
Published: April 2007

SummaryReasons for performing study: There is little information available to define conformational changes with age using an objective but practical method of recording specific body measurements.Objective: To analyse conformation objectively in a population of racing Thoroughbreds and describe the changes from weanling to age 3 years.Methods: Annual photographs were taken over 4 years and conformation measurements made from photographs using specific reference points marked on the horses.Results: Correlation analysis revealed highly significant, moderate to strong relationships between long bone lengths and wither height for all ages. All long bone lengths showed moderate to strong relationships with each other for all ages. The front and rear pastern angles were significantly correlated with the angle of the dorsal surface of the front and rear hooves, respectively, for all. Wither height, croup height and length of neck topline, neck bottomline, scapula, humerus, radius and femur increased significantly from age 0–1 year and age 1–2 years. Hoof lengths (medial and lateral, right and left) grew significantly between the ages of 0 and 1 and 1 and 2 years, but decreased in length between age 2 and 3 years. Horses became more offset in the right limb between weanling and age 3 years, but the offset ratios did not change with age on the left limb. The angle of the scapula (I), shoulder and radiometacarpus significantly increased between all age groups (became more upright). The angle of the dorsal surface of the hooves (both front and hind) decreased significantly from ages 0 to 1 and 1 to 2 years, but showed no significant difference between ages 2 and 3 years.Conclusions: A strong relationship between long bone lengths and wither height for all ages supports the theory that horses are proportional. Longitudinal bone growth in the distal limb increased only 5–7% from weanling to age 3 years and is presumably completed prior to the yearling year. Several growth measures increased from ages 0 to 1 and 1 to 2 years, but did not increase from age 2–3 years; indicating that growth rate either showed or reached a plateau at this time.Potential relevance: This study provides objective information regarding conformation and skeletal growth in the Thoroughbred which can be utilised for selection and recognition of significant conformational abnormalities.
Use of intravenous flecainide in horses with naturally‐occurring atrial fibrillation
Authors: van LOON G. , BLISSITT K. J. , KEEN J. A. , YOUNG L. E. 
Published: April 2007

SummaryReasons for performing study: It has been reported that i.v. flecainide has a high efficacy for the treatment of experimentally‐induced acute atrial fibrillation (AF) in horses and that its use is associated with minimal toxic side effects.Objectives: The objectives were to study the efficacy of i.v. flecainide as a treatment for atrial fibrillation in horses with naturally‐occurring AF.Methods: Ten horses with naturally‐occurring AF were treated with 2 mg/kg bwt flecainide i.v. at a rate of 0.2 mg/kg bwt/min. In 3 horses, the infusion was continued at 0.05–0.10 mg/kg bwt/min until a total dose of 3.0 mg/kg bwt had been administered. Heart rate, QRS duration and average interval between fibrillation waves were measured before, during and following flecainide infusion. If conversion to normal sinus rhythm was not achieved, horses were treated with quinidine sulphateper osat a dose of 22 mg/kg bwt given every 2 h.Results: None of the horses with chronic AF (n = 9) converted to sinus rhythm with flecainide i.v. The only horse treated successfully had acute AF of 12 days' duration. The QRS duration and fibrillation cycle length increased significantly (P = 0.006 and 0.002, respectively) during and following flecainide infusion. Heart rate did not increase significantly over time however, 3 horses developed heart rates in excess of 100 beats/min. Two horses developed a potentially dangerous ventricular dysrhythmia during the first 15 mins of treatment. Quinidine sulphate givenper osrestored sinus rhythm in 8 out of 9 horses, with minimal adverse effects.Conclusions: Although flecainide might be efficacious in cases of acute AF, it was not possible to restore sinus rhythm in horses with naturally‐occurring chronic AF at the dosages used in this study. In 2 horses, 2.0 mg/kg bwt flecainide was associated with potentially dangerous dysrhythmias.Potential clinical relevance: Intravenous administration of 2 mg/kg bwt flecainide is unlikely to convert chronic AF in horses and could induce dangerous dysrhythmias.