bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Interchangeable Parts and Mass Production
Authors: Ruttan Vernon W. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractEconomic historians have characterized the American system of manufacturing, or more appropriately the New England armory system, as the assembly of complex products produced from individual interchangeable parts. Its first important application was the manufacture of firearms at the U.S. army armories in Harpers Ferry, Virginia, and Springfield, Massachusetts. During the second half of the 19th century, “armory practice” spread to other branches of manufacturing, such as sewing machine and bicycle manufacture and, in the early twentieth century, to the “Fordist system” of mass production of automobiles.
Military and Commercial Aircraft
Authors: Ruttan Vernon W. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
The aircraft industry was unique among modern U.S. manufacturing industries in that a government research and development organization, the National Committee on Aeronautics (NACA), was established prior to U.S. entry into World War I to conduct research on military and commercial aircraft technology and design. NACA made a series of economically important technical and scientific contributions prior to its absorption into the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) in 1958. Demand for military aircraft during the two world wars played an important role in the development of the aircraft industry and in the transition from the piston-propeller to jet aircraft propulsion system after World War II. The development of a mature commercial jet aircraft technology, epitomized by the Boeing 747 wide-bodied jet, was derivative of a series of military contacts for the design and production by Boeing of a series of military transports.
Nuclear Energy and Electric Power
Authors: Ruttan Vernon W. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Nuclear power is an example of a technology that, in the absence of military and defense-related research, development, and procurement, would not have been developed at all. The demonstration of controlled nuclear fission at the University of Chicago’s Stagg Field on December 2, 1942 initiated a chain of events that led to the development of the atomic bomb and nuclear power. The design of the first nuclear power reactor, located at Shippingport, Pennsylvania, was adapted from nuclear reactors developed to power nuclear submarines. Premature commitment to light water reactor technology appears, in retrospect, to have been a source of failure of the nuclear power industry to realize the promise it appeared to have in the 1950s. It is possible that during the first half of the 21st century, nuclear power will be able to make a significant contribution to meeting the growth in demand for electric power; by substituting for carbon-based fuels, it may also contribute to slowing the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The Computer Industry
Authors: Ruttan Vernon W. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
The first all-purpose digital computer, completed in 1946, was developed by John W. Mauchly and J. Prosper Eckert, and associates at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore School of Electrical Engineering, with funding from the U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory. The first working transistor emerged from the solid state research program at Bell Laboratories led by William Schokley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain. The transition between initial development of the transistor and the subsequent development of military and commercial application in the 1950s were substantially funded by the Army Signal Corps. Intensification of the Cold War in the early 1950s provided the impetus for IBM to develop a fully transistorized computer for commercial use. Development of the integrated circuit at Texas Instruments in the late 1950s and of the microprocessor at Intel in the late 1960s set the stage for the development of both modern supercomputers and the personal computer.
Inventing the Internet
Authors: Ruttan Vernon W. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThe development of the Internet involved the transformation of a computer network that was initially established in the late 1960s by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the Department of Defense, to enable defense industry and university contractors to communicate with each other and with ARPA more effectively. Realization of this objective was demonstrated at the First International Conference on Computer Communication in October 1972. Important advances in hardware, software, and application were required not only to enable communication among individual computers, but to facilitate communication between different computer networks. It was not until the early 1980s, however, that cooperation between ARPA and the National Science Foundation opened up access to the Internet to the wider non-profit and university communities. Although the network was transferred to civilian control in 1983, full privatization of the Internet was not achieved until the early 1990s.
The Beauty and the Scandal of the Cross
Authors: Viladesau Richard 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Christianity has always had an “aesthetic” theology: an understanding of faith that is truly reflective but whose reflection is embodied in artistic modes of thinking and communicating. This more primary aesthetic theology is important as a source of the faith tradition and as a parallel reflection on it. The historical relationship between the aesthetic and conceptual mediations of theology is complex: Christian art has frequently functioned as an illustration of dogma, but it is also an independent mode of understanding that goes beyond doctrinal formulations and is sometimes in tension with them. The cross provides a particularly fruitful subject for the study of this relationship. As the central symbol of Christianity, it embodies the paradox of the scandal of Christ’s ignominious death becoming a locus of beauty. This study compares classic paradigms of conceptual theology with styles of Christian art.
Nominalism, Naturalism, and the Intensification of Passion Piety
Authors: Viladesau Richard 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
The fresco of the crucifixion by Giotto in the Arena chapel represents the beginning of naturalism in Western painting. The theology of the cross during this period shows the increasing influence of the philosophy of the nominalism of William of Ockham and his followers. The separation of faith from reason, combined with incipient artistic naturalism and the religious pessimism that followed the great Plague, contributed to a new emphasis on the sufferings and wounds of Christ, which dramatically expressed the consequences of human sin. This was expressed artistically in expanded and emotional treatments of the crucifixion in drama (the passion plays), as well as new images like the pietà, that stressed compunction with Mary.
Free Will and Luck
Authors: Mele Alfred R. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis book aims to help readers think more clearly about free will. It identifies and makes vivid the most important conceptual obstacles to the justified belief in the existence of free will, and meets them head on. It also clarifies the central concepts in the philosophical debate about free will and moral responsibility, criticizes various influential contemporary theories about free will, and develops two overlapping conceptions of free will: one for readers who are convinced that free will is incompatible with determinism (incompatibilists), and another for readers who are convinced of the opposite (compatibilists). Luck poses problems for all believers in free will, and this book offers novel solutions. One chapter explains influential neuroscientific studies of free will, and debunks some extravagant interpretations of the data. Other featured topics include abilities and alternative possibilities, control and decision-making, the bearing of manipulation on free will, and the development of human infants into free agents.
Libertarianism, Luck, and Control
Authors: Mele Alfred R. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter critically examines recent work on free will and moral responsibility by Randolph Clarke, Robert Kane, and Timothy O’Connor, in an attempt to clarify issues about control and luck that are central to the debate between libertarians (agent causationists and others) and their critics. It is argued that present luck, that is, luck at the time of action, poses an as yet unresolved problem for libertarianism.
My Compatibilist Proposal
Authors: Mele Alfred R. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter defends a history-sensitive compatibilist view of free action and moral responsibility against various criticisms by compatibilists (including Daniel Dennett). It constructs a new argument for incompatibilism that makes vivid a problem that luck poses for compatibilism: the zygote argument. It is argued that the zygote argument is much more powerful than more familiar arguments for incompatibilism, and that, even so, compatibilism may survive the attack.
The Prehistoric Roots of the Modern Mind
Authors: Tremlin Todd 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter explains why the process of human evolution is crucial to understanding the structures and functions of the modern human mind. Tracing hominid development up to the appearance of Homo sapiens, the chapter explores some of the selective pressures faced in our ancestral past, and the cognitive adaptations that gave rise to human intelligence. It shows how the ultimate success of Homo sapiens was the result of mental mechanisms (e.g., theory of mind, social intelligence, and language) that fitted humans to the “cognitive niche” — an adaptive space characterized by the gathering and strategic use of information — and that remain the hallmarks of human thought and behavior today.
Minds, Other Minds, and the Minds of Gods
Authors: Tremlin Todd 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter examines some evolved mental mechanisms that play key roles in the representation of god concepts. The incorrigible operation of an Agency Detection Device (ADD) and a Theory of Mind Mechanism (ToMM) helps explain why people naturally entertain religious ideas. God concepts are parasitic on mental mechanisms designed for different though functionally related purposes. The study of these and other predispositions of thought also reveal what, from a cognitive perspective, “gods” really are — easily anthropomorphized thinking intentional agents. The real attributes of gods align with the mind’s intuitive knowledge bases and the natural inferences they produce rather than with the abstract, theological attributes taught in religious doctrine. At the same time, the counterintuitive properties of god concepts account for their widespread transmission.
Cognition and Religious Systems
Authors: Tremlin Todd 
Published: February 2006

AbstractReligious people and their religions are not always harmonized. Scholars have long noted two faces of religious practice, one corresponding to an “official” set of beliefs and actions taught in texts, maintained by institutions, and communicated by specialists; the other is a “folk” form of religion pursued by ordinary people in everyday life. This chapter applies a dual-process model of cognition to the problem of “divergent religion,” arguing that how religious people think and act is directly linked to the way the brain processes religious concepts. Evidence drawn from social psychology and comparative religion suggests that religious concepts can proceed along two contrasting mental pathways to differing affect. This account of cognitive processing provides a new way of understanding duplicitous forms of religious thought, explaining common episodes of religious change (e.g., doctrinal and ritual innovation, syncretism, conversion, and the formation of new religions), and mapping an important set of selective forces at work on the content and stability of religious systems. Pentecostal Christianity and Theravada Buddhism provide case studies.
Corporate Disclosure Diversity: A Comparative Assessment
Authors: Benston George J. , Bromwich Michael , Litan Robert E. , Wagenhofer Alfred 
Published: February 2006

AbstractWhile there are substantial differences in the regulatory regimes, cultures, economic history, nature of government, and institutions among the countries surveyed in the book, these countries have also faced common problems. This chapter provides a comparative assessment of how differences in some of these factors have affected accounting, auditing, and corporate governance. It shows that diversity in financial reports prevails worldwide, and discusses various ways used by companies and users of financial reports to cope with this diversity. The appendix illustrates accounting diversity by describing crucial differences among international financial rules and standards (IFRSs) and national standards, in particular, U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).
Global Financial Reporting Standards: Their Establishment and Enforcement
Authors: Benston George J. , Bromwich Michael , Litan Robert E. , Wagenhofer Alfred 
Published: February 2006

AbstractStandard setters are attempting to structure a single set of global accounting standards. This chapter examines the costs and benefits of such convergence and finds that it is not a viable solution. It outlines a system of “constrained competition” in standards, within which a small set of high-quality standards would offer the most feasible and flexible setting that would cope with increasingly global capital markets. Three alternatives of such competition — among countries, between exchanges, and competition at the firm level — are outlined and discussed. The chapter also discusses harmonization of audit oversight and enforcement worldwide, and stresses that quality assurance is more important than the convergence of accounting standards.
Summing Up and Charting a Future for Standard Setters
Authors: Benston George J. , Bromwich Michael , Litan Robert E. , Wagenhofer Alfred 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter reiterates the major themes of the book and then further discusses a number of current key issues in financial reporting: that “fair values” based on estimates are unlikely to be seen as trustworthy and may be difficult, if not impossible, to verify; that financial reports can never provide all the information necessary for entity valuation; and that national differences in accounting requirements mean that any global set of accounting standards is likely to fragment in use. It suggests that a better approach is to entertain a small set of competitive international accounting standard regimes.
Marius Victorinus' Commentary on Galatians
Authors: Cooper Stephen Andrew 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Marius Victorinus, the first Latin commentator on the Pauline epistles, has generally been considered out of the mainstream of fourth century Latin Christianity. This judgment is largely due to two factors: the dominant place of Neoplatonism in his Christian writings; and Jerome’s scornful remarks on Victorinus as an expert in profane authors who had the temerity to take upon himself the task of commenting on the Bible. This opinion does not do justice to the author or his exegetical work. This book, the first full-length study in English of Marius Victorinus the biblical exegete, presents the first English translation of his commentary on Galatians. An extensive introduction situates Victorinus within the historical and theological setting of the Roman church c. 350-365, and treats the disputed issues pertaining to his work as a biblical commentator. Despite Victorinus’ deep immersion in the world of late Roman rhetoric and philosophy, his commentaries on Paul are very much the work of the churchmen. This confirms the impression made by his better-known Trinitarian treatises: that his conversion to Christianity brought him into the church as a public intellectual eager to address both internal disputes (the Trinitarian Controversy; Judaizing) and the criticisms of an increasingly embattled paganism. Victorinus’ works on Paul are shown to have provided an important precedent for later Latin commentators like Ambrosiaster and Augustine, who followed Victorinus in adapting the literary-critical techniques of the Latin schools of grammar and rhetoric. Victorinus was indeed the initiator of the ‘rediscovery of the apostle Paul’ in the Latin church. This study of his commentary on Galatians shows the late antique rhetor to have undertaken a commentary on the Pauline corpus with a view to providing an intermediate-level introduction to the essentials of Christianity, encompassing both doctrine and moral life. It is argued that this schema parallels the graded approach to philosophical paideia favored by contemporary Neoplatonic schools. Victorinus chose the Pauline corpus as an object of commentary because this portion of the New Testament offered the best vehicle for promoting orthodoxy and orthopraxy in the church.
2 The Life and Times of Marius Victorinus
Authors: Cooper Stephen Andrew 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter discusses the ancient testimonia to Victorinus, and reconstructs a probable vita of Victorinus. A professor of rhetoric at Rome who authored important school-treatises, and a translator of Neoplatonic writings (the libri Platonicorum mentioned by Augustine) and Aristotelian works, Victorinus was a significant late Roman academic whose secular works had an influence in his own time and on Boethius, as well as later medieval scholasticism. The events of the Trinitarian Controversy at Rome during the reign of Constantius II are examined to situate Victorinus in this milieu. After converting to Christianity c. 355, Victorinus continued teaching rhetoric until the Emperor Julian’s school-law of 362 interdicted Christians from holding state professorial posts. The anti-Christian initiatives undertaken by Julian, as well as earlier anti-Christian polemics, may have contributed to Victorinus’ agenda as he began to write his commentaries on Paul, probably not earlier than late 363.
3 The Apostle Paul in Fourth‐Century Roman Art
Authors: Cooper Stephen Andrew 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter traces the development of the first hundred years of Pauline iconography in all media (sarcophagi, catacomb frescos, church mosaics, small objets d ’art). Particular attention is paid to the variety of ternary scenes featuring the apostles Peter and Paul flanking Christ. The various depictions of Christ (denominated Christus magister and traditio legis) in the scenes with his chief apostles are correlated to the verbal portraits of Paul, and his relation to Christ evident in the early commentaries on the Pauline epistles. Victorinus presents Paul as a direct recipient of Christ’s revelation, and thus as a prime authority in matter of both doctrine and morals; such an understanding of Paul is also suggested by the depictions of Christ with Paul which become common after the mid-point of the fourth century. The development of both Pauline iconography and commentary on the epistles in Rome are shown to be part of the popular piety arising around the various Roman sites claiming the relics of the chief apostles.
6 Influence of Victorinus' Commentaries on Later Latin Exegetes
Authors: Cooper Stephen Andrew 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter attempts to resolve the question concerning which of the later Latin commentators of the fourth and early fifth century had read Victorinus on Paul. The claim of Harnack that Augustine’s Paulinism was influenced by Victorinus, largely rejected but now maintained by recent scholars again, is sustained by a comparative analysis of the commentaries of Victorinus and Augustine on Galatians. The influence of Victorinus on Ambrosiaster is also apparent and more strongly supported than the case for his influence on Augustine. Jerome is likely to have read Victorinus’ commentary on Galatians, since he argues against the latter’s exegesis of Gal. 2: 11-14. Of the fifteen passages from Galatians discussed in the comparative analysis, twelve suggest the influence of Victorinus on Ambrosiaster and eleven indicate Augustine’s reading of Victorinus’ commentaries. The history of scholarship on this issue is fully discussed.
The Introductory Puzzles
Authors: Coope Ursula 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Aristotle raises three introductory puzzles (aporiai) about time. The first two are arguments that time cannot be something that is, since it is divisible into the past (which is no longer), and the future (which is not yet). The third puzzle is an argument that the now cannot always be different, but also cannot always be the same. This chapter suggests that Aristotle can answer the first two puzzles by appealing to his view of the way in which time depends upon change. His response to the third puzzle depends upon his view that a now only exists insofar as it is marked out in some way.
The Before and After
Authors: Coope Ursula 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter explains Aristotle’s notions of the before and after in time, in change, and in place. Aristotle says that the before and after is first of all in place; the before and after in change depends in some way on the before and after in place, and the before and after in time depends on the before and after in change. It argues that the before and after in change depends on the before and after in place because of an analogy between change and magnitude, whereas the before and after in time depends on the before and after in change in a different way (that stems from the fact that time follows change). This provides an answer to the objection (made by philosophers such as Owen) that Aristotle’s account of the before and after in time is circular.
The Definition of Time as a Kind of Number
Authors: Coope Ursula 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter explains Aristotle’s definition of time. He defines time as a kind of number of change. It is argued that when he says that time is a number, he means that it is what we count when we count nows in a certain way. In defining time as a kind of number, he is saying that it is essentially a kind of order, not (as is often supposed) that it is essentially measurable. It is argued that when he says that time is a number that it is countable and not a number with which we count, he is saying that time, though a number of a sort, is not a discrete plurality (and hence, not a number that could be used to count things). If ‘number’ is understood in the way that is suggested, then the claim that time is a number is compatible with the claim that time is continuous.
All Simultaneous Time is the Same
Authors: Coope Ursula 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter discusses Aristotle’s claim that there is one and the same time for all simultaneous changes. Aristotle thinks that changes are simultaneous just in case they are bounded by one and the same pair of nows. He does not give a reductive account of simultaneity (that is, he does not explain in virtue of what different changes are bounded by the same pair of nows), but he does insist that any one now divides all the changes that are going on at it. It is argued that he insists on this because he has a certain view about time’s universality: he thinks that time must be an order within which any change, or change part, is related to any other. Aristotle draws a comparison between the fact that the same time is the time of many different changes, and the fact that the same number is the number of different groups (for instance, of seven dogs and seven horses). Based on an earlier account of Aristotle’s definition of time, the comparison he is drawing here is explained.