bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Thinking About What Ought To Be
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter introduces the broadly semantical issues that are the focus of Part I of the book: how are we to give an account of the meaning of normative statements, and of the nature of the mental states (‘normative judgments’) that such statements express? Sections 1.1 and 1.2 clarify the sort of (non-circular but not necessarily reductive) account that is needed. Then the remaining sections argue that normative judgments have a very special feature: they have an essential or ‘internalist’ connection to motivation and practical reasoning. Any adequate account of the meaning of normative statement and of the nature of normative judgments must somehow explain why this sort of internalism is true.
Causal Theories and Conceptual Analyses
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter considers two other rival accounts of normative statements. First, it considers the account of ‘Cornell moral realism’ which is based on applying the causal theory of reference to normative terms. Secondly, it considers the accounts of David Lewis, Frank Jackson, Philip Pettit, and Michael Smith, which are based on the attempt to give a ‘conceptual analysis’ of normative statements. It is argued that both of these approaches fail, largely because they cannot accommodate the sort of ‘internalism’ that was argued for in Chapter 1.
Conceptual Role Semantics
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter gives an account of one normative concept — namely, the concept that is expressed by the practical ‘ought’. First, it is argued that this sort of ‘ought’ must be interpreted as a propositional operator. Then a version of ‘conceptual role semantics’ is given for this concept, modelled on a plausible sort of semantics for the logical constants. This account can explain the internalist connection between normative judgments and motivation. It can also explain the truth conditions of normative propositions: it entails a version of the ‘fitting attitude (FA) analysis’; very roughly, it ought to be that p if and only if it is correct for the relevant agent to incorporate the proposition that p into her plans about what to do at the relevant time.
Context and the Logic of ‘Ought’
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter examines how this semantic account can be developed in order to enable it to deal with some other semantic issues. First, this account can give a good account of deontic logic (the logic of ‘ought’). Secondly, it can explain the way in which terms like ‘ought’ are systematically context-sensitive and express different concepts in different contexts of utterance. Finally, it can explain the logical relations between ‘ought’ and ‘best’: for every sense of ‘ought’ there is a corresponding sense of ‘best’, such that something ought to be the case if and only if it is necessary for the best state of affairs. Because the relevant sorts of ‘ought’ and ‘best’ are systematically context-sensitive, this logical relationship between ‘ought’ and ‘best’ does not entail any controversial sort of consequentialist or teleological theory.
Irreducibility and Causal Efficacy
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter argues for two corollaries of this metaphysical conception. First, normative facts, properties, and relations are irreducible and sui generis: they cannot be reduced to natural facts, properties, or relations. (The argument for this corollary relies on an argument that George Bealer has given against functionalism in the philosophy of mind.) Secondly, contrary to what many philosophers hold, they are causally efficacious, and enter into causal explanations of contingent facts about what happens in the world. This view of normative facts as causally efficacious can be defended against objections in much the same way as philosophers of mind have defended mental causation (i.e., the view that mental states are causally efficacious); it is compatible with the modest sort of naturalism that claims that all causal facts are realized in (but not necessarily identical to) natural facts.
Disagreement and theA Priori
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter traces out some implications of this epistemological account. First, it is explained how the account developed in Chapter 10 implies that under favourable conditions, normative truths are knowable a priori; but they are a special case of the a priori, differing in important ways from other forms of a priori truths, such as logical and mathematical truths. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to a further problem: the existence of widespread and persistent disagreement about normative questions. It is argued that it can be rational to persist in one's normative belief, even if those who disagree with one's belief include thinkers who are equally intelligent, thoughtful, and well informed about the non-normative facts (i.e., thinkers who are one's ‘epistemic peers’). Contrary to what some philosophers might assume, this view is quite compatible with the realist conception of the normative that this book is designed to defend.
Postscript The Modern Legacy of Coptic Christology
Authors: Davis Stephen J. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter presents two illustrative case studies — one from the early modern period and one from the late 20th and early 21st century — in order to show how Egyptian Christians have continued to envision and enact the Incarnation in ritual settings such as monastic practice and the liturgy. The first example comes from a moment of ecclesiastical encounter between East and West in the 17th century. In 1672, the patriarch of the Coptic Church, Matthew IV (fl. 1660–76 ce), composed a Refutation of the Calvinists, in which he responded to a French Catholic petition to speak out against Protestant eucharistic Christology. The second example involves Mattā al-Miskīn's (‘Matthew the Poor’, 1919–2006) publication of a series of sermons and theological tractates in which he presents not only the eucharist but also the entire life of the church as ‘a manifestation of Christ's Incarnation on earth’.
On Nature and Providence: Readings in Herodotus, Protagoras, and Democritus
Authors: Osborne Catherine 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter discusses extracts from the Apocryphal book of Jubilees, Herodotus' Histories, and Plato's Protagoras. It explores the idea that myths and stories serve to construct one's understanding of nature, appealing to what appear to be value-free facts, but telling a story that attaches significance to those facts as morally relevant or irrelevant considerations. Nature appears as provident and wise, or as improvident and hostile. The portrayal generates in the reader either a sense of fellow-feeling and care for the environment, or a sense of justified aggression. Narrative can be used to manipulate the reader's perception of his/her place in the world, and of the value and purpose of moral precepts.
On the Disadvantages of Being a Complex Organism: Aristotle and the scala naturae
Authors: Osborne Catherine 
Published: May 2008

AbstractDoes Aristotle have a scala naturae in which humans are ranked higher than the other animals? Is it better to be human than to be something else? This chapter shows that Aristotle's sequence of functions of the soul is not ordered in terms of honour but in terms of distribution. Greater complexity is not a mark of superiority. The animals' lack of what Aristotle called eudaimonia does not mean that they are lacking in happiness or success in their own pursuits. Rather, simplicity is an ideal; psychological complexity is (for Aristotle) a mark of things that fall short of perfection, as is evident from his discussion of the complex motions of the planets. Texts discussed include Metaphysics A, De anima, Nicomachean Ethics X, De partibus animalium, De Caelo, De incessu animalium, and Aristotle's discussion of slaves and women in Politics.
On Eating Animals: Porphyry's Dietary Rules for Philosophers
Authors: Osborne Catherine 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter explores the reasons why Porphyry's De abstinentia recommends refraining from killing and eating animals. These reasons include the idea that meat is a luxury which is not conducive to good philosophy. It is suggested that all forms of special diet, including the choice of a vegetarian diet in parts of the world where the natural resources yield game, fish, or grazing rather than edible crops, depend upon the availability of choice among a surplus of different foodstuffs. Hence, the opportunity to choose a distinctive diet, whether meat or vegetarian, as opposed to using the whatever the locality affords naturally, presupposes some degree of affluence, and perhaps exploitation of labour and natural resources so as to import goods at below their true cost from those who are not in a position to choose.
Conclusion
Authors: Osborne Catherine 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis brief chapter draws out the implications of the earlier chapters, particularly in respect of the fact that even where it appears that morality is responsive to natural facts which can be determined first by biology, in reality there are no such facts, and their relevance is not given in nature. The relevance of certain facts is determined by our moral outlook, and different moral outlooks seem to be available. However, the chapter suggests that not all moral outlooks are equally sound. This is not because one is more true to some independent facts of nature, but one is more true to independent facts of moral truth, about the more noble and generous outlook towards our fellow creatures; this is where the distinction between the humane and the sentimental is drawn.
God's Wars
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter begins with a brief discussion of two parts of the law of war: the first, ius ad bellum, addresses the theory of war, of situations wherein it is morally permissible to resort to arm; and the second, ius in bello, addresses conduct in war and the rules for moderating and regulating it. It then discusses the justifications for war within the context of Christianity. It is argued that acceptance of traditional justifications of just war in England in the first half of the 17th century was partly the result of national perception of embattled Protestantism. The rhetoric of godly warfare and saints in arms was already familiar, as was the call for radically changed, morally reformed soldiers that was later to be heard in the armies of both sides.
The Means of Violence
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses weapons used in the English civil war. Civil war armies used a transitional mixture of firearms and ‘muscle-powered weapons’ ranging from heavy artillery to clubs. Even the bow and arrow marginally survived this time, although these seem to have been most useful as a means of sending propaganda messages in and out of besieged strongholds. Officers carried pistols and swords, as did the cavalry, and royalist cavalry sometimes added a small pole-axe; dragoons — mounted foot soldiers on inferior horses — usually carried firelock muskets or carbines as well as swords; and foot regiments were composed of musketeers (normally with less advanced matchlock muskets) and pikemen, both of whom also carried swords. Homely weapons played a larger part early in the war than they did after it had settled down and supplies and logistics had improved.
Knowledge and Confusion
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses army intelligence during the English civil war. The war both facilitated and complicated intelligence gathering and analysis — a process that revealed again the distinctive intimacy of this war in which language formed no barrier, troops were volatile, prisoners were regularly exchanged, and clothing was a shaky guide to affiliation, and in which civil society, with its poor transients, messengers, and travelling civilians coexisted alongside armies, as did family links and friendship between enemies. The blurred boundaries between civil and military society aided information gathering, while the technological limits of communications and the confusions of war reinforced the need for it. Intelligence, once obtained, had to be translated into purposive military action. Generals and their councils of war made the best plans they could on the basis of information received, and as needs changed they dispatched aides de camp with revised orders.
War and Civil War
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines the ways in which the laws of war applicable between nations were justified, adapted, and sustained in a civil war, and then looks at the regulations designed to produce an orderly and effective fighting force. The codes of war that covered the law of conduct in war (ius in bello) were of three kinds. First, the laws of God, nature, and nations covered the conduct to be expected of reasonable, moral men. Their authority crossed national and confessional boundaries, but it particularly behooved Christians to observe them. They were equally relevant to Catholic and Protestant, English and foreigner. Second, the laws of war, professionally specialized and largely customary, were also international, although there might be local variations of detail. Both the laws of God, nature, and nations and the laws of war were uncodified and unwritten. Only the third category of rules, those covering internal army discipline — the articles or ordinances of war — constituted a body of written law.
Soldiers' Law
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines the laws of war in the 17th century. It argues that the English civil war represents a stage on the way to modern codified rules that regulate conduct in war. English practice in the 1640s, with its striking mixture of harshness and restraint, reflected a reality that later codifiers and theorists have continued to grapple with; the demands of ‘military necessity’ and of moral criteria have continued to coexist uneasily. The laws of God, nature, and nations; the laws of war; and the evolution of English articles of war are discussed.
Armies
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses the armies of the civil war. The armies of the civil war were large by contemporary English standards. In 1628, it was estimated that 24,000 men were necessary for an offensive war, the same number as that raised for defence against the Armada. In 1626, 20,000 to 30,000 men had been accounted for in a great army, and 50,000 ‘a royal Army’. In the 1640s, the numbers of men in arms greatly exceeded these earlier figures, but the totals are and will remain elusive. Demographically speaking, the military presence in England in the 1640s, although of shorter duration, was comparable to that in Germany during the Thirty Years' War and was spread over a much smaller geographical area. Two armies of 60,000 in England would, in any single year, have accounted for roughly 2.4% of a total population of some 5,100,000; even if the estimate is slashed by half, they still account for 1.2%.
Officers
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses officers in the civil war. The test of good officers lay in what they could get out of their soldiers: in how intelligently they deployed them, in what they successfully demanded of them, and in how well they controlled them. Some commanders drew recruits for reasons of family, region, reputation, and religion, but they kept them partly by force of character, partly by fulfilling hopes of reward, and partly by care for their welfare that sometimes led to affection. Civilians in turn benefited from good officers who enforced discipline and kept their men reasonably contented. However, even the best of officers could be defeated by conditions beyond their control, of which the most prevalent was lack of money to pay their men. The making of an officer, bad officers, and the power of officer leadership are discussed.
Making Time for the Past
Authors: Clarke Katherine 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis book is about time and local history in the Greek world. It argues that choices concerning the articulation and expression of time reflect the values of both those who ‘make’ it and their audiences. This study ranges from the widespread awareness of time's malleability and the perceived value of the past by the citizens of the Greek polis to the formal analysis of time-systems in Hellenistic scholarship. It addresses the development by historians of ways to articulate the long span of historical time, from the chronologies developed by those who wrote universal narratives to those whose stories were about the individual polis. The negotiation of time is of interest in any social context, but it carries particular resonance in the world of Greek poleis, where each community had its own calendar and ran to its own time. Both the articulation of time and the establishment of ‘shared’ histories have been seen as modes of self-expression for communities. An exploration of their intersection is, therefore, especially illuminating. By focusing on city-history, the creation of the past within a restricted community, it is possible to examine more closely the dynamics of how time and the past were ‘made’. Therefore, this study brings together the wider theme of ‘managing time’, with an exploration of how history was created at a local level, within a civic context. It looks at the construction of the past as a social activity, which both reflects and contributes towards the sense of a shared, civic identity.
Introduction
Authors: Clarke Katherine 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter discusses different forms of temporal calibration and articulation, as well as the complementary nature of natural time and culturally-determined time. After introducing some philosophical problems concerning the nature of time, it examines evidence for the proposition that time as a malleable and constructed concept was familiar within the everyday life of the Greek polis, through the plays of Aristophanes and publicly displayed inscriptions. The connections between time as mapped out on a recurring annual cycle through the calendar and historical time which spans the past of a place are also considered.
Making a business of time
Authors: Clarke Katherine 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter focuses on chronography, that is, the scholarly field which concerns the organization and articulation of time. It examines the extant fragments of the ancient chronographic tradition, which was initially dominated by competitive culture of Hellenistic scholarship, and by figures such as Eratosthenes of Cyrene and Apollodorus of Athens. Methodological problems, such as that of generic classification, are addressed throughout. The chapter deals first with works concerning Greek city-calendars, especially the festival calendars, before moving on to those which focus on the articulation and expression of linear, historical time. Here are treated issues of synchronism; the establishment of important dates, such as that of the fall of Troy and the acme of Homer; the correlation of fixed chronological markers with continuous systems, such as lists of eponymous magistrates, kings, or Olympic victors; the development of universal chronologies; and the notion of literary time-frames.
2 Universals Constrain Change; Change Results in Typological Generalizations
Authors: Kiparsky Paul 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter presents an absolute explanation for universal patterns. The following criteria should converge to identify true universals: (1) universals have no exceptions (for what does not arise by change cannot be subverted by it either). That is, they are violable only in virtue of more highly ranked universal constraints. (2) Universals are process-independent. (3) Universals can be manifested in ‘emergence of the unmarked’ effects. (4) Universals constitute pathways for analogical change. (5) Universals are embedded in grammars as constraints and can interact with other grammatical constraints. Choosing as testing grounds Binding Theory and split ergativity in morphosyntax, and voicing neutralization and sonority in phonology, it is argued that criteria do converge rather cleanly in each case.
11 Emergent Serialization in English: Pragmatics and Typology
Authors: Hopper Paul J. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter examines the take NP and construction to show how a close study of the distribution of a construction in discourse leads to a view of grammar as something fluid and unstable, that is, as emergent from, and inseparable from, its discourse environment. Verb serialization, in this view, would then be one part of an entire range of possible uses of the first verb, some of which have become grammaticalized, and which are in turn part of a general process whereby a word with a wide range of meanings projects subsequent stretches of discourse, ‘captures’ them, and hauls them into its scope. Verb serialization is thus, to the extent that it is not a borrowed feature, an emergent process.
12 Universals and Diachrony: Some Observations
Authors: Nichols Johanna 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter reviews the preceding chapters in this volume. It says that although each one makes an original claim, none of them is sufficiently concerned with replicability and falsifiability to enable linguists to make one confident that the claims are valid generalizations about language or grammar. Falsifiable claims and rigorous, replicable, and sizable cross-linguistic surveys of relevant phenomena and their origins are needed before we can make confident pronouncements on the relationship between language universals and language change. This means that progress in this field requires thorough description and documentation of all languages; full comparative-historical description and reconstruction, with explicit accounts of changes, for very many languages and families; and a robust framework-neutral terminology and theoretical apparatus.
Contribution of the parent plant to dispersal
Authors: Cousens Roger , Dytham Calvin , Law Richard 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter considers aspects of the maternal parent, other than the tissues immediately around the seed, which contribute to the distances dispersed by plant propagules. It shows how plant phenotype, the abiotic environment, competition, and herbivory all help to determine where the trajectories of propagules begin. Plant phenology dictates when the force required separating the propagule from its parent is at a minimum, and therefore when the trajectory is likely to begin. This can be critical for the survival of animal vectors as well as for movement of seeds contained in fruits. In some cases, the parent provides an additional force to launch the propagule away from its parent.
Attributes of propagules that aid dispersal
Authors: Cousens Roger , Dytham Calvin , Law Richard 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter discusses traits that determine dispersal of propagules by different vectors. It pays special attention to dispersal by air, water, animals, and humans, since these vectors have received the greatest attention in scientific literature. It is clear from morphological and chemical traits that many species have evolved an enhanced ability to be dispersed by particular vectors. However, propagules may be moved by a number of vectors, both physical and biological. There is variation in these traits between species, between and within populations, and among propagules on the same plant. Mass, volume, and area determine the propensity of any propagule to be moved in air and water. Dispersal on the outside of animals is correlated with propagule shape, mass, and adhesive ability, while size relative to the mouth of the animal and chemical constituents determine which species will be ingested and how long they might be carried.