bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster
Authors: Howard John 
Published: September 2008

Abstract

On April 26, 1989, an explosion and fire at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine released an estimated 1.4 × 10
18
Bq of ionizing radiation into the surrounding atmosphere. Acute health effects were noted in 237 highly exposed emergency workers, 134 were treated for acute radiation syndrome, and 28 died. An estimated 600 000 people were involved in the recovery and cleanup operations after the disaster and about 116 000 nearby residents were evacuated from the area, which became known as the
Chernobyl exclusion zone
. Areas of the countries surrounding the plant—Belarus, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine—are considered “contaminated” based on cesium‐137 measurements. On the basis of these measurements, about 3% of the former Soviet Union is considered contaminated by cesium‐137 densities greater than 37 kBq m
−2
. Radioactive material spread throughout the Northern Hemisphere, but radiation doses to populations outside Ukraine, Belarus, and the Russian Federation were relatively low and showed large differences depending on the occurrence of rainfall. Thyroid cancer in children exposed at a young age to Chernobyl is widely accepted as causally associated with the Chernobyl disaster. Other than childhood thyroid cancer, no other health effects have been considered related to Chernobyl exposure, but recently data on emergency workers may indicate some increase in morbidity and mortality caused by leukemia and solid organ cancer. Large areas of Ukraine, Belarus, and the Russian Federation are still excluded from agricultural uses, and other environmental uses are subject to strict controls. In the years ahead, a safer containment structure for the residual risk of the melted nuclear fuel still inside the quickly built “sarcophagus” or “shelter object” will need to be constructed. Chernobyl continues to serve as a model of international collaboration to assess and manage risks to human health and to the environment from the world's largest nuclear disaster.
Hormesis
Authors: Calabrese Edward J. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis article summarizes the historical foundations of the dose‐response relationship with particular emphasis on why the threshold dose‐response model became widely accepted within the pharmacology and toxicology communities and the hormetic dose‐response model became largely marginalized. The article describes the current resurgence of interest in the hormetic dose‐response model and why it may improve predictions in the low‐dose zone. The article provides a summary of the quantitative features of the hormetic dose‐response, its generalizability, mechanistic foundations, and its capacity for application in the risk assessment process.
Meta‐Analysis in Clinical Risk Assessment
Authors: Goldberg Judith D. , Watson Heather N. , Friedman Herman P. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractMeta‐analysis is a statistical approach that provides a logical structure and a quantitative methodology for the review, evaluation, and synthesis of information from independent studies. Combining the results of multiple independent studies in a well‐conducted meta‐analysis provides an objective summary assessment of the overall results of a series of independent studies. With the use of meta‐analytic techniques, a series of clinical trials for example, can be summarized, and the overall treatment effect can be estimated with increased precision so that the risks of reaching incorrect conclusions from individual trials are reduced. In this article, we introduce the process of meta‐analysis, issues in the conduct of a meta‐analysis, and some statistical models that are commonly used to conduct a meta‐analysis.
Case–Control Studies
Authors: Rothman Kenneth J. , Greenland Sander , Lash Timothy L. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
In a cohort study, the numerator and denominator of each disease frequency (incidence proportion, incidence rate, or incidence odds) are measured, which requires enumerating the entire population and keeping it under surveillance. A case‐control study observes the population more efficiently by using a sample of the population, which becomes the control series, in place of complete assessment of the denominators of the disease frequencies. This extra sampling step can make a case‐control study much more efficient than a cohort study of the same population, but it introduces a number of subtleties and avenues for bias that are absent in typical cohort studies. For diseases that are sufficiently rare, cohort studies become impractical, and case‐control studies become the only useful alternative.
The cases in a case‐control study should be the same people who would be considered cases in a cohort study of the same population. The definition of the source population for these cases determines the population from which controls should be sampled. Ideally, control selection would involve direct sampling from the source population, with equal probability of selection, although in many circumstances, variations in and substitutes for this ideal sampling design may be considered.
Epidemiology as Legal Evidence
Authors: Gastwirth Joseph L. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
In product liability and toxic tort cases, courts need to determine whether a person's exposure to a chemical or drug caused their subsequent disease. Epidemiologic studies identify agents associated with an increased risk of disease in the exposed population and the estimated relative risk quantifies the magnitude of the risk. Epidemiology can resolve issues of general causation—does an agent cause disease—which is useful to courts in deciding whether the agent caused the particular plaintiff's disease. The factors courts use in evaluating epidemiologic evidence and how it is integrated with other available scientific evidence in the legal setting is described.
Intent‐to‐Treat Principle
Authors: Goldberg Judith D. , Belitskaya‐Levy Ilana 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This article provides an overview of the concepts involved in intent‐to‐treat analyses of randomized controlled clinical trials. Implications for the interpretation of the results of randomized trials that arise when noncompliance, missing data, and losses to follow‐up occur are described. Alternative approaches to analysis are described.
Censoring
Authors: Rai Shesh N. , Sun Jianguo 
Published: September 2008

AbstractIn collection and analysis of real‐life data, we always encounter incomplete data. Censoring is a type of incomplete data that arise because of a type of sampling scheme. There are many types of censorings: right censoring, left censoring, interval censoring, and Double censoring. We describe these censorings and their role in the analysis of real‐life data.
Confounding
Authors: Hernán Miguel A. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract

Confounding is a bias due to the presence of common causes of the exposure and the outcome. Subject‐matter knowledge can be used to draw causal directed acyclic graphs, and graphical rules like the backdoor path criterion can then be used to identify confounding and confounders, i.e., variables that can be used to eliminate confounding. Although confounding can also be defined as lack of exchangeability of the exposed and the unexposed, this nonstructural definition is less helpful for causal inference from observational data. Confounding can be adjusted for using different methods but all of them require
a priori
causal assumptions; statistical associations detected in the data are not enough to characterize confounding.
Correlated Risk
Authors: Kunreuther Howard 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes produce highly correlated losses: many homes in the affected area are damaged and destroyed by a single event. If a risk‐averse insurer faces highly correlated losses from one event, it may want to set a high enough premium not only to cover its expected losses but also to protect itself against the possibility of experiencing catastrophic losses.
Insurability Conditions
Authors: Kunreuther Howard 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Two conditions must be met before insurance providers are willing to offer coverage against an uncertain event. Condition 1 is the ability to estimate the chances of the event occurring, and the extent of losses likely to be incurred when providing different levels of coverage. Condition 2 is the ability to set premiums for each potential customer or class of customers. If Conditions 1 and 2 are both satisfied, a risk is considered to be insurable. But it still may not be profitable. It may impossible to specify a rate for which there is sufficient demand and incoming revenue to cover the development, marketing, and claims costs of the insurance and yield a net positive profit. In such cases, the insurer will opt not to offer coverage against this risk.
Mercury/Methylmercury Risk
Authors: Budtz‐jørgensen Esben , Grandjean Philippe 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Mercury in the environment originates from both natural and anthropogenic sources, especially owing to energy production from fossil fuels. In sediments, inorganic mercury is converted into methylmercury, which is accumulated by fish, shellfish, and marine mammals, and attains its highest concentrations in large predatory species at the top of the food chain, e.g., pike, swordfish, and tuna, as well as shark, seals, and toothed whales. While the toxicity of mercury vapor and mercury salts has been known since ancient times, the risks due to environmental contamination with methylmercury came to the forefront when, about 1960, Minamata disease in Japan was found to be caused by methylmercury due to pollution from a local factory. The methylmercury poisoning in adults is characterized by paresthesias of the extremities, the tongue, and the face, followed by problems in motor coordination. Later, tunnel vision and hearing problems occur. In Minamata, Japan, it was noted that the pregnant mother could appear in good health, while her child would be born with a serious spastic paresis syndrome. Recent evidence from epidemiological studies has shown that subtle cognitive and motor function deficits have already begun to appear at exposure levels prevalent in some fishing communities. No effective antidote is available. Governmental agencies have issued advisories regarding consumption of freshwater fish and seafood, and an international agreement has been reached to limit mercury releases to the environment.
Public Health Surveillance
Authors: Stoto Michael A. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractPublic health surveillance seeks to assess and track the health of the public, define public health priorities, evaluate programs, and stimulate research. It includes case surveillance focuses on individuals, or sometimes groups of individuals, to identify individuals with certain diseases and take action to stop spread of disease. Statistical surveillance, on the other hand, focuses on populations to identify differentials and trends that can inform public health policymaking, including the allocation of resources. Surveillance systems rely on a diversity of data sources. Surveillance of infectious disease relies primarily on the system of notifiable diseases put in place in the nineteenth century. Statistical surveillance systems use data from vital statistics, population‐based sample surveys, registries, and health care records.The introduction and growth of syndromic surveillance following 9/11 has focused on a statistical approach to detecting bioterrorist attacks. Despite many accomplishments, the value of syndromic surveillance for detecting bioterrorist attacks has not yet been demonstrated. Ultimately, the most important contribution of syndromic surveillance systems to public health may be for natural disease outbreaks, such as seasonal and pandemic influenza, and for other public health purposes beyond simple detection.
Privacy Protection in an Era of Data Mining and Record Keeping
Authors: Karr Alan F. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThe computerization of the world is changing the nature and degree of privacy protection, and even the very definition of privacy. The topic is rife with compromises, inconsistencies and paradoxes. Concern about privacy engenders “classical” trade‐offs between individual risk and social benefit, which are understood in only some contexts. Corporations and educational institutions hold immense amounts of information about individuals, most of which was provided willingly, but is subject to misuse. People fear identity theft, but employ their usernames as computer passwords. This article lays out a way to think about the issues, and summarizes history, current concerns, and possible futures.
Counterterrorism
Authors: Karr Alan F. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractIn today's world of complex politics and instant communication, terrorist attacks have assumed massive importance in terms of risk reality and risk perception. Strategies, mainly by national governments, to prevent, deter, mitigate, or otherwise respond to terrorist attacks are known ascounterterrorism.This article provides an overview of counterterrorism drawn exclusively from public information. The problems and issues are placed in a context of risk and risk perception, but we argue that extant paradigms for risk analysis may not apply, for at least two reasons. First, most approaches will be overwhelmed by false positives, given the extreme rarity of events that have occurred and the (conceptual to methodological) difficulty of predicting events of unknown nature. Second, not much of the data is available for broad scientific analysis and verification. Public attitudes and perceptions are discussed throughout.
Understanding Large‐Scale Structure in Massive Data Sets
Authors: Braverman Amy J. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis article discusses massive data sets and some statistical methods for analyzing them. This is not a comprehensive review of all aspects of massive data set analysis, but rather a review and discussion of the issues in the context of statistics. We start with what a “massive” data set is, and then review several analysis methods that have been proposed in the statistics literature. These have certain common threads, most notably their relationships to the concept of data reduction. Then we examine how they can be applied with the specific aim of understanding local structure on a global scale, thus exploiting one important characteristic of massive data sets. We conclude with a brief discussion of the challenges and potential benefits for risk analysis, focusing on an example from climate studies.
Nuclear Explosion Monitoring
Authors: Fagan Deborah K. , Anderson Dale N. , Shumway Robert H. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractSystematic monitoring of nuclear testing is a primary task that is critical for the success of any proposed comprehensive test ban treaty (CTBT). Current explosion monitoring methods use features of seismic and acoustic signatures to identify several thousand daily worldwide events as either naturally occurring or man‐made. The task is unique among risk analysis applications in that the political ramifications of event identification errors are profoundly serious and may persist for decades after the event in question. An approach to characterizing risk applies classical and Bayesian methods to signature features and summarizes the results in the event classification matrix (ECM). The approach stems from a desire to emulate a current expert system and has evolved as a collaboration between seismologists and statisticians.
Data Fusion
Authors: Braverman Amy J. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractWe define data fusion as the process of combining statistically heterogeneous samples from marginal distributions to construct a new sample that can be regarded as having come from the unobserved joint distribution of interest. This problem has been addressed in the literature on statistical matching, which also appeals to the missing data paradigm of Little and Rubin. Though less obvious, spatial statistics also offers techniques that facilitate rigorous data fusion by inferring unobserved values in multiple data sets at specific locations. We touch just briefly on the topic of copulas. Copulas have yet to be exploited in this context, but the link is clear given our definition of data fusion. Finally, we consider some challenges posed by data fusion, and maybe more importantly by the absence of data fusion.
Probabilistic Risk Assessment
Authors: Modarres Mohammad 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis article summarizes the formal approach to probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) of complex engineered systems. It is important to stress that the main objective of performing a PRA is not necessarily the estimation of the actual risk values; rather it is the determination of those elements of the system that substantially contribute to the estimated risks, characterization of uncertainties associated with such estimates, and assessment of the effectiveness of the various risk reduction strategies available. Performing PRA for a complex engineered system is a considerably intense and time‐consuming process that requires coordinated cooperation of different individuals and subject matter experts from research, engineering, and operations all the way to decision‐making and regulatory authorities. The main goal of this article, however, is to provide the readers with a high‐level, application‐independent overview of the major elements of a formal PRA. In the first section, critical concepts have been defined and the PRA process has been outlined. In the remainder of the article, a step‐by‐step procedure for conducting a PRA has been discussed, including limitations of each step. In each section, appropriate references for further details about the PRA process have been discussed.
Association Analysis
Authors: Neale Benjamin M. , Medland Sarah E. , Neale Michael C. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Association analysis aims to determine whether a disorder of interest correlates with genetic variation in the population. Such a correlation indicates that the surveyed genetic variation either predisposes to disease or acts as a proxy for the causal variant. This article provides a brief introduction to the genetic and statistical concepts involved in association analysis. The two primary research designs for association mapping of disease loci are case–control and family‐based studies. The article concludes with recent developments in association, such as genome‐wide association, that hold great promise for mapping of genetic variation related to common disease.
BioequivalenceArticle originally published in
Encyclopedia of Biostatistics, 2nd Edition
(2005, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd).
Authors: Endrenyi Laszlo 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Bioequivalence is defined as the comparable bioavailability of alternative drug formulations. Kinetic measures of bioavailability are reviewed, leading to a discussion of the statistical assessment of bioequivalence. Parametric and nonparametric methods of testing are described. Current research areas, including the estimation of individual bioequivalence and alternative measures for the evaluation of bioequivalence, are reviewed.
Gradients of occlusal wear in hunter‐gatherers and agriculturalists
Authors: Deter Christina A. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractOcclusal wear was recorded in maxillary teeth from three North American late Archaic (3385 ± 365 cal BC) hunter‐gatherer sites (n = 306) and late Anasazi‐early Zuni agricultural sites (∼1300 AD) (n = 87). Comparisons were undertaken using descriptive and inferential statistics to determine differences between these groups, and along the maxillary tooth row. The hunter‐gatherers had a significantly greater percentage of occlusal wear than the agriculturalists. For both hunter‐gatherers and agriculturalists, occlusal wear was greatest on the central incisors and first molars. The third molars had the least amount of wear. It was inferred from these results that the hunter‐gatherers had a more abrasive diet, and different daily task activities compared to the agriculturalists. One further finding was that wear patterns on anterior and posterior teeth are influenced by the order that teeth erupt into the jaw, as well as diet and behavior. Am J Phys Anthropol 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Mastoiditis—Paleopathological evidence of a rarely reported disease
Authors: Flohr Stefan , Schultz Michael 
Published: September 2008

AbstractSince antibiotics have become available, mastoiditis has become a rare disease in modern Western societies. However, it is still common in developing countries. It can be hypothesized that in earlier historical and prehistoric times, mastoiditis must have posed a serious threat to people's lives, and that the prevalence of this disease is probably underrepresented in the paleopathological literature. The present study identifies pathological changes in the pneumatized cells of the mastoid process in human skeletal samples from two early medieval cemeteries from Germany (Dirmstein: n = 152 mastoids, Rhens: n = 71 mastoids), using macroscopic, endoscopic, low‐power microscopic, scanning‐electron and light microscopic techniques, and draws some epidemiological conclusions as to the frequency of the disease diagnosed in the archaeological samples. Osseous changes because of mastoiditis were diagnosed in 83.4% of the temporal bones. The frequency in the skeletal sample from Dirmstein was higher than in the sample from Rhens. In both populations, males were more often affected than females and older individuals more often than younger individuals. The high frequency of mastoiditis observed was most likely due to an accumulation of osseous changes during individual lifetimes and supports the hypothesis that mastoiditis was a serious health problem in pre‐antibiotic times. It may be assumed that subclinical forms of mastoiditis and their osseous manifestations may even nowadays occur more often than was previously thought. It is suggested that the disease should be given more consideration in paleopathological investigations. Am J Phys Anthropol 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Catalytic performance of cellulose supported palladium complex for Heck reaction in water
Authors: Xu Ying , Zhang Lei , Cui Yuanchen 
Published: September 2008

AbstractCellulose supported palladium complex was synthesized and characterized by XPS, TG/DTA etc. The complex was found to be an efficient catalyst for Heck reaction of acrylic acid or styrene with aryl iodides at low temperature in water under atmospheric condition, the substituted trans‐cinnamic acid or 1,2‐stilbene was obtained in stereoselectivity. Repeated tests showed that the catalyst have good reusability. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008