bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Archaeological Chemical Analysis
Authors: Pollard A. Mark , Heron Carl 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIn recent years, archaeology has interacted more and more with the physical sciences. In particular, chemical analysis has been established as a significant contributor to science‐based archaeology. The principal applications include compositional analysis of natural and synthetic materials and residues to ascertain artifact manufacturing processes and use; chemical and isotopic studies of biological remains and identification of plant and animal residues to investigate ancient diet, nutrition, and resource use; the determination of geographical sources of procurement or production of materials to establish long‐distance contact or trade; and the processes governing preservation and decay of materials and scientific investigation in the context of conservation and restoration.This article explores the role of chemical analysis in archaeology and highlights the importance of the findings in contributing to our understanding of the past. In particular, taking examples from the last 200 years, it demonstrates that chemical analysis of archaeological materials is not a routine application but one thatmust be informed by a thorough knowledge of the archaeological context, degradative processes, and material – environment interactions. Case studies span a wide range of elemental, isotopic, and molecular investigations with a bibliography comprising nearly 200 publications.
Ultrafast Laser Technology and Spectroscopy
Authors: Reid Gavin D. , Wynne Klaas 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Ultrafast laser technology and spectroscopy involves the use of femtosecond (10
−15
s) laser and other (particle) sources to study the properties of matter. The extremely short pulse duration allows one to create, detect and study very short‐lived transient chemical reaction intermediates and transition states. Ultrafast lasers can also be used to produce laser pulses with enormous peak powers and power densities. This leads to applications such as laser machining and ablation, generation of electromagnetic radiation at unusual wavelengths (such as millimeter waves and X‐rays), and multiphoton imaging. The difficulty in applying femtosecond laser pulses is that the broad frequency spectrum can lead to temporal broadening of the pulse on propagation through the experimental set‐up. In this article, we describe the generation and amplification of femtosecond laser pulses and the various techniques that have been developed to characterize and manipulate the pulses.
Microwave Techniques
Authors: Smith Frank , Xiong Guohua 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A concise yet comprehensive review of the use of microwave‐assisted techniques for sample preparation in analytical chemistry is presented. A historical review of the development of the field is followed by summaries of the most significant theoretical principles, available instrumentation and safety considerations. The major part of the review concerns recent applications of the techniques to the preparation of a wide range of sample types. These include environmental, soil, biological, clinical, food, pharmaceutical, mineral, ceramic and industrial samples. Examples of microwave‐assisted drying and fusion of analytical samples are also given. Throughout, reference is made to the most important review articles. Where appropriate, original papers are summarized and cited.
Multivariate Image Analysis
Authors: Geladi Paul , Grahn Hans F. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Multivariate image analysis (MIA) is a methodology for analyzing multivariate images, where the image coordinates are position (two‐ or three‐dimensions) and variable number. Multivariate images can have typical sizes 1024 × 1024, 512 × 512, 256 × 256 etc. and have between two and many hundreds of variables. The variables can be wavelength, electron energy, particle mass and many others. Image analysis concentrates mainly on spatial relationships between pixels in a grey level image. MIA concentrates on the correlation of structure between the variables to provide extra information useful for exploring images and classifying regions in them. The many variables can be transformed into a few latent variable images containing condensed information. The sheer size of the data arrays necessitates visualization of raw data, intermediate data and analysis results.
All physical techniques for measuring materials can be made into imaging techniques, describing not only a property, but also its position in a plane or volume. All imaging techniques can be expanded to become multivariate. Multivariate imaging is used in three major fields: remote sensing, medical imaging and microscopy (including macroscopy). In microscopy it can be used to study materials and biological processes by optical, electron and charged particle techniques.
Spot Test Analysis
Authors: Jungreis Ervin 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Sensitive and selective qualitative tests based on chemical reactions using small amounts of complex and reagents are referred to as “spot tests”. The target is to reach the utmost sensitivity and selectivity with a minimum of physical and chemical operations.
Rapid advances in spectral, chromatographic, nuclear, mass spectroscopic and electroanalytical research have changed analytical chemistry spectacularly and developed highly sophisticated analytical tools. At the same time another development has taken place in certain distinct areas of application in exactly the opposite direction. This is the search for simple, compact and inexpensive analytical devices for semiquantitative evaluation of certain elements or compounds where such approximate evaluation has diagnostic value at least in the first stage of examination.
Major manufacturers of chemical reagents concentrated their efforts mainly in a number of applicative areas, namely clinical analysis, forensic tests, air and water quality control (QC) tests and soil and food QC tests.
It must be emphasized that the applicability of spot test methodology is limited and for the exact determination of chemical substances, complex analytical procedures are unavoidable. Although the use of spot and screening tests is marginal, the margin, however, is quite significant.
Acid Rain Modeling
Authors: Holland David M. , Sirois Alain 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis article provides an overview of existing statistical methodologies for the estimation of site‐specific and regional trends in wet deposition. The interaction of atmospheric processes and emissions tend to produce wet deposition data patterns that show large spatial and temporal variability. We conclude that a number of approaches are useful for trend estimation, but no one method is appropriate for all purposes.
Action Levels, Regulatory
Authors: van Ee Jeffrey 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Environmental data are often collected to assess whether an action level or regulatory standard has been exceeded. If a statistician is involved in the decision‐making process, it is often at the latter stages when the data have already been collected and a comparison is needed; however, at times a statistician may not be involved. In either case, a major problem in making the comparisons is a lack of understanding of basic assumptions and principles that lie behind the important comparisons. The US Environment Protection Agency (EPA) has advanced for years the ‘Data Quality Objective’ (DQO) process to define better basic issues in the decision‐making process and to aid in communicating acceptable costs and errors in the decision‐making process between stakeholders. Although the DQO process is performance‐based and provides real opportunities for cost savings, it can be misinterpreted. A major problem occurs when the basic principles that underlie the setting of the action‐level or regulatory standard and the representativeness of the sample data for comparison purposes are not applied concurrently.
Adaptive Designs
Authors: Flournoy Nancy 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

In adaptive designs, study information is used during the experiment to alter treatment allocation probabilities. In this article, the term ‘treatment’ is used as it is generally used in the experimental design literature to reference
any
intervention. For example, in addition to interventions for improving health, treatments may be doses of a pesticide or other contaminant. Adaptive designs are natural when subjects, or other experimental units, arrive sequentially or in batches. Fully sequential designs, in which allocation decisions are updated after each observation, are the most efficient, but can be impractical when observations are delayed or when there are multiple locations for the experiment. Breaking the design into two or more stages provides a reasonable compromise in many cases; such designs are also adaptive.
Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines
Authors: Kooperberg Charles 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS) algorithm was developed by Friedman as a nonparametric method for multiple regression. The MARS algorithm uses adaptively selected spline functions. Because of its adaptivity MARS is often able to model functions that express high variation in one region of the predictor space and are smoother in other parts.
Added Risk
Authors: West R. Webster 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Dose–response studies of environmental toxins are designed to determine the detrimental effects associated with exposure to the toxin, over a particular range of exposures. To properly quantify the toxic effect of a toxin, the
background risk
of no exposure to the toxin, R(0), must first be specified. The additional risk incurred by exposure to a dose,
d
, of the toxin is then called the added risk (AR) at this dose and is given by AR(
d
) = R(
d
) – R(0).
Air Quality
Authors: Swithenbank J. , Nasserzadeh V. , Goh Y.R. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The emission of pollutants from industrial processes has become a question of considerable public and scientific concern in the light of evidence of their extreme toxicity. The main problem with toxic emissions from combustion processes is the requirement for expensive gas cleaning systems to meet the increasingly stringent US and EC legislations. While the technology for the cleanup of particulate matter and acid gases is comparatively straightforward, it is the limitation of the emissions of dioxins, furans and heavy metals which is now of particular concern. Although the problem with heavy metals in the environment is due to their toxic effects on human health, it has been shown that in some cases organic heavy metal compounds are very much more toxic than inorganic species.
Air Quality Indicators, Pollutant Specific
Authors: Hunt William F. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Pollutant‐specific air quality indicators can be extremely useful in communicating environmental information to the public, air pollution control officials, the private sector, governmental officials and regulators, and academia. Indicators are needed to translate environmental data into a form that is readily understood. An indicator must be able to translate complex information into a form that is readily understood by decision‐makers, as well as by laymen. To accomplish this, this article will examine the use of US National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) related pollutant‐specific air quality indicators. These air quality indicators can play an important communications role in examining air trends, compliance status, and the overall effectiveness of environmental policies/regulations.
Ames Assay
Authors: Margolin Barry H. , Kim Byung‐Soo 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Who would have thought that
Salmonella
bacteria, the very same strains that are the bane of travelers, would also contribute to human health via their use in bioassays for genetic mutation? Developed by Ames and colleagues in the early 1970s, the Ames assay continues to hold a preeminent position in genetic toxicology. Its applications have grown increasingly diverse, ranging from attempts at cancer prediction to screening of industrial byproducts for possible mutagens. The assay is currently conducted in thousands of laboratories worldwide. The Ames assay has produced a wealth of experimental data over the last two decades. During the same period many authors have proposed mechanistic models for the analysis of Ames data. Much of this modeling, based on radiation ‘hit theory’, derives from the work of Haynes and Eckardt.
Aquatic Toxicology
Authors: Bailer A. John , Oris James T. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Aquatic toxicology is the study of poisons in freshwater and marine environments. As a field of formal study, aquatic toxicology is relatively new in the larger field of environmental toxicology and has borrowed heavily from the methods and procedures of mammalian toxicology. Thus, many environmetric developments and issues are common among aquatic, mammalian, and environmental toxicology. There are, however, several features of aquatic toxicology that bring unique problems to the field. First and foremost is the fact that a main goal is the protection of a wide variety of habitats and organisms, encompassing all known phyla. Humans can be a focus (e.g. drinking water standards), but they are often considered rather as just one of many organisms in a particular ecosystem. In aquatic toxicology, therefore, statistical issues arise at the individual, population, community, and ecosystem level.
Artificial Intelligence
Authors: Hand David J. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a product of the computer age. Although people have fantasized about making intelligent creations since the dawn of time, until the latter half of the twentieth century the motive power for these creations was magic. Machines such as Babbage's Analytical Engine suggested that a mechanical solution might be feasible, but limitations in precision manufacturing prevented this from getting very far. It was not until the advent of electronics and the computer that researchers began to see that the dream might one day be a practical reality, and now progress towards genuine thinking machines has begun to occur.
Atmospheric Dispersion: Complex Terrain
Authors: Egan Bruce A. , Snyder William H. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAtmospheric dispersion processes in complex terrain are generally more complicated than flows over simple, homogeneous, relatively flat terrain. This is because the nonhomogeneity of the terrain not only alters the airflow fields and the turbulence (diffusion intensities) in both the horizontal and vertical directions, but it also affects the consequences of solar heating and radiative cooling on the development of local circulations and flows. Although important over homogeneous terrain, the vertical profiles of wind velocity and temperature are even more important factors when considering complex terrain.
BACI
Design
Authors: Smith Eric P. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The purpose of impact assessment is to evaluate whether or not a stressor has changed the environment, which components are adversely affected and to estimate the magnitude of the effects. The evaluation of impact involves comparative methods. Early approaches to impact assessment involved the use of computer simulation models to predict the impact. Decisions were then made based on the soundness of those predictions. Although the data used to interpret effects are quite varied, the methods for analysis are often quite similar and involve comparison of impact areas with control areas. When information is available prior to the potential impact, the design is often referred to as a Before–After Control‐impact (BACI) design. Several variations on the basic design have been proposed and are discussed in this article.
Benchmark Analysis
Authors: Crump Kenneth 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The benchmark approach is a statistical procedure applied to dose–response data from toxicologic, clinical or epidemiologic studies. It can be used to set health standards or guidelines for exposures to toxic substances. Such guidelines include those promulgated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) called references doses (RfDs), for oral exposures, or reference concentrations (RfCs), for exposures through the ambient air. The USEPA defined the RfD as ‘an estimate (with uncertainty spanning perhaps an order of magnitude) of a daily exposure to the human population, including sensitive subgroups, that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime’.
Benthic Ecology
Authors: Reynolds Colin S. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Benthos is the name given to the flora and fauna occurring on, in or close to the bottom substrata of aquatic environments, including lakes, ponds, rivers and streams, and the sea. In this respect, the term serves to distinguish the biota from those of the open water or ‘pelagic zone’. Benthic ecology is concerned with the biotic interrelationships of the benthos and its environments. Thus separated from pelagic ecology, the ecology of aquatic substrata is nevertheless an integral component of the ecology of the entire system.
Bioabundance
Authors: Ickstadt Katja 
Published: September 2006

AbstractBioabundance is a quantity that describes the number of individuals of a species in an area of interest, either directly or through other measurements such as biomass or percentage of cover. It is the underlying quantity of interest in a number of ecological investigations, such as monitoring population sizes and studying the spatial or space–time pattern of a single plant or animal species in a region or plot. It is also the key ingredient for analysing biodiversity, the relative abundance of several or all species in an ecological community.
Biological Assay
Authors: Coull Brent A. , Ryan Louise M. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Biological assay (also called
bioassay
) refers to methods for characterizing the potency of a stimulus based on the outcome of its application to living organisms. Traditionally, statistical methods in bioassay have focused on the estimation of the relative potency of a standard and a test drug. In environmental health research, interest often focuses on characterizing the dose–response relationships between a health effect and one or more exposures. In this setting, bioassay plays an important role in the assessment of toxicity of potentially hazardous substances; such studies (a) confirm associations between health effects and environmental exposures observed in environmental epidemiological studies, (b) provide insight into biological mechanisms underlying exposure effects, and (c) yield dose–response information that is vital for regulatory decision making. Such studies play a large role in carcinogenesis, teratogenesis, mutagenesis, and other toxicity studies, with statistical methods for analyzing bioassay data varying depending on the type of study. This article illustrates some general issues in the analysis of bioassay data by focusing on the simple setting of a rodent toxicological bioassay.
Monitoring, Biological
Authors: Smith Eric P. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In the environmental context, biological monitoring refers to the gathering of information on biological organisms to assess the environmental impact or the biological health of the environment. In a strict sense, the term applies to a continuing collection of data used to establish whether explicitly stated quality control conditions are being met. Other terms that are related include biological surveys, assessment, and surveillance. A survey typically involves a single sampling time, while surveillance suggests repeated surveys. Biological assessment often refers to the evaluation of the health of a system and thus involves interpretation of the collected information.
Boxplot, Bivariate
Authors: Iglewicz Boris 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A variety of graphical displays are available for summarizing bivariate data. These include scatter plots, local density plots, and smoothed curve scatter plots. Color is sometimes used effectively to describe local densities. The popularity of the univariate boxplot makes it tempting to derive practical bivariate versions that summarize the key features of bivariate data. Several such bivariate boxplot constructions will be described in this article.
Bivariate Extreme Value Distribution
Authors: Teugels Jozef L. 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIn many situations within environmetrics, investigators deal with bivariate measurements. While each of the components might have its own extreme characteristics, frequently there is a need for insight into the simultaneous happening of two or more extreme events. First a few theoretical aspects are dealt with on how to model the dependence and the location of more information in the literature is indicated. Some specific applications of bivariate extremes within an environmental context are then described.
Boxplot
Authors: Iglewicz Boris 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Tukey introduced several basic exploratory data analytic tools that have since found great popularity and extensive usage. These tools include the stem‐and‐leaf display, the five‐number summary, and a graphical univariate data summary called a box‐and‐whisker plot, which is now typically called a boxplot. The five‐number summary is the basis of a boxplot. It consists of the median, the lower and upper quartiles, and the smallest and largest observation.
Branching Process
Authors: Athreya K.B. 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The study of the growth and development of many species of animals, plants and other organisms over time may be approached in the following manner. At some point in time a set of individuals called ancestors or the zeroth generation is identified. These produce offspring and the collection of offspring of all the ancestors constitutes the first generation. The offspring of these first generation individuals constitute the second generation and so on. If one specifies the rules by which the offspring production takes place then one could study the behavior of the long time evolution of such a process, called a
branching process
. Questions of interest are the long term survival of such a process or its extinction, the growth rate of such a population, fluctuation of population sizes, effects of control mechanicisms etc. In this article several simple mathematical models and some results for these will be discussed. Many of the assumptions made, especially the one about independence of lines of descent, are somewhat idealistic and unrealistic. Nevertheless, the models do prove useful in answering some general questions, since many results about long term behavior deviate somewhat from the basic assumptions.
B
ritish
E
cological
S
ociety
Authors: Sheail John 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The British Ecological Society is a learned society, a registered charity, and a company limited by guarantee. With a membership of about 4500 spread around the world, its core activities are the publication of the results of research in ecology, the development of scientific meetings, and the promotion of ecological awareness through education. In the formal language of its mission statement, the Society's purpose is ‘to advance and support the science of ecology and publicize the outcome of research in order to advance knowledge, education and its application’.