bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Prospects For U.S. Energy Self-Sufficiency
Authors: Nelson T.W. 
Published: December 2007

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

Abstract
The oil embargo and production cutbacks of 1973 and the ensuing OPEC price increases have brought into sharp focus the increasingly heavy reliance of the United States on foreign oil imports. This reliance, and the fact that it is increasing steadily, is unsound both for our economy and our national security.
Despite recent efforts to promote energy conservation and efficiency, demand for energy is expected to continue to rise with economic growth, the increase in population, and improvement in population, and improvement in environmental conditions and living standards. Therefore, to avoid even greater reliance on imports we must increase domestic energy production. Since U.S. oil and gas production will supply a smaller and smaller percentage of U.S. oil and overall energy demand, we must look to coal and nuclear energy, and later to solar and synthetic energy sources.
We must develop a sound national energy policy to eliminate waste in energy use policy to eliminate waste in energy use and to encourage greater exploration and production of gas and oil, the use of coal and nuclear energy, and the development of solar and synthetic energy. At the same time, to encourage exploration in the U.S. as well as a smooth flow of the imports that we need, national policy should foster a strong oil and gas industry, working free of the threat of discriminatory legislation, including divestiture legislation and price controls which create negative incentives.

Introduction
The United States is increasingly consuming more energy than is being produced from domestic resources. Current produced from domestic resources. Current patterns of production and consumption patterns of production and consumption can only widen this gap and pose increasing dangers to our nation's economy and security. Memories are short, and the public and many of their elected representatives seem to have forgotten the 1973 embargo, the long lines at service stations, the quadrupling of world oil prices and the resultant impact on our and the world's economy. Those events were a clear danger flag on the road we are following.
The reasons for the growing energy gap have been well documented.
Capital Resources For Energy
Authors: Krupp Herbert W. 
Published: December 2007

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

Capital Shortage
You all remember the recession year of 1974. You remember the inflation that accompanied the recession and boosted your food bills in the supermarket and your expenses for the car and home more than it raised your salary. And you remember the sky-high interest rates that shook the utility industry, floored the housing industry and led to the cancellation and delay of many investment projects. And you remember reading about the hike in the nation's unemployment rate. Perhaps you yourself were unemployed; more likely you knew of friends and relatives in other industries who were laid off in the worst recession since the great depression of the 1930's. In short, you all remember 1974 as a year in which the economy did poorly and in which the standard of living for the average American slumped.
If you're able to visualize a string of years just like 1974, then you can imagine what a shortage of capital would do to this country. Not that the recession of 1974–1975 was primarily caused by a shortage of capital; it was primarily caused by a shortage of capital; it was not? But the economic symptoms of this last recession mimic those that would result from a capital shortage.
During a capital shortage not enough money is around to adequately finance industrial expansion. Interest rates skyrocket and necessary investment projects are cancelled or delayed. Industrial capacity consequently becomes inadequate, and this inadequacy leads to shortages and soaring prices. Unemployment rises, mainly because economic growth is too slow to completely absorb the entry of millions of new workers each year. Thus, a shortage of capital retards economic growth, raises inflation, boosts unemployment and in general lowers the standard of living.

Objective and Format
Some businessmen fear that this country will experience a capital shortage in the 1970'S and 1980's. They feel that the enormous and growing capital requirements of the oil and gas, coal and electric utility industries will make this outcome inevitable. Are their fears warranted?
Monitoring and Assessment of Produced Water Originating Contaminants in the Ekofisk Region of the North Sea
Authors: Durell G. , Neff J. , Melbye A. , Johnsen S. , Garpestad E. , Gruner H. 
Published: December 2007

AbstractThe North Sea Bioaccumulation Program was begun in 1995 to monitor and model the fate and effects of produced water discharges to the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. This program includes determining the levels and significance of key contaminants that may concentrate through the food web. In 1999 the potential impacts in the Ekofisk Region were investigated.Sampling and chemical analysis techniques were selected to obtain optimum data for different interpretation objectives. The field methods included sampling (1) in situ, large volume waters, (2) semipermeable membrane devices, (3) caged mussels, and (4) plankton. Samples were collected near and distant to produced water discharges and state-of-the-art trace level analytical methods were applied to determine a suite of organic contaminants, including total hydrocarbons, and more than 60 parent and alkylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), phenols, decalins, and benzothiophenes. Toxic or produced water characteristic metals were also measured.Most target analytes were detected at most stations, contrary to earlier studies that used more conventional and less sensitive and specific sampling and measurement techniques. The concentrations of produced water derived contaminants decreased rapidly with increased distance from the platforms, to near-background levels 5 km from the discharge. Produced water-specific contaminant composition was identified, and compositional changes were observed with distance and time from discharge. An ecological risk assessment was performed using multiple data assessment techniques, and consistently showed that the produced water poses a very low risk to the marine ecology.This work shows the importance of customizing the sampling procedures for specific needs, carefully selecting source-and effects-specific analytes for measurement, and using matrix-specific ultra-sensitive analytical methods. Data generated in this manner can confidently be used for a variety of data analysis and interpretation purposes (e.g., contaminant transport and dissolution, contaminant bioaccumulation, environmental risk assessment, degradation and persistence of contaminants, source identification).
Molecular Responses in Fish as Risk Parameters of Long-Term Effects of Produced Water
Authors: Aas Endre , Andersen Odd Ketil , Baussant Thierry , Balk Lennart , Klungsøyr Jarle 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The amount of produced water from oil production is expected to increase in years to come, and presently most of it is released to sea. Oil residues are regarded as one of the main environmental hazards of produced water discharges. The presence of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) metabolites in bile, induction of detoxification enzymes (CYP1A) and the formation of DNA adducts in liver was studied in a laboratory experiment with Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). Responses in these parameters (biomarkers) have been positively correlated with the occurrence of mutagenic and carcinogenic effects in fish. The laboratory study demonstrated that PAH from the oil were taken up, metabolised and bound to DNA molecules after a 30 days exposure to dispersed crude oil at nominal oil concentrations as low as 60 µg/l (ppb). These molecular responses are suggested as environmental risk parameters for potential adverse effects of produced water, and in particular effects of PAH.
Atlantic cod, haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) and long rough dab (Hippoglossoides platessoides) caught in an environmental monitoring survey in the North Sea, did not show detectable levels of PAH metabolites in bile nor induction of CYP1A, which could be associated to oil activity. DNA adduct formation was not investigated during this survey.
Biopolymer Pilot Facilities - Coalinga
Authors: Baxter Dan , Bowman R.W. , Tinker Gordon , Bates Ted 
Published: December 2007

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

Introduction
Shell Oil Co. and the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) plan to demonstrate additional oil recovery by enhanced waterflooding technique in the East Coalinga Field of California, which is shown in Fig. 1. Shell will provide 70 percent of the funding required for the polymer-flooding demonstration pilot. pilot. In older fields in California having moderate viscosity oils, waterfloods have been marginally successful or potential projects have been delayed pending development of mobility control technology. Where justified, the optimum process for a supplemental recovery project would be polymer flooding directly project would be polymer flooding directly following primary oil production. The Coalinga project falls in this category, and it has been project falls in this category, and it has been designed to determine if the added expense of a polymer flood over a conventional waterflood is polymer flood over a conventional waterflood is justified in the Temblor Zone II reservoir. This reservoir has produced primary oil since 1901 and has an unfavorable water displacement mobility ratio of 14.

Background
Fig. 2 indicates the Coalinga Field and pilot project area. The magnitude of the pilot project area. The magnitude of the full-scale project from Shell's Temblor Zone II reservoir in Coalinga is 35 million bbl from polymer flooding. Of this amount, 8 million bbl polymer flooding. Of this amount, 8 million bbl would be recovered in excess of a waterflood. These parameters for the full-scale project are outlined in Table I.
The initial phase of the project is scheduled to commence July 1976 with the injection of 5,000 B/D water into four injection wells. Following 1 year of water injection, biopolymer will be injected for about 1.5 years to increase the water viscosity and thus reduce the mobility ratio. The choice of this polymer is discussed in Ref. 1. After polymer injection, additional water injection will follow. Ultimate additional oil above primary from the 130-acre project area is expected to amount to 2,600,000 bbl, project area is expected to amount to 2,600,000 bbl, including 600,000 bbl resulting from polymer injection instead of just water. Daily production will increase to 1,000 bbl oil and production will increase to 1,000 bbl oil and 4,000 bbl water. Using improved estimates of fluid properties and reservoir description from the demonstration project, a numerical simulator would be applied to compare the performance of polymer flooding and waterflooding. Following polymer flooding and waterflooding. Following a reliable comparison, full-scale expansion would be made. Pilot parameters with some typical reservoir parameters and a type log from the Temblor Zone II reservoir are included in Tables II and III and Fig. 3.
Sulfonation of Petroleum Feedstocks in a Wiped Film Reactor
Authors: Ashcraft T.L. , Saunders R.K. 
Published: December 2007

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

Abstract
This paper summarizes the yields of broad spectrum sulfonates obtained from the sulfonation of selected petroleum fractions using gaseous SO3 in a wiped film reactor. Sulfonation is selective toward molecules having more than two aromatic rings; however, SO3 treats well in excess of 1.0 moles SO3/mole feed aromatics are required to achieve aromatics conversions in excess of 50–70%. Sulfonic acid decomposition with concomitant formation of SO2 can significantly reduce sulfonates yield. Sulfonic acid decomposition, which can be minimized by rapid neutralization of the acid product, is an important consideration in the design of a sulfonation process.

Introduction
Sulfonates produced from lube boiling range petroleum fractions are potentially important as tertiary oil potentially important as tertiary oil recovery surfactants. This type of broad spectrum sulfonate can be produced from one of several processes which utilize either oleum or SO3 as the primary sulfonating agent. Hydrocarbon primary sulfonating agent. Hydrocarbon sulfonates are a major component in many micellar formulations. As a result, their cost is an important element in micellar flood economics. Both the yield of hydrocarbon sulfonate per unit feedstock and the type and distribution of sulfonation by-products will strongly influence projected surfactant manufacturing costs.
The objective of this study was to investigate the sulfonation of selected lube boiling range petroleum fractions under a variety of reaction conditions utilizing a wiped film reactor and gaseous SO3. Product distributions and yields are correlated against feed molecular weight and type, SO3/oil feed ratio, sulfonic acid soak time and reactor effluent temperature.

CHEMISTRY
The formation of broad spectrum petroleum sulfonates occurs primarily petroleum sulfonates occurs primarily through reaction of SO3 with molecules in the oil which contain at least one aromatic ring followed by neutralization of the resulting free acid.
Chemical Mass Balance Model – A Tool to Predict Present and Future Chemical Discharges with Produced Water
Authors: Bakke S. , Vik E. A. , Stang P. , Kelley A. , Ravnestad M. , Voldum K. , Jensen R. D. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
A chemical mass balance model was developed for the Ekofisk area in the North Sea, operated by Phillips Petroleum Company Norway. The present model includes 13 platforms. There are continuous produced water discharges from five of these. Only production, pipeline and injection chemicals are included in the model. The model predicts the amount of chemicals in produced water at each discharge point, the chemical content in the exported oil, as well as chemical consumption and costs. Based on current chemical treatment philosophy and the fall 1999 long-term production forecast for the Ekofisk Area fields, prognoses for chemical consumption and discharge over the lifetime of the individual platforms and for the total Ekofisk Area were established. Examples from the model predictions are presented in this paper.
The most important parameter in the model is the oil/water partitioning; i.e. the discharge factors of the individual chemicals. The paper presents results from initial validation studies including comparison of the partitioning factors applied in this model with results obtained from laboratory and field studies.
Hydrogen Sulfide Forecasting Under PWRI (Produced Water Reinjection)
Authors: Oen Amy M. P. , Vik Eilen A. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
An initial evaluation of the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) formation potential under produced water reinjection (PWRI) for samples taken from the A/S Norske Shell operated Draugen platform has been performed using the Sawyer and McCarthy model. This model provides an estimate to the maximum H2S generation potential. The modeling results have been considered to be adequate for input to preliminary PWRI evaluations and can together with laboratory experiments and field trials be used to design reinjection operations and keep extra costs to a minimum.
Fracture Flow Capacity - A Key to Sustained Production after Hydraulic Fracturing
Authors: Jennings A.R. , Lord D.L. 
Published: December 2007

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

Abstract
The objective of a hydraulic fracturing treatment is to place a conductive fracture deep into the producing formation. Fracture flow capacity, or ability of the propped fracture to conduct fluids, is one of the most important aspects of the treatment. Several laboratory test procedures have been developed to evaluate proppants under a wide range of closure pressures and concentrations.
As well depths increase, it is necessary to adjust proppant systems to compensate for additional loads under producing conditions. Recently, success has been encountered using mixtures of sand and high strength proppants in deep formations in proppants in deep formations in Northern Louisiana, East Texas, and Oklahoma.
Information provided in this work will offer guidelines which should be considered for any fracturing treatment using propping agent. Fracture flow capacity of the fracture system is of utmost importance currently because many marginal zones are being completed and fractured. Sustained production increase is also very production increase is also very important. Laboratory and field application data indicate proppant systems initially selected have an influence on well production behavior throughout the producing life of the well.

Introduction
With the current emphasis on oil and gas production, much attention is being given to means of well stimulation. The objective of these stimulation treatments is to improve well production beyond what it will produce naturally.
Several methods of well production stimulation presently are available. These methods include wellbore clean-out treatments, chemical treatments in the formation matrix surrounding the wellbore, fracture acidizing, and hydraulic fracturing with proppant.
In many low permeability formations, wellbore improvement methods may not provide a large increase in production. provide a large increase in production.
Comparison Between Full Scale Experimental Data and Calculations with Kameleon FireEx, A Simulator for Gas Dispersions and Fires
Authors: Spaggiari Laura F. , Blotto Paola , Vembe Bjørn E. , Lilleheie Nils I. , Magnussen Bjørn F. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
A study has been performed to investigate the efficiency of Kameleon FireEx, a three dimensional transient simulator for fire and gas dispersion scenarios. Kameleon FireEx can handle hydrocarbon pool and jet fires within complex geometry, solving problems typical of oil and gas companies.
The code has been developed by SINTEF Energy Research Division Applied Thermodynamics and Fluid Dynamics, within a Joint Industry Project sponsored by Ruhrgas, Gaz de France, Statoil, Elf and ENI.
The paper presents some validation cases of the code, carried out with the support of full-scale measurements.
A natural gas release from a vertical vent stack is considered: six jet fires resulting from the ignition of subsonic releases and ten unignited gas dispersions (two sonic jets included).
The size and the shape of the flame obtained are realistic and close to the measurements. The radiation levels predicted show a good agreement with the experimental data, even though in some cases the differences between Kameleon FireEx and the measurements are significant.
The gas concentrations, resulting from subsonic releases, are calculated with reasonable agreement with experiments, while the use of a simple pseudo diameter method for the sonic jet release results in overestimated plume sizes.
Determination of Gas Well Deliverability of Vertically Fractured Wells
Authors: Hadinoto Nino , Raghavan R. , Thomas G.W. 
Published: December 2007

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers Inc.

Abstract
The applicability of commonly accepted radial flow solutions to estimate deliverability of vertically fractured gas wells was examined. Synthetic deliverability data (isochronal and flow after flow) were generated using a two-dimensional single-phase gas simulator. The effect of fracture length and pressure level and PVT data was investigated. Flow-after-flow data PVT data was investigated. Flow-after-flow data also were used to investigate the application of the Odeh-Jones method for analyzing variable rate drawdown data to determine formation permeability and skin factor (fracture length) permeability and skin factor (fracture length) for a vertically fractured gas well.
It is shown in this study that conventional methods of predicting deliverability from short-time isochronal and flow-after-flow tests will lead to calculation of erroneous values of absolute open flow (AOF) than that which would be obtained from long-time flow tests. Depending on specific conditions, these errors can be either lower or higher than actual values. It is also shown that flow exponents different from unity can be obtained from short time flow tests even though laminar flow prevails. This result is a consequence of prevails. This result is a consequence of changing flow regimes that result due to the vertical fracture.
This study also indicates that if the Odeh-Jones method of analysis is used, then data obtained for analysis should correspond to the pseudo radial flow period. If early data where linear flow controls pressure behavior are used, then erroneous results will be obtained.

Introduction
Gas well deliverability tests are multipoint tests consisting of three or more flows with pressures, rates, and other data being recorded as a function of time. These tests are usually required by state regulatory agencies for proration purposes and to obtain an allowable. In addition, these tests can provide information for reservoir and provide information for reservoir and production engineering studies. production engineering studies. Basically there are two different types of deliverability tests:flow-after-flow tests andisochronal tests.
Both of these are very well documented in the literature. Gas deliverability is often determined by use of the empirical equation:
......................(1)
The Improved Birdwell Casing Finder
Authors: Baltosser R.W. , Honea Cecil 
Published: December 2007

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers Inc.

Abstract
The Birdwell Casing Finder is designed to locate lost or abandoned oil well casing at depth in the ground. It does this by means of a system of sensors which measure the differential in the horizontal component of the magnetic field. This measurement provides information as to the depth to the provides information as to the depth to the top of the abandoned casing as well as the distance and direction to the casing from an exploratory borehole drilled in the vicinity of the lost casing. The casing can be detected at distances of fifteen to eighteen feet horizontally.

Introduction
During the three years that the Birdwell Casing Finder has been in use, it has become apparent that certain modifications to the basic instrument were desirable.
An analysis of these modifications suggested that if improved resolution of the data plus an accurate orientation could be achieved, along with changing of housing materials, the instrument could be used to depths as great as 10,000 feet in the heaviest drilling muds.
A design review of the basic instrument suggested that if the existing detection system was duplicated and placed at right angles to the existing system, then the requirement of improved resolution would be me" Also, it was theoretically possible to use a pair of crossed fluxgate detectors as a magnetic compass sensitive to the earth's magnetic field. Since many of the existing borehole inclinometers use the earth's field as their orientation reference and the existing detection system uses fluxgate magnetic detectors, this appeared to be a reasonable solution. An analysis of existing borehole inclinometer data suggested that such a compass would be reliable to a distance of fifty feet above the casing top, though in some orientations it would be reliable to within ten feet from the casing top. This data suggested that the development of such a fluxgate compass was desirable and a research project was subsequently set up and satisfactorily completed.