bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
8 Divination, History, and Superstition
Authors: Fox Matthew 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The centre of this chapter is a reading of the late philosophical dialogue on divination, De divinatione. The work divides into two books, and the chapter argues for a continuation of the approach applied in earlier chapters, so that the speakers of both books are treated as fictional characters, and their arguments evaluated for their representational function. Thus, the speaker of book 2, Cicero, must be distinguished from the author. In this way, the work presents two opposing ideological messages: either Rome is a place where events follow a predictable pattern, one that can be discerned by examining historical anecdote, or one where events show that no providential guiding force exists. History is the testing ground for these hypotheses, and the work does not draw conclusions. Cicero's own presentation of himself as a politician and poet is used to corroborate these arguments.
11 Conclusions
Authors: Fox Matthew 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter draws together the recurrent themes of the book. Rethinking Cicero's reception can reveal the obstacles to an easy appreciation of his sceptical and ironic treatment of Rome's history. The dialogic quality of his writing can then emerge more clearly. As a result, Cicero appears as a figure interrogating the ideological dilemmas of his own day, rather than as one determined to exploit his rhetorical accomplishments to place himself at the centre of Rome's history. Nevertheless, Cicero's engagement with history does provide a picture of the model citizen: it is one inflected by Cicero's own scepticism, who can simultaneously understand the need for a sense of identity grounded in history, but also step back and observe the problems of that process. This citizen is not engaged in the positive performance of identity emphasized in much recent scholarship on Roman rhetoric.
Analogy and Metaphor
Authors: Swinburne Richard 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
Words in two sentences are used univocally if (and only if) there are the same syntactic and semantic criteria for their use; analogically if there are largely the same criteria; equivocally if there are largely dissimilar criteria. Following J. Ross, the chapter claims that having the same syntactic criteria consists of having the same synonyms, antonyms, determinates, and determinables. An analogical sense of a word may be a literal sense which it may have in many different sentences. A metaphorical sense of a word is a new sense generated by the meaning of the type sentence (in which the word occurs) and a new context. Metaphorical sentences have truth-values.
Defending the Society of States
Authors: Ralph Jason 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This book is among the first to address the issues raised by the International Criminal Court from an International Relations perspective. By clearly outlining a theoretical framework to interpret these issues, it makes a significant contribution to the English School's study of international society. More specifically, it offers a concise definition of ‘world society’ and thus helps to resolve a longstanding problem in international theory. This groundbreaking conceptual work is supported by an indepth empirical analysis of American opposition to the ICC. The book goes beyond the familiar arguments related to national interests and argues that the Court has exposed the extent to which American notions of accountability are tied to the nation‐state. Where other democracies are willing to renegotiate their social contract because they see themselves as part of world society, the US protects its particular contract with ‘the American people’ because it offers a means of distinguishing that nation and its democracy from the rest of the world. In opposing the ICC, therefore, the US seeks to defend a society of states because this kind of society can accommodate American exceptionalism and advance particular US interests. This ‘sovereigntist’, or more accurately ‘Americanist’, influence is further illustrated in chapters on the customary international law, universal jurisdiction, transatlantic relations and US policy on international humanitarian law in the war on terror. The book concludes by evoking E.H. Carr's criticism of those great powers who claim that a harmony exists between their particular interests and those of wider society. It also recalls his argument that great powers sometimes need to compromise and in this context it argues that support for the ICC is a more effective means of fulfilling America's purpose and a less costly sacrifice for the US to make than that demanded by the ‘Americanist’ policy of nation‐building.
On the Ethics of War and Terrorism
Authors: Steinhoff Uwe 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This book describes and explains the basic tenets of just war theory and gives a precise, succinct, and highly critical account of its present status and of the most important and controversial current debates surrounding it. Rejecting certain traditional, in effect medieval assumptions of just war theory and advancing a liberal outlook, it argues that every single individual is a legitimate authority and has, under certain circumstances, the right to declare war on others or the state. It also argues that just cause cannot be established independently of the other criteria of ius ad bellum (the justification for entering into war), except for right intention, which the book interprets more leniently than is traditional. Turning to ius in bello (which governs the conduct of a war) the book criticizes the doctrine of double effect and concludes that insofar as wars kill innocents, albeit as ‘collateral damage’, they cannot be just, but at best justified as the lesser evil. The book gives particular attention to the question why soldiers, allegedly, are legitimate targets and civilians not. Discussing four approaches to the explanation of the difference, it is argued that the four principles underlying them should all be taken into account and outlines how their comparative weighting can proceed when applied to concrete cases. The resulting approach does not square the distinction between legitimate and illegitimate targets with that between soldiers and civilians: this has extremely important consequences for the conduct of war. Finally, the book analyses the concept of terrorism, arguing that some forms of ‘terrorism’ are not terrorism at all and that, under certain circumstances, even terrorism proper can be justified.
4 Bending so as Not to Break: What the Bush Presidency Reveals about the Politics of Unilateral Action
Authors: Howell William G. , Kriner Douglas L. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter focuses on congressional efforts to curtail the president's foreign policy over terrorism and the Middle East, almost all of which has been unilaterally instituted. With a series of case studies and new experimental survey data, it is shown that congressional opposition to the president systematically influences the willingness of average citizens to support the president's military campaigns abroad and, moreover, that such opposition has occasionally induced the president to back off from his preferred policies. So doing, it demonstrates that congressional checks on presidential war powers, though certainly diminished, remain a core feature of unilateral politics.
6 From Success to Failure? Iraq and the Organization of George W. Bush's Decision Making
Authors: Burke John P. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter examines decision making in the Bush presidency by analyzing its formal organizational processes, including the structure of the advisory process, the access of advisers to the president, the coordination and management of the advisory process, and the president's penchant for delegation, his emphasis on loyalty, and his willingness to impose organizational discipline on top advisers. On each dimension, the process is found wanting. The administration's collegial deliberation is then considered, raising troubling questions about the president's failure to press critical questions (such as the reliability of evidence regarding weapons of mass destruction in Iraq and the premises on which the administration planned for postwar Iraq) and his tendency to focus on how to accomplish something rather than whether to accomplish it. The issues of diversity of whom Bush chose to engage and the imbalance of power and influence among the principals are also addressed.
13 Policy Histories and Partisan Leadership in Presidential Studies: The Case of Social Security
Authors: Ross Fiona 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter seeks to illustrate the importance of both structural constraints deriving from the established trajectory of the policy regime itself and the relevance of the partisan character of key actors in understanding the scope for significant leadership. Institutionally embedded paths can be moved endogenously but change is usually subsequent to a pattern of path-erosion and conditional upon high levels of trust in the agents of change. Even when the returns generated by the extant path are impaired, the capacity for transformative leadership is often limited to actors who own the issue at hand. Combining these points, it is argued that presidential scholars can improve their predictive capacity by factoring the properties of the path and issue-ownership by key actors into their analyses: both factors would have generated the very clear prediction that partial privatization of Social Security by the Bush Administration would fail. Conversely, an analysis based on the standard short-term political and institutional variables of unified government, presidential commitment, speed, and focus very early in a new administration mistakenly inspired some confidence that George W. Bush enjoyed a window of opportunity for reform.
1 Anglicans and Empire: Historical Interpretations
Authors: Strong Rowan 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The connection between Anglicanism, missions, and empire began in 1701 with the foundation of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, and not as a consequence of the Evangelical Revival at the end of the 18th century. These and other Christian missions were also a major ingredient in the propagation of national identity for the English, as well as for an understanding of English-British imperialism. This was brought about in the formation and dissemination of a public theological discourse of the English-British empire in the period 1700-c.1850.
Gilding: Projection, Value and Secondary Qualities
Authors: Kail P. J. E. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter examines Hume's comparison of values with secondary qualities. It is shown that Hume's account of secondary qualities and the comparison should be viewed against a French understanding of secondary qualities. It is not, as it is commonly assumed, a mistaken view of Locke. In the light of this, the point of the comparison is shown to lie in the attempt to understand the pre-theoretical view of values as properties thoroughly independent of human responses.
Chapter 6 Baby Boomers versus Their Parents: Economic Well‐Being and Health Status
Authors: Manchester Joyce , Weaver David , Whitman Kevin 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The Social Security Administration's simulation model known as MINT (Modeling Income in the Near Term) is used to examine the projected health and economic status of Baby Boomers and their parents during retirement. Projections indicate that boomers will enjoy higher levels of economic well-being and health than their parents, yet the distribution of income and wealth is more unequal among Boomers. For example, the ratio of income to poverty-level income grows three times faster at the 90th percentile than at the 10th percentile. Health problems are concentrated among persons of lower economic status in both generations, but the degree of concentration does not increase across generations.
Plato on Metaphors and Models
Authors: Pender E. E. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
‘Metaphor’ in Platonic vocabulary is included in the term for ‘image’ (eikôn), and structurally related to ‘models’ (paradeigmata) in identifying the similarities and differences between two subjects. As the Politicus makes clear, ‘models’ differ in providing a more developed and systematic exploration of these similarities and differences, and can be used to aid understanding of difficult or unfamiliar subjects. Although Plato to this extent foreshadows 20th-century cognitive theories of metaphor, he believes that neither ‘images’ nor ‘models’ can ultimately be of more than heuristic value.
Literary Metaphor and Philosophical Insight: The Significance of Archilochus
Authors: Crowther Paul 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
Aristotle’s emphasis on ‘vividness’ in his account of metaphor is missed by many later theories. Metaphor operates by the imaginative realization and traversal of connections which exist in the ‘latent field’ of possible associations for the tenor of the metaphor. As such, it exploits and draws attention to structural features involved in all acts of cognition. The poetry of Archilochus is explored as a case study of the way in which literature is created in metaphor.
9 The Roman Campagna
Authors: Sallares Robert 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter studies malaria in the countryside around Rome, the Roman Campagna. It considers the interaction between malaria and the agricultural system of Latium in the past, in which animal husbandry was largely separated from agriculture by the practice of seasonal transhumance, which removed the animals (possible alternate prey for mosquitoes) from the lowlands in summer, the peak season for malaria. The relationship to malaria of the system of large estates, latifundia, is also discussed, as well as the effects of malaria on the distribution of viticulture and on other crops. The evidence of field surveys for depopulation in the Roman Campagna in antiquity is mentioned, and the increasing use of slave labour in the villa-based agricultural economy of the Roman Campagna is related to the diffusion of malaria, particularly in the vicinity of Setia.
2 The Second Century: Transformation
Authors: Heath Malcolm 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines the innovations in rhetorical theory that occurred in the 2nd and early 3rd centuries AD, with reference to types of style (idea-theory) and to techniques of argument (stasis or issue-theory). The changing significance of issue-theory from Hermagoras of Temnos (2nd century BC) onwards is explained and illustrated. The evidence for the early stages of the transformation of the theory in the second century AD is reviewed, and the contributions of Zeno and Minucianus — the immediate predecessors of Hermogenes of Tarsus whose treatise On Issues was to become the standard textbook on the subject — are assesed. The subsequent formation of a rhetorical corpus, including other works falsely attributed to Hermogenes, is traced.
The Civil Wars in Ireland and Scotland
Authors: Manning Roger B. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The Wars of the Three Kingdoms were a complicated mixture of civil wars, religious wars, wars of conquest, and wars of national liberation. The wars in Ireland and Scotland also demonstrated how the affairs of the Three Kingdoms were inextricably linked together. The civil wars in Ireland were complicated by the presence of four armies: a Royalist army, an army of Scots Covenanters, the Catholic Confederate army, and the ultimately victorious Parliamentary forces, which imposed a harsh peace settlement. In Scotland, the Covenanting Army compelled Charles I to recognize the Presbyterian religious settlement before being defeated by the New Model Army. The Cromwellian conquest of Scotland led to a more generous peace settlement than was the case in Ireland, because the Parliamentarians did not regard the mostly Protestant Lowlanders as being alien like the Catholic Irish and the Highlanders from the Isles, and also because the peace settlement was administered by the more moderate General George Monck. The Cromwellian conquest failed to bring complete peace to the two Celtic kingdoms, and guerilla warfare continued for some years afterwards.
The Williamite conquest of Scotland and Ireland
Authors: Manning Roger B. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
Because of widespread disaffection among officers of the English army and navy and the political elite, the Williamite invasion of England was relatively bloodless. The political allegiances of James VII and II’s Scottish and Irish kingdoms was more divided, and those realms had to be conquered by military force. The conquest of Ireland was especially protracted and bloody. Scotland was conquered more easily, and eventually provided a seemingly endless supply of manpower for the Dutch and British armies during the following century. The Irish Jacobite army, because it comprised mostly Catholics, passed into French service with very few exceptions.
The Development of Managers
Authors: Wilson John F. , Thomson Andrew 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines the development, education, and training of managers in Britain. It reviews national education and training institutions from basic education to universities and professional institutions, and from functional, and especially technical, skills to general management. It reflects a key theme: the slow transition to professionalism. Another main theme is that education reflects and reinforces some of the cultural factors underlying attitudes to management, since it is also an indicator of social status, a sifting mechanism into careers, and a selection process both for students and employers. The main providers of development are examined: in-house training, consultants, professional institutes, and business schools. In addition, there is an important demand dimension, namely, the lack of demand for professional managers, which was the single most important factor in the slow transition to professionalism.
Inventing Systems Integration
Authors: Sapolsky Harvey M. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The United States government needed more than money, a good strategy, and determination to wage the Cold War: it needed to invent the institutions that could sustain and coordinate the long-term enlistment of technology and industry for military purposes. The military structures that could command coordination when most in society were ready to accept military discipline and priorities were inadequate for managing the less than total mobilization that followed. This chapter describes the creation and institutionalization of a variety of special organizations and skills that allowed the military to manage effectively the design and development of complex weapons systems during the Cold War.
Systems Integration and the Social Solution of Technical Problems in Complex Systems
Authors: Johnson Stephen. B 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
As has been shown in books such as Charles Perrow's Normal Accidents, it is difficult to build reliable complex technologies. The primary reasons revolve around the communication of deep and heterogeneous information between design engineers, compounded by the difficulty of assuring foolproof manufacturing and integration of thousands of components. This chapter will show that most technical failures ultimately result from human error or miscommunication, and that the solutions to these problems, including systems integration, are likewise social in nature. Both engineering and historical analysis are used to point to the social basis of failure and dependability.
The Role of Technical Standards in Coordinating the Division of Labour in Complex System Industries
Authors: Steinmueller W. Edward 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter examines alternative theories of the technical compatibility standard-setting process as a means of coordinating component and sub-system suppliers in complex product systems industries, particularly those involving software, integrated circuits, and telecommunications. These industries are chosen to illustrate the different influences of the nature and pace of technological change on the choice of institution, and the governance process involved in standard-setting. The focus of existing theories of standards governance on relative institutional efficiency is contrasted with a theory, in which the nature and pace of technical advance have a fundamental influence on institutional design and process.
Integrated Solutions
Authors: Davies Andrew 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
Some of the world's leading companies are changing the strategic focus of their activities and following a similar path to success. Increasingly, firms compete by selling complex products and services as integrated solutions that address the needs of large business or government-owned customers. This chapter presents empirical findings within a conceptual framework which examines how the firms are changing the strategic focus of their activities, adapting to new positions in the value chain, and developing new sets of capabilities. To provide products and services as integrated solutions, firms are building core ‘systems integration’ capabilities to provide world-class products with equipment sourced from different vendors, and moving into the provision of services to maintain, finance, and operate a product throughout its life cycle.
Gellian Humanism Revisited
Authors: Beall Stephen M. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter rehabilitates René Marache's concept of ‘Gellian humanism’, asking what it consists in and what core values motivated the Attic Nights' composition. By examining Gellius' insistence on the utility of knowledge for the conduct of life, his ‘Socratic’ accent on the manner as well as the object of investigation — due perhaps to his sympathy for the Academy and Scepticism — and his view of memory and effective eloquence not only as tools but as the marks of a higher intellect, it shows how Gellius invites his readers to a superior and more respectable lifestyle, of which both toil and pleasure are integral constituents. ‘Gellian humanism’ is thus a certain attitude towards the formative power of the liberal arts, not a philosophical, political, or even educational programme. Gellius' ideal is the erudite layman (homo civiliter eruditus), for whom learning is valuable in its possession and enjoyment, not merely in its application.
Americanization: Ideology or Process? The Case of the United States Technical Assistance and Productivity Programme
Authors: McGlade Jacqueline 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This chapter examines the New Left argument that the Marshall Plan evolved out of the corporatist framework of American foreign economic policy-making set before the Second World War. It also challenges the notion that the economic goals and programmes of the Marshall Plan enhanced and remained compatible with the thrust of cold war strategic defence. As evidence to the contrary, this chapter focuses on one Marshall Aid programme, the US Productivity and Technical Assistance Programme (USTA&P), and its struggle to advance business reform overseas in the face of shifting cold war military objectives and European reactions.