bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Simulating experimental data
Authors: Neder Reinhard B. , Proffen Thomas 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
In most cases, simulations of disordered materials are performed to understand experimental observations, in this case diffraction data. This chapter discusses the calculation of several experimental quantities: single crystal diffuse scattering, powder diffraction, and the atomic pair distribution function (PDF). Since diffraction data are obtained via a Fourier transform, the finite size of the model crystal as well as issues concerning coherence are discussed in detail. The PDF is basically calculated from the atomic structure directly. Different ways to incorporate thermal motion are illustrated.
Creating modulations
Authors: Neder Reinhard B. , Proffen Thomas 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses modulated structures. Modulations lead to the appearance of sharp satellite reflections in the diffraction pattern. The examples provide an introduction to density and displacement waves, and explain the relationship between modulation wave parameters and the location and intensity of the resulting satellite reflections. The simulation of finite waves is described, since modulations are often not propagating throughout the entire crystal.
Creating structures with stacking faults
Authors: Neder Reinhard B. , Proffen Thomas 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
The presence of stacking faults is another common form of disorder. This chapter describes the principle stacking fault types. Other topics include different notations of stacking sequences and the signature of stacking faults in the diffraction pattern. Four examples of increasing complexity are given. Simulations of growth faults and deformation faults, of Wurtzite and Zincblend type structures, and of short range order between faults are demonstrated.
Creating domain structures
Authors: Neder Reinhard B. , Proffen Thomas 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Domains are another form of defects frequently encountered in real materials. This chapter starts with the discussion of domain types and the different definitions of a domain. It then introduces the very flexible mechanism used by DISCUS to simulate domains using a few simple examples. The final real world example shows the simulation of short-range order in urea inclusion compounds. An efficient simulation algorithm results from treating the included compound as a domain.
1 Democracy Beyond ‘Closed’ Societies
Authors: MacDonald Terry 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter begins the task of delineating legitimate global institutional boundaries by arguing that we need to abandon the assumption, entrenched within traditional liberal democratic theory, that democracy must take place within a ‘closed’ society (paradigmatically, a nation-state). Instead, it is argued that democrats should embrace the prospect of a ‘pluralist’ global political order, comprised of multiple agents of public power held to account by their multiple overlapping stakeholder communities. What this requires is that multiple state and non-state agents of public power in global politics should be identified as the legitimate subjects of democratic control in accordance with their autonomy-constraining impact on populations. Correspondingly, individual stakeholders should be accorded participatory entitlements as the legitimate agents of democratic control, in accordance with the impact of this public power upon their lives.
4 From Nation‐States to ‘Stakeholder’ Communities
Authors: MacDonald Terry 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter elaborates and illustrates the theoretical account — sketched initially in Chapter One — of how the agents of democratic control should be identified in global politics. It develops the argument that we should accord democratic agency (that is, entitlement to exercise control over public power) to the members of ‘stakeholder’ communities, comprised of all those individual stakeholders whose autonomous capacities are constrained by the exercise of public power. The analysis here begins by elaborating the concept of a jurisdictional stakeholder community, and explaining how the conception of democratic community underpinning it differs from the ideals associated with the ‘closed’ societal model of democracy. Discussion then turns to the question of how this stakeholder model can in practice be instituted, and addresses some issues and dilemmas that commonly arise for practitioners who invoke the idea of stakeholder communities in their attempts to democratize the activities of NGOs.
6 Global Social Choice Through Multi‐Stakeholder Representation
Authors: MacDonald Terry 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter argues that achieving legitimate social choice in global politics requires the establishment of a decision-making process involving deliberation among multi-stakeholder representatives, which could redress the weaknesses of the nation-state model in crucial ways. It begins by outlining the key institutional features of the ‘multi-stakeholder’ model, and explaining how it can employ the representation of multi-stakeholder interests by NGOs either to supplement, or to substitute for, the representation of nation-state constituencies by governments. It then examines the theoretical basis of the multi-stakeholder model, and argues that it can be justified within the framework of a theoretical model of interest representation that is characterised here as ‘liberal pluralist’. It further examines the strengths and weaknesses of the multi-stakeholder model as a framework for global representation, and concludes that we should endorse a hybrid approach to delineating democratic constituencies in global politics — one that incorporates multi-stakeholder representation within more conventional structures of representation by nation-states.
The Everyday Life of Global Finance
Authors: Langley Paul 
Published: September 2008

AbstractGrounded in literature from the sociology of finance and international political economy, and informed by extensive empirical research, this book explores the unprecedented relationships that now bind Anglo-American society with the financial markets. As mutual funds have increased in popularity and pension provision has been transformed, many more individuals and households have come to invest in stocks and shares. As consumer borrowing has risen dramatically and mortgage finance has embraced those deemed sub-prime, so the repayments of credit card holders and mortgagors have provided the basis for the issue and trading of bonds and other market instruments. This book shows how financial market networks have come to extend well beyond Wall Street and the City of London, becoming embedded and embodied in routine saving and borrowing in the US and UK. Society's new-found relationships with the markets are also shown, however, to be marked by stark inequalities, manifest contradictions, and political dissent.
1 Networks, Power, Identity, and Dissent
Authors: Langley Paul 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter sets out four key conceptual themes that provide the tools which help answer the question: how might we conceive of contemporary finance in such a way as to understand qualitative transformations in everyday saving and borrowing routines that forge close relationships between the society and the financial markets? These key conceptual themes are financial networks, financial power, financial identity, and financial dissent. The chapter draws primarily on actor-network theory (ANT) aspects of the scholarship of Michel Foucault, and insights from writers of everyday life.
2 From Thrift and Insurance to Everyday Investment
Authors: Langley Paul 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter argues that contemporary financial market investment practices are not the consequence of the grip of some collective and irrational psychology, but are made possible because investment appears as the most rational form of saving. It shows that partial displacement of networks of thrift and insurance by networks of everyday investment both preceded the ‘irrational exuberance’ of the new economy bubble of the 1990s, and has continued to flourish into the new millennium after the bursting of the bubble. The chapter also suggests that while the technologies of investment form part of the apparatus of neo-liberal government and are promoted in a disciplinary manner across governmental programmes, to date the rise of everyday investment to the early 1980s would be to disregard sedimented technological developments that had already begun to establish the relative rationality of performances of everyday investment. This is illustrated in the final part of the chapter which focuses on the production of mutual fund networks.
7 The Inequalities of Everyday Borrowing
Authors: Langley Paul 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter focuses on inequalities of everyday borrowing that, over the last decade or so, have become increasingly marked by hierarchical variations in the interest rates paid by borrowers. It argues that the dichotomous representation of an abnormal and informal space of financial exclusion, and the associated designation of the borrowers that occupy that space as ‘alternative’, ‘high risk’, ‘sub-prime’, and so on, actually contributes to justifying the charging of relatively high rates of interest by lenders present in these realms. And yet, at the same time, the operations of alternative and informal lenders are made possible precisely by close interconnections with mainstream financial and capital market networks. The second section of the chapter explores this argument in detail by concentrating on the differentiation of ‘sub-prime’ from ‘prime’ finance, and on the assembly of high-interest sub-prime networks.
8 The Uncertain Subjects of Everyday Borrowing
Authors: Langley Paul 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the embodiment of the borrowing boom, and the re-making of mortgagors and credit card borrowers in particular. The first part of the chapter concentrates on the responsible borrowers of contemporary credit card networks, a subject position referred to as the ‘revolver’. Revolvers not only regularly make use of the revolving credit facilities, but also manipulate their outstanding balances in order to further their consumptive freedom and security into the future. The second part of the chapter concentrates on the responsible and entrepreneurial borrower of contemporary Anglo-American mortgage networks. It suggests that mortgagors are no longer ‘suburban subjects’, that is, owner-occupiers who view their home as essential in meeting their aspirations. Rather, the borrowing boom in mortgage networks rests on the assembly of mortgagors as ‘leveraged investors’. Leveraged investors are owner-occupiers who view residential property as an asset that will grow to realize returns. The third and final part of the chapter considers the tensions and contradictions present in the assembly of responsible and entrepreneurial borrowers, and thereby reveal the incomplete and precarious performance of these subjectivities.
3 Literary History and the Biography of Literature: Madame de Staël and Victor Hugo
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter tracks the increasing awareness of the evolutionary character of literature that emerges in the latter part of the 18th century and the early years of the 19th. The discussion of genius (e.g., Marmontel, Mercier, Condillac, Diderot) tends to present it as a dynamic, mould-breaking quality moving literature towards the future. As a result, a new kind of literary history emerges that treats literature as developing in the manner of a human being, and in ways that invite parallels between individual biography and institutional history. Mme de Staël's De la littérature is one of the first examples of this quasi-biographical kind of literary history and it contrasts with the predominantly retrospective account given in La Harpe's Lycée. The idea of a national literature treated in De l'Allemagne supports the conflation of the individual and the collective. Hugo's Préface de Cromwell also uses a quasi-biographical model for its account of the history of literature since its origins, but where Mme de Staël adopts a largely pedagogical perspective, Hugo constructs a thoroughly organic account of a life-cycle which progresses from birth to death to rebirth, and in which literature is constantly recreated and reinvented.
7 Hugo's Les Contemplations: Life, Death, and the Expansion of Poetry
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter offers an account of Les Contemplations in terms of the way that Hugo exploits a variety of different biographical models (memoir, diary) and also alternates between first- and third-person narrative perspectives. It traces the progressive scaling up of the framework in which the life is presented, as the remit of poetry is expanded from the personal to the transcendental. Much is made of the blurring of the boundaries between the poet's self and the figures he invokes or describes. The fictitious dating of the poems is discussed as a major means whereby Hugo constructs a biographical narrative for the collection. The use that Hugo made of his own person as a means of extending the limits of poetry was what Mallarmé hailed in Hugo when he described him as having been ‘poetry in person’ and taken poetry to a limit that cannot be repeated.
9 The Virtues of Marginality in Nerval's Illuminés
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter considers Nerval's collection of biographical texts in Les Illuminés as an instance of the way in which the popular cultural forms of biography in the period (dictionaries, newspapers) were used and adapted for literary purposes, and with the express intention of renewing literature itself through this recourse to non-literary genres. Nerval's own experiences of figuring in contemporary biographies are analysed. Few of the subjects of Nerval's portraits are literary figures, but each of the texts can be seen to be exploring issues associated with biography: identity, its relation to fiction, erudition and the use of documentary sources, the exemplarity of its subject. Nerval provides the first example of a renewal of literature through a sideways step into non–literary forms of writing.
13 Gide: Autobiography, Fiction, and the Literature of Experience
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
The concerns of early 20th-century biography with the inner life and with the artist's own perspective on creation made autobiography a logical development of these trends. Gide's Si le grain ne meurt is the first example of this shift of emphasis, combining biographical portraits in the 19th–century manner with an account of his own turn to literature that stresses its basis in experience rather than technique. Gide's explicit appeals to fiction foreground the creative dimension of the autobiographical project, as does the autobiographer's implication of himself in the writing as well as in the content of his narrative. The result is an equation between literariness and lived experience in which the two are constantly moved forward towards new versions of themselves.
16 Genet's chant d'amour and the Lives of the Heroes
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Against the grain of the many autobiographically based readings of Genet, this chapter presents his prose writing (esp. Miracle de la rose, Notre-Dame-des Fleurs, Journal du voleur) as a series of biographical celebrations of his unlikely subjects. Genet adopts the anachronistic mode of courtly literature in order to transform his largely abject figures into glorious heroes by means of a self-consciously extravagant poetic language. The result highlights the gap between the biographical subjects portrayed and the literary medium, thus foregrounding the creative intervention of the writer. This flaunting of literariness is used by Genet as a means of disengaging his own literary project from any social or conventional consensus about literature. This is further supported by the frequent equation of homosexual love with artistic creation in his work, and is finally endorsed in his critical writings about artists such as Rembrandt and Giacometti whose skills are defined as being ultimately those of biographical portraiture.
17 Pierre Michon's Lives of the Saints
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
The turn to life-writing in France after the two decades of literary theory and the nouveau roman did not represent a rejection of concerns with the issue of literariness. Michon's biographical portraits in his Vies minuscules set literary ideals at the heart of each of the biographical narratives that recount the lives of figures from his own past, each of whom placed exorbitant value in the literary. Literariness becomes associated with belief, as well as with imposture, and the figures in Michon's pantheon — which in other works also includes writers and artists — are implicitly likened to saints whose example the would-be writer meditates and seeks to emulate. Literariness is not analyzed or theorized here but illustrated through the recounting of the lives of various believers in literature, in the hopes of sustaining belief in the narrator himself.
1 Walking Without Order
Authors: Flinders Matthew 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
State structures have been radically reformulated in recent decades. In both developed and developing countries a neo-liberal informed model or narrative of ‘good governance’ has seen many functions and responsibilities hived-off or delegated beyond the direct control of politicians and public officials. However, the state has not been ‘withered away’ or ‘rolled back’ — it has been transformed. This chapter examines how this transformation has been based upon the notion of delegation and why this matters, in both administrative and democratic terms.
3 History
Authors: Flinders Matthew 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Delegation is not a new phenomenon. This chapter illustrates the persistence, growth, and evolution of delegated governance from the earliest stages of state development in Britain through to the first decade of the 21st century. It reveals the long-term bureaucratic layering which has occurred, and considers why political elites failed to take advantage of specific windows of opportunity when broad reform initiative could have been introduced.
5 Internal Control
Authors: Flinders Matthew , Denton Matthew 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Having set out the structure of the state, this chapter seeks to uncover the manner in which public bodies are controlled by their parent department (or departments), and particularly how an effective balance between independence and control is maintained. Research suggests that the governance arrangements vary greatly between departments and that the issue of internal control has been a critical concern amongst politicians and policy-makers for several decades.
10 The Politics, Principles, and Politicization of Delegation
Authors: Flinders Matthew 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This final chapter locates the core findings of this book within a number of broader themes and agendas. In particular, it argues for scholarly interest in the politics of delegation to be matched by what is termed the politicization of delegation. By this, the chapter means that the logic of delegation itself, rather than its consequences, needs to be the focus of critical political analysis in order to push the process back within the sphere of public contestation.
Introduction: The ‘Picture Theory of Science’
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThe Bildtheorie — ‘picture theory of science’ — formed the frame for much discussion and controversy among physicists in the decades around the year 1900. It emphasizes one aspect believed to be central to the scientific enterprise: representation of the empirical phenomena, by means of artifacts, both physical and mathematical. The question to be addressed is whether such a ‘picture theory’ can be developed today compatibly with the insights claimed by empiricist and structuralist views of science.
Carnap's Lost World and Putnam's Paradox
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractIn his Logische Aufbau, Rudolf Carnap presented a structuralist philosophy of science. Carnap exhibited a fluctuating awareness of the difficulty besetting that programme, and of the limited options his epistemology allowed for escape. The option he finally chose has the form of solution that Newman suggested, somewhat ironically, to Russell. But Carnap attempted simultaneously to refer to experience and to claim that the notions he needed are experience-independent. The basic problem returned after some decades when Hilary Putnam put it to good use in his seminal critique of metaphysical realism. It is argued that in both cases, a dissolution of problem is possible with the introduction of indexical reference.
Appearance vs. Reality in the Sciences
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractIn a scientific model typically the phenomena is embedded in a larger nature or reality. Whether we take this at face value or bracket the question of reality, we need to investigate the relations of this theoretically postulated reality to the phenomena, and to the appearances of those phenomena in measurement. But philosophical views of science have largely remained captive to certain criteria of completeness, of which the main remaining contender is the Appearance from Reality Criterion. The greatly changed conception of physical theory at the end of the modern period will challenge this criterion as well.
Rejecting the Appearance from Reality Criterion
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractAlthough this criterion is implicitly rejected in certain philosophical developments (Leibniz on contingent truth, supervenience views in philosophy of mind), it is in the Copenhagen development of quantum theory that this rejection is clearly exemplified. The famous Measurement Problem in the philosophy of quantum mechanics is not a problem from an empiricist point of view. What it marks is the methodological rejection of the Appearance from Reality Criterion in this new science. Whether or not physical science will maintain this form, the character of this episode in the history of science entails a new view of the norms that govern scientific practice.
Representation Of, Representation As
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractResemblance is certainly not the be all and end all of representation. Even when representation is not purely symbolic, distortion and unlikeness can play a crucial role in how the representing is achieved. When resemblance is in fact the vehicle of representation, the representation relation derives from selective resemblance and selective non-resemblance, and just what the relevant selections are must be highlighted in such a way as to convey their role. If the selection or the highlighting is indicated by signs placed in the artifact itself, these need to be meaningful in order to play their role, and so the task of identification is pushed back but reappears as essentially unchanged. Thus, what determines the representation relationship can at best be a relation of what is in the artifact to factors neither in the artifact itself nor in what is being represented.