WHOLE‐EMBRYO CULTURE AND THE STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOS DURING ORGANOGENESIS
Authors: NEW D. A. T. 
Published: January 2008

Summary1. Simple and reliable methods are now available for growing rat and mouse embryos in culture at all stages of organogenesis. Primitive‐streak embryos can be maintained for up to 5 days in culture while they develop to early foetal stages. Older embryos are maintained for progressively shorter periods and the most advanced stage that can be supported is equivalent to the rat foetus of 15 days' gestation.2. The rates of protein synthesis and differentiation of the younger embryos in vitro are similar, and of head‐fold embryos identical, to those in vivo. After the formation of the limb buds growth is slower, with protein synthesis more retarded than differentiation, resulting in embryos or foetuses that are well formed but smaller than in vivo. This slowing of growth of the older embryos in culture is probably caused by the lack of a functional allantoic placenta.3. The embryos of some other species, including the guinea‐pig, hamster, rabbit and opossum have also been maintained in culture during organogenesis but the results are not yet as good as those for rats and mice.4. Maximum growth of rat embryos explanted with the visceral yolk sac intact is obtained in undiluted homologous serum, though adequate growth for many studies can be maintained in mixtures of serum with chemically defined tissue‐culture media. The best results are obtained in serum prepared from blood centrifuged before clotting has occurred (I.C. serum) and heat‐inactivated. The importance of a high concentration of serum in the culture medium may be related to the mechanisms for uptake, transport and digestion of macromolecules by the rodent yolk sac.5. There is no convincing evidence for a changing rate of oxygen consumption during organogenesis but there is strong evidence for changes in energy metabolism. At the beginning of organogenesis, the embryo shows a high rate of anaerobic glycolysis and of pentose‐shunt activity. During the following days these decline while activity of the Krebs' cycle and electron‐transport system increases. Anoxia, or exposure of the embryo to carbon monoxide, increases glycolysis and reduces growth rate.6. The earliest stages of the formation of the heart and blood circulation can be closely observed in culture. The heart rate of the 111/2‐day rat embryo is about 160 beats per minute at 38°C, and falls by about 7% per degree for lower temperatures. Several drugs that are cardioactive in the adult also affect the frequency of the heartbeat in the embryo, and the pattern of response suggests that the adrenergic receptors in the embryo develop before the cholinergic receptors. Experiments in which embryo and yolk sac were cultured separately, as well as together, have indicated that haemopoiesis can occur in the embryo only after a migration of stem cells from the yolk sac.7. Microsurgery has been successfully applied to embryos in culture in studies on morphogenetic movements, heart development, axial rotation, limb‐bud regeneration and placenta formation. Biochemical studies of normal morphogenesis have been few, but one has shown a high rate of hyaluronate synthesis by the embryo which may be related to the maintenance and expansion of extracellular spaces and the formation of the neural folds.8. Embryos are particularly sensitive to teratogenic agents during organogenesis. Teratogens that have been studied on whole embryos in culture include trypan blue, antisera, hyperthermia, anaesthetics, and abnormal concentrations of vitamins, oxygen and glucose. Many of the malformations induced have been similar to those obtained after administration of the same agents in vivo and have demonstrated a direct teratogenic effect on the embryo independent of the maternal metabolism. It is suggested that culture methods may provide a valuable additional screening procedure for new drugs and other potentially embryopathic agents.