bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Diffuse Scattering and Defect Structure Simulations
Authors: Neder Reinhard B. , Proffen Thomas 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
In recent years it has become apparent that merely knowing and understanding the average atomic structure is insufficient for comprehending material properties fully. Deviations from this average structure play an important role regarding these properties. To understand the defect or local structure one has to study diffuse scattering and go beyond the classic interpretation of Bragg intensities. Although there is an increasing interest in analysing disordered materials, as expressed by a number of recent text books, the practical aspects of this analysis are not yet widely known. A detailed step-by-step guide that explains how to simulate disordered materials has been missing. This book covers the full range; from basic steps such as how to build a computer model of the crystal to complex disorder models such as domains, stacking faults, and nanoparticles. It also explains how to use advanced refinement techniques to determine the parameters of a disordered structure. This book provides many examples of the simulation of disordered materials including the input files for DISCUS and explains the concepts and pitfalls encountered when simulating disordered materials.
Correlations and creating short‐range order
Authors: Neder Reinhard B. , Proffen Thomas 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter deals with the simulation of short range ordered crystals. Correlations are introduced as a convenient way to describe short-range order (SRO). The most common way to create structures showing SRO is through Monte Carlo (MC) simulations. The chapter explains the usual interaction potentials and algorithms to minimize the corresponding energy. Interactions for chemical short range order based on an Ising model as well as harmonic and Lennard-Jones potentials for distortions are discussed. Two detailed examples are given. In the first example, a structure showing chemical SRO is created. The second example introduces local distortions, demonstrating the effect of the different potentials on the local structure and the diffraction pattern.
Creating nanoparticles
Authors: Neder Reinhard B. , Proffen Thomas 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Nanomaterials are a growing area of research and this chapter discusses the creation of various nanoparticles. The examples include simple particles, core-shell particles, as well as nanotubes. The small size and shape of these particles usually prohibits the application of periodic boundary conditions. Corresponding implications on the calculation of powder diffraction pattern as well as the PDF are discussed.
Refining disordered structures
Authors: Neder Reinhard B. , Proffen Thomas 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter deals with the subject of refining the model of a disordered material based on diffraction data. Three different methods are presented: Reverse Monte Carlo (RMC), refinement of the PDF as a function of atom-atom distance, and the refinement of a set of parameters describing a defect structure using a differential evolutionary algorithm. The latter is the most powerful yet computer-hungry approach and two very detailed examples are given. The second example shows how to refine the powder diffraction pattern of a disordered nanoparticle. The refinement is based on a surprisingly small set of parameters needed to create these particles such as lattice parameters, particle diameter, and the stacking fault probability.
Global Stakeholder Democracy
Authors: Macdonald Terry 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
A pressing question at the forefront of current global political debates is: how can we salvage the democratic project in the context of globalization? In recent years, political activists have mounted high-profile campaigns for the democratization of powerful international institutions such as the World Bank and IMF, and for greater ‘corporate accountability’. In turn, many of the NGOs linked to these campaigns have themselves faced demands for greater democratic legitimacy. Through reflecting on the democratic dilemmas surrounding the political power of global NGOs, this book challenges the state-centric theoretical assumptions that have underpinned the established democratic theories of both ‘cosmopolitan’ and ‘communitarian’ liberals. In particular, it challenges the widespread assumption that ‘sovereign’ power, ‘bounded’ (national or global) societies, and ‘electoral’ processes are essential institutional foundations of a democratic system. The book then re-thinks the democratic project from its conceptual foundations, posing a number of questions. What needs to be controlled? Who ought to control it? How could they do so? In answering these questions, the book develops a theoretical model of representative democracy that is focused on plural (state and non-state) actors rather than on unitary state structures. It elaborates a democratic framework based on the new theoretical concepts of public power, stakeholder communities, and non-electoral representation, and illustrates the practical implications of these proposals for projects of global institutional reform.
Introduction
Authors: MacDonald Terry 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This introductory chapter highlights some of the central normative and institutional challenges confronting democrats seeking greater legitimacy in the exercise of political power beyond state boundaries, and outlines the approach taken in this book to these challenges. In setting out the book's approach this chapter explains the ‘interpretive’ methodology adopted in developing the normative theoretical framework of Global Stakeholder Democracy, and further introduces the book's central arguments regarding the capacity of non-state actors to wield public power, the democratic status of stakeholder communities, and the legitimacy of non-electoral forms of democratic representation.
2 Public Power Beyond Sovereign States
Authors: MacDonald Terry 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter develops and further defends the central proposition that ‘public power’ is the legitimate subject of global democratic control. The additional arguments set out here attempt to counter some plausible theoretical objections to the autonomy-based criterion for identifying agents of public power, which are based on the claim (implicit in much liberal writing) that public power should be delineated in accordance with certain organizational features of statehood: centralized decision making, the use of force, and law-making capacity. It is argued that none of these organizational features embodies any uniquely public political qualities, and that each of these organizational features qualifies as ‘public’ only to the extent that it satisfies the autonomy-based criterion.
5 Global Social Choice Beyond Nation‐State Representation
Authors: MacDonald Terry 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter challenges the widespread idea that legitimate social choice in global politics can be achieved solely through representation by nation-states — either as a means of aggregating individual preferences across territorial states, or as a means of conducting deliberative decision making among the cultural entities of ‘nations’. It begins by explaining that any representative democratic theory of legitimate social choice must be built upon two kinds of argument: an explication of and justification for the underlying normative conception of interest representation; and an explanation of how the proposed constituency boundaries can effectively enact the ideal of interest representation in practice. It then develops a critique of the conventional nation-state-based model of global representation, examining both some normative and practical justifications for this model that are based upon a ‘burkean’ model of interest representation and linked to the notion of a nation, and some alternative justifications that are based upon a liberal individualist model of interest representation and linked to the notion of a state. This analysis highlights several significant normative weaknesses of nation-state representation, and concludes accordingly that nation-state representation cannot alone achieve legitimate social choice in global politics.
7 Theorizing Global Representative Agency: Non‐Electoral Authorization and Accountability
Authors: MacDonald Terry 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter argues that establishing legitimate representative agency in global politics does not require election mechanisms, of the kind that are employed to identify legitimate representatives within state-based democracies. Rather, legitimate representative agency can be established through alternative non-electoral mechanisms of authorization and accountability. The chapter begins by elaborating a fundamental reason for viewing elections as a legitimate means of establishing representative agency: that elections have the capacity to deliver stakeholders some degree of political control over their representatives' actions, and hence some degree of political control over the public political decision making in which they have a legitimate stake. It follows from this that, at least in principle, we could establish legitimate non-electoral representative agency if it were possible to identify alternative institutional mechanisms that could deliver equivalent forms of political control to stakeholders. The chapter then argues that the specific forms of political control over representatives' actions that elections deliver to stakeholders are those entailed in institutional mechanisms of authorization and accountability, which need not be instituted through elections to serve the relevant democratic function.
8 Instituting Global Representative Agency: The Authorization and Accountability of NGOs
Authors: MacDonald Terry 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter considers how non-electoral mechanisms of authorization and accountability might function in practice in contemporary global politics. In doing so, it examines some possible pathways for institutional reform via which NGOs could build stronger democratic credentials as representatives of various stakeholder groups, drawing on some examples of contemporary practice among NGOs to illustrate the general institutional form such mechanisms might take. Finally, the chapter discusses how it may be possible to meet the challenge of ensuring appropriate forms of democratic equality for all stakeholder participants, in the absence of the formal equality embodied in an election. The chapter does not attempt to argue that current practices are fully democratic, nor to offer fully-developed institutional solutions. Rather, the material presented here is intended to provide a focal-point for exploration of some practical possibilities, and to point towards some potential future directions for innovation and reform.
Conclusion
Authors: MacDonald Terry 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This concluding chapter reflects upon the broader applications of the theoretical model of Global Stakeholder Democracy developed in this book. It briefly considers how the principles of stakeholder democracy might conceivably be applied to other categories of political actors (such as Transnational Corporations). In addition, it reflects upon how the democratic imperatives arising from this model might relate to other kinds of normative imperatives applying to non-state actors, such as those associated with duties of distributive justice, and those associated with contractual obligations and non-democratic accountabilities.
5 Socially Responsible Investment
Authors: Langley Paul 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the presence, practicalities, possibilities, and problematics of dissent which (re)politicizes everyday investment. Specifically, it concentrates on two extended and related examples of SRI: first, the so-called ‘pension fund socialism’ of US multi-employer and public pension schemes; and, second, the ‘ethical investment’ in mutual fund networks.
9 Dissent in Everyday Borrowing
Authors: Langley Paul 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter considers additional modes of financial dissent. It examines credit art projects that (re)politicize everyday borrowing precisely by playing on the difficulties of personal and political confrontations with credit relations. It then examines credit unions as a mode of dissent which (re)politicizes everyday borrowing, which open up to disagreement the meeting, management, and manipulation of extended borrowing in market networks.
Introduction
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This introductory chapter establishes the framework for the ensuing history, and argues that, contrary to the claims of much modern literary theory, biography has had a distinctive role in defining the literariness of literature. This literariness is never a given and almost always takes the form of a question or a contestation of previous definitions, thus endowing literature with an inherently evolutionary character. The prehistory of biography in the form of ‘lives’ with their emphasis on exemplarity, along with the status of many biographical texts as literary commentary, suggest ways in which biography might be understood as having a pragmatic or ‘performative’ quality that enables it to intervene in debates about the nature of literariness. The origin of biography in ‘lives’ justifies the book's inclusion of autobiography in the 20th century as a variant of biography.
1 Literature and the Use of ‘Lives’: A Prehistory
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter sketches the prehistory of biography in the ‘lives’ of great men, stressing the role of exemplarity in these texts. The emergence in the 16th and 17th centuries of ‘lives’ of writers in various forms (prefaces, dictionaries, éloges, ana) illustrates the pragmatic function of ‘lives’ in helping to delineate a distinctive field that in retrospect may be defined as ‘literature’. The chapter also explores the growing necessity to define this field in terms of an inherent quality, rather than as a compendium of different genres and styles, and considers the use of terms such as the sublime, genius, the poetic, and the aesthetic in the attempt to circumscribe the literariness of this ‘literature’. Authors discussed include Boileau, Batteux, and Baumgarten.
2 Rousseau's Life‐Story and the Experience of Literature
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines Rousseau's Confessions as one of the first texts to use the story of a life as part of an attempt to establish a form of writing that sets itself up against an existing, largely social definition of literature, with the aim of proposing an alternative one. He opposes both the social world of letters (littérature) and a poetry in thrall to the rules of versification, to the elaboration of a language of sensation and experience that takes place in time. The mapping of literature onto an evolving life means also that the literary is involved in a constant process of revision.
4 Biographical Business in the Century of Biography: Dictionaries and the Press
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter outlines two major cultural forms taken by biography in the 19th century, the biographical dictionary and the press article. It discusses Michaud's Biographie universelle, and traces some of the debates about the standing of biography in relation to history as illustrated by Cousin and Renan. The biographical dictionary is discussed as an attempt to give the form a respectability that is under threat from a comparison with history. The role of biography as a journalistic genre promoting a culture of celebrity is discussed with examples from Mirecourt and its condemnation by Barbey d'Aurevilly. Both cultural forms provided a model against which literary versions of biography were obliged to measure themselves.
5 Biography Reclaimed: Gautier, Verlaine, and Mallarmé and the Biographical recueil
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter explores the transition from newspaper to book undergone by a number of biographical portraits, as they were collected in volume form. Writers, who were often the subject of biographical portraits in the press, were also frequently obliged to earn their keep through journalism. Some of them were however able to reuse their journalistic essays in book form. The biographical portraits of writers in these volumes, often reinforced by a preface, offered a means of challenging established views of literature. This is the case with Gautier in the 1830s, but also of Verlaine, Rémy de Gourmont and Mallarmé in the fin de siècle, each of whom constructs a new idea of literature in their collected biographical portraits.
6 Sainte‐Beuve: Biography and the Invention of Literary Criticism
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines the inherently biographical principles of the literary criticism of Sainte-Beuve. Sainte-Beuve is credited with being the inventor of modern literary criticism and the chapter explores the way in which the biographical perspective of the critic is associated with the new task of identifying the literariness of literature, often expressed in terms of the individual genius of the writer. Literature has therefore to be reinvented with each new critical encounter. Sainte-Beuve's own poetry is read in terms of its presuppositions about its necessary relation to the poet's life. His depictions of poets and poetry itself also imply the need for the biographical perspective of a critical ‘other’. The suggestion is that criticism, with its biographical basis, is better placed to identify literariness than literature itself.
8 Baudelaire: Life and the Production of Poetry
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
The chapter explores Baudelaire's biographical portraits of other writers, especially Poe and Gautier, in which he revises the contemporary view that the poet's work simply reflects his life. Instead, he presents the writer's life as deliberately geared to the creation of the work. Baudelaire's view of poetry as a production that takes place in a lived context is reflected in the biographical structure of Les Fleurs du mal in which a poet goes from birth to death. The volume repeatedly stages scenes of poetic creativity, or of its absence, in which the poetry explores the tensions between different models of poetic creation: technical skill and inward predisposition, and thus pushes poetry itself to a kind of crisis. The life is presented as the condition under which prosodic mastery may be achieved, and its results enjoyed, though often at a price.
10 Biography and Literary Principle: Marcel Schwob's Vies imaginaires
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines Schwob's account of biography as the basis for the literariness of literature. Biography's concerns with the unique and the individual — often in the form of incidental details to be found in the record of a person's life — are, according to Schwob, precisely those of literature itself. Brevity is a concomitant necessity for the biographer. Schwob possessed considerable erudition of the kind usually associated with the biographical dictionary, but he exploits it to privilege the unique biographical detail. Like Nerval, his texts do not just borrow or reinvent the biographical genre, but may be read as reflections on the principles of biography. With Schwob literature and biography become one, and biography provides the means of defining the literariness of literature.
11 Romancing Lives: Literary Creativity in the 1920s
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter deals with the vies romancées, the partly fictionalized biographies that were popular in the in 1920s. Many critics deplored this form of biography on the grounds that it trivialized serious subjects and pandered to popular tastes. Maurois's defence of biography as a form of literary writing on a par with the novel represents the more respectable version of this practice; it is justified by an increased interest in the inner life of biographical subjects, and in particular with the experience of artistic creation. His account of the structure and language of biography appeals to the example provided by fiction. He argues for the literary value of biographical writing and for the authorial standing of the biographer. The interest in the experience of literary creation is also evident in the work of Bergson and Valéry.
12 Proust and the Lives of the Artists
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
The concerns of the ‘new’ biography of the 1920s make it possible to regard Proust's novel as sharing many of its strategies and preoccupations. La Recherche is often viewed as a form of fictional autobiography, but, despite Proust's renowned attack on Sainte-Beuve's biographical method in criticism, his treatment of the key artist figures in the novel may be read as a series of biographical studies. This makes it possible to consider La Recherche as in part a fictional version of the biographical recueil of the 19th century, each artist offering Marcel an example of the way to live as an artist, rather than instances of achieved works he might emulate. The focus in each case is on the nature of the creative experience of the artist.
14 Michel Leiris: Autobiography and the Sacred
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
When Leiris sought to reinvent literature as something more than what he regarded as empty formalism, he turned to autobiography as the means whereby writing might become an act with real consequences in the writer's own life. The autobiographical enterprise, as explored both in L'Age d'homme and La Règle du jeu, is allied to the performing arts as practised by his acrobat uncle and opera-singer aunt, laying the writer open to personal risk and holding out the possibility of giving form to the sacred in the modern world. Leiris's goal is to make living and writing indistinguishable from each other in ways that invariably fail but must constantly be pursued and recalibrated. In the process, the ideal of ‘poetry’ oscillates between the disappointingly derisory and the ideal whose pursuit keeps it constantly connected to the unfolding temporality of the writer's day to day existence.
15 Sartre and Biography: Existential Acts and the Desacralization of Literature
Authors: Jefferson Ann 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Sartre shares with Leiris a view of literature that conceives of it as an act, but, in contrast to Leiris, his aim is rather to desacralize the literary. An examination of his theoretical writings, especially Qu'est-ce que la littérature?, reveals that this conception rests on a biographical approach to the writer's role. The entanglement of literature with biography is evident not just in Sartre's own literary biographies of Baudelaire, Genet, and Mallarmé but also in his novel, La Nausé. These texts explore the concepts of literature and biography in ways that highlight Sartre's ambivalent evaluation of them. His autobiography, Les Mots, is as much a denunciation of the way that the ‘retrospective illusion’ created by biography can corrupt the existential project of a subject, as it is an exploitation of the potential offered by autobiography to construct literature as an act — even if it is an act of farewell to the literary.