bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Mental Action
Authors: Peacocke Christopher 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter explores the theory that the distinctive awareness that subjects have of their own mental actions is a form of action-awareness. Subjects' awareness of their own mental actions is a species of the same genus that also includes the distinctive awareness of bodily actions. The chapter begins by articulating some distinctive features of bodily action-awareness and then characterizing the range of mental actions. It argues that all of these distinctive features of action-awareness in the bodily case are present also for mental actions. It considers some of the attractions and consequences of the Principal Hypothesis; to draw upon it in an account of our understanding of our own and others' mental actions, in a way that accords with the role of reference and identity in understanding discussed in earlier chapters of this book; to apply it in the characterization of some pathological states; and finally to consider some aspects of its significance for the nature of first-person thought and rationality.
Conclusion
Authors: Peacocke Christopher 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis concluding chapter presents a synthesis of discussions in the preceding chapters. Among these are that fundamental reference rules for concepts can provide a substantive account of understanding. They can support a realistic treatment of truth and reference, and can do so in a way that is superior to justificationist, pragmatist, and pure conceptual-role theories of content. Current issues in philosophy and its adjacent cognitive sciences that require a substantive theory of sense for its resolution are presented.
Expressivism
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: May 2008

AbstractMany philosophers think that internalism supports a non-cognitivist account of normative judgments, according to which these judgments do not count as genuine beliefs, but rather as non-cognitive states of some kind. Such non-cognitivist accounts of normative judgments naturally accompany an expressivist account of the meaning of normative statements. This chapter considers the prospects of such an expressivist theory, taking as its paradigm the most recent theory of Allan Gibbard. It is argued that this theory is vulnerable to a strengthened form of the objection that P. T. Geach derived from the work of Frege. This makes it plausible that expressivist accounts face insuperable problems, and so that both expressivism and non-cognitivism should be rejected.
The Normativity of the Intentional
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter argues for a version of the idea of the normativity of the intentional. First, it explores a particular version of this idea in greater detail. According to this version of the idea, the nature of every concept is given, in part, by a requirement about how it is rational to use that concept; and to possess that concept, one must have some disposition to use it in accordance with the requirement of rationality that is built into the nature of the concept(a similar pair of claims would also be true of each of the various types of attitude — such as belief, desire, intention, and so on). The chapter then argues in favour of this idea; according to this argument, the possession of a concept is a cognitive power, and so cannot rest of any irrational disposition.
Non‐reductive Naturalism
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter attempts to answer the central objection that many philosophers will raise against the idea (which was defended in the previous chapter) that there are irreducible normative facts. According to a plausible naturalistic conception of the world, the natural facts in some sense determine the fundamental nature of the world. But how can this idea of irreducible normative facts be reconciled with such a naturalistic conception of the world? A modest form of naturalism implies only that all contingent facts are realized in (and so also supervene on) natural facts. It is argued here that this view can be reconciled with the thesis that there are irreducible normative facts and properties (although the reconciliation requires some far-reaching reflections on the nature of the concepts of ‘essence’ and ‘metaphysical necessity’, and even on the question of which is the right modal logic for metaphysical necessity).
Christology and Coptic Art: Images of the Incarnation on Egyptian Bodies and Monuments
Authors: Davis Stephen J. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Human bodies were contested commodities in the ancient church, Early Christian writers frequently wrangled over the ethical implications of dress and bodily adornment, and sought to regiment various forms of physical interaction and movement within their communities, from sexual contact to pilgrimage travel. Bodies — and how they were used — functioned as privileged markers of Christian identity, as valuable capital in the complex economies of Christian discourse and practice. Nowhere was this more the case than in discussions about Christ's body and its relation to his divinity. This chapter examines visual representation of Christ's body among Coptic communities, and the relation that representation had to Egyptian Christian understandings of the Incarnation. It focuses on two particular contexts for such visual representation: (1) images of Christ on Coptic textiles and clothing, and (2) images of Christ on the walls of Coptic churches. In each of these two cases, the ritualized contexts for the wearing and viewing of christological images are explored.
‘[T]his Insanum Bellum, this mad Warre’
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the similarities and differences between the English civil war and other European wars during the first half of the 17th century. It then explains the objective of the book, which is to examine what kind of war the English civil war was. An overview of the topics covered by the book is presented.
An Integrated War
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter discusses the characteristics of the English civil war. The war was a mixture of the static and the mobile, combining innumerable sieges with peripatetic armies engaging in minor skirmishes and major battles. Soldiers were constantly on the move, with many gaining a wider knowledge of their country in the process. The experience of war was widely diffused, with the impact of soldiers and strangers on local populations intensified by the fact that most of the communities that experienced their presence were small. The lack of a linguistic barrier between fellow English speakers also enhanced and made distinctive the physical closeness characteristic of 17th century war.
Outside the Law?
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines the observance of the laws of war. It considers the distinction between prejudice against certain groups and outlawry from the codes of war. For instance, Parliamentarian publicists may claim that ‘French, Irish, Papists’ were responsible for all the ‘plunderings, ravishings, butcherings, murtherings, firings, and depopulation’ inflicted on the English. However, in practice, neither religion, ethnicity, nor tradition antipathy was sufficient to justify abandonment of those laws. The English, like other nations, were chauvinist at best and xenophobic at worst. They employed a range of stereotypes of citizens of other countries, as of non-English-speaking residents of Britain, that confirmed in their minds their own moral and social superiority. It is argued that perfect observance of the laws of war could not be secured by self-interest, honour, or morality. Both sides in the English civil war recognized the disutility of abandoning rules directed to the cohesion of an orderly army and the preservation of a civil society, but they could not consistently control the conduct of either soldiers or civilians.
Colchester 1648: ‘The Mournfull City’
Authors: Donagan Barbara 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This chapter details the siege of the city of Colchester, which was a focus of national attention when war was renewed in the spring and summer of 1648. It was a nasty, long, and major military operation that exposed parliamentarian shock, anger, and sense of betrayal, and royalist desperation.
The West and Islam
Authors: Black Antony 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
This history of political thought — philosophical argument and everyday attitudes — examines what the Western and Islamic approaches to politics had in common and where they diverged. Byzantium is also compared. In all three civilizations, political and religious ideas were intertwined and issues of ‘church and state’ were crucial. This book considers how various ancient and medieval thought-patterns did or did not lead to modern developments; and how sacred monarchy, justice — revealed or natural — the legitimacy of the state, and the role of the people were looked upon in each culture. The book examines in particular the period from the rise of Islam to the end of the European Middle Ages, but account is taken of all genres of political thought up to the present. Up to the mid-11th century, Europe, Islam, and the Byzantine world had more in common than is commonly thought. What made the West different was the papal revolution of the late 11th century, Europe's 12th-century ‘renaissance’ and the gradual secularization of political thought which followed; while Islam, after an early blossoming, interpreted its revelation more and more narrowly. With a few major exceptions (Ibn Rushd, Ibn Khaldun), Islamic political philosophy declined after c.1100. European or Western political thought developed more slowly, but it developed continuously. It underwent major transformations and encompasses a wide variety of opinions. These influenced both the Islamic world (except for fundamentalists) and the post-Byzantine world of Russia.
Introduction
Authors: Black Antony 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Comparison between cultures throws light on each one. It helps to explain similarities and divergences. To do so effectively, one needs to compare all relevant genres and periods. There has been no systematic comparison between Western, Islamic, and Byzantine political thought, at least since Weber. Political thought here includes both philosophical argument and everyday beliefs. Each of these cultures was monotheistic and neoplatonic, but they applied these features differently.
3 Society: Tribe, Commune, and Nation
Authors: Black Antony 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Islam retained clans and often tribes whereas Europe moved towards nuclear families. In Europe, significant social and political relationships were based on oath rather than kinship, whether between lords and followers (‘feudalism’) or among householders in city communities. Church and 'umma remained as universal societies. In Europe, territorial units of government became more entrenched, and, unlike in Islam, the nation sometimes became a political unit. Islam was well-disposed towards commerce. In Europe, the idea of the corporation as a legal body with specific legitimate powers favoured the city-state. In both societies, social inequalities and classes were justified, in Christendom by the organic metpahor, in Islam by a theory of the four social ‘orders’.
3 Inequality and Redistribution
Authors: Krugman Paul 
Published: May 2008

AbstractAt the time John Williamson introduced the famous concept of the ‘Washington Consensus’, discussions of economic inequality did not play a large role in economic debate. The focus instead was on macroeconomic stability and growth, with the assumption that progress on these fronts would benefit everyone. Today, given the evidence of widening inequality in many countries, coupled with disappointments on the growth front, inequality has become a more obviously crucial subject. This chapter summarizes the reasons for a renewed focus on inequality, our (limited) understanding of why it has increased in some developing countries, and what the implications for a ‘post-Washington Consensus’ policy consensus might be. Using Latin America as a case study, it focuses on how Washington Consensus liberalization policies failed to deliver broad-based gains. It concludes that what is now needed is not a reversal of liberalization, but rather deliberate policies such as aid programmes, to help the poor.
7 The Wild Ones: Industrial Policies in the Developing World
Authors: Amsden Alice H. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractGlobalization can only be realized by developing countries if they have their own nationally-owned companies that invest abroad. The devil lies in the details to assess the virtues for economic development of foreign multinationals versus private national firms. In perfectly competitive, labour intensive industries, both types of firms should be welcomed for their job formation. But in the broad range of mid-tech industries, where inputs are scarce and tacit technologies and brand-names act as entry barriers, one type of firm can ‘crowd out’ another type of firm. The best professionally-managed local companies outshine the multinational subsidiaries in terms of entrepreneurship, time to market, and an absence of bureaucracy. In high-tech, the type of research foreign multinationals undertake even in countries like China and India tend to be less innovative than what local leaders undertake. Governments should, and do (through loopholes in WTO law), promote private nationally-owned enterprises. The world is better as a result because as Third World companies thrive, there is more genuine competition.
10 The World Trading System and Implications of External Opening
Authors: Frankel Jeffrey A. 
Published: May 2008

AbstractCountries can still reap substantial economic benefits from external opening — an estimated 0.3% increase in income over twenty years for each 0.01 increase in the ratio of trade to GDP. Non-economic effects of trade are more complicated. Taking the case of SO2 pollution, trade can be on net beneficial, while for CO2 the outlook is worse, absent effective global governance, due to the international free rider problem. This chapter considers what should be priorities for the form and content of trade negotiations. The conclusion is to favour multilateral negotiations, as in the WTO. The chapter's back-of-the-envelope attempt to take into account dynamic gains says that the increase in welfare from comprehensive multilateral liberalization, such as the Doha Round if it had been successful, might have been 2% of global income. Environmental issues increasingly need to be addressed through multilateral institutions as well; they cannot be addressed through the assertion of national sovereignty.
11 The World Trading System and Development Concerns
Authors: Khor Martin 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter deals with trade policy and the world trading system from a development perspective, and concludes with proposals for making the global trading system more development-oriented, beginning with a re-orientation of the WTO. As trade is a means to development, not an end in itself, the Organization's policies should be judged not on whether they are ‘trade-distorting’ but whether they are ‘development-distorting’. Second, the WTO must make structural changes to compensate for the handicaps of developing countries in the WTO system; reciprocity among members with different capacities leads to unequal outcomes. Thirdly, developing countries need policy space, and must be allowed to consider national treatment, subsidies, and tariffs when these are development-inducing. Finally, the WTO should stick to trade issues — not intellectual property and other non-trade issues. Other agencies exist to handle other issues. With these changes, the WTO could better play its role in the design and maintenance of fair rules for trade, and thus contribute towards a balanced, predictable international trading system which is designed to produce and promote development.
13 International Migration and Economic Development
Authors: Nayyar Deepak 
Published: May 2008

AbstractThis chapter situates international migration in the wider context of the world economy to analyze what it means for economic development, with an approach and focus which represent a departure from the conventional literature on the subject. It begins with a historical profile of international labour migration during the second half of the 20th century. It examines the underlying factors with an emphasis on structural determinants at a macro level. It argues that globalization has set in motion forces which are creating a demand for labour mobility across borders and is, at the same time, developing institutions on the supply side to meet this demand, to suggest that the ageing of industrial societies may reinforce this process through demographic change and population imbalances. In the international context, it highlights some important asymmetries — between the free movement of capital and the restricted movement of labour, legal migration and illegal immigration, migrants' rights, and labour standards — which need to be addressed. The essential point to emerge from the discussion is that migration has significant implications and consequences for development in home countries, not only for output and employment but also for growth and development. In shaping distributional outcomes, remittances are the most important channel of transmission, while the impact of international migration on income distribution within and between countries depends on the skills composition of migrants. The chapter suggests that it is worth contemplating a multilateral framework for immigration laws and consular practices that govern the cross-border movement of people.
14 The Future of Global Governance
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. 
Published: May 2008

Abstract
Today we have come to understand better not only why there is such discontent with globalization, but why globalization has not worked as well as it could for so many of the world's people. It is essentially a problem of governance. The international rules of the game are often unfair, and the international institutions are undemocratic and have pushed an ideology that has resulted in policies ill-suited to many developing countries. In spite of increasing global collective action, change has been slow. This chapter focuses on the forces that may actually lead to meaningful reform of global government, and discusses a few of the elements of the system of governance that may or should evolve. These reforms include increased transparency and democracy in the official and unofficial global governance institutions, improved financing of global public goods, better management of global natural resources and public knowledge, and the creation of a global legal infrastructure. Unless these reforms are made, the already palpable disillusionment with globalization will spread, with untold consequences, both for those in the developed and the less developed countries.
Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Splanchnicectomy for Pain Control in Chronic Pancreatitis
Authors: Huffman Lynn C. , Reed Michael F. , Howington John A. 
Published: May 2008

Background Management of pain in patients with chronic pancreatitis can be frustrating. The authors retrospectively evaluated their experience with video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) for pain secondary to chronic pancreatitis. Methods From September 1999 to August 2004, 16 patients underwent VATS for pain associated with chronic pancreatitis. Data were collected retrospectively. Results Eight patients were female and 8 were male. Their ages ranged from 17 to 81 years, with a mean age of 40 years. There were 22 VATS splanchnicectomies performed: 7 right, 10 left, and 5 bilateral. The average operative time was 75 minutes for right VATS splanchnicectomy, 86 minutes for left VATS splanchnicectomy, and 88 minutes for bilateral VATS splanchnicectomies. The average length of stay (LOS) was 2.6 days after right VATS splanchnicectomy, 2.2 days after left VATS splanchnicectomy, and 1 day after bilateral VATS splanchnicectomies. Two cases were nonelective and not included in the determination of LOS. No postoperative complications occurred in any of the patients admitted for elective operations. Postoperative mortality was zero. Complete resolution of pain occurred in 4 patients (25%): 1 right splanchnicectomy, 1 left splanchnicectomy, and 2 bilateral splanchnicectomies. Total pancreatectomy with islet cell transplant was subsequently performed in 5 patients (31%), who improved but then had recurrent pain. Continued chronic pain managed with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and narcotic analgesics was the result in 7 patients (44%) Conclusions Video-assisted thoracoscopic splanchnicectomy surgery may alleviate pain in patients with chronic pancreatitis. It can be performed with minimal morbidity and mortality, and has been safe and useful in the workup, evaluation, and management of pain associated with chronic pancreatitis.
Skeletonized Radial Artery Graft Prepared with Phosphodiesterase-III Inhibitors Indicates Favorable Results Compared with Pedicled Radial Artery Graft in Angiographic Studies
Authors: Yamaguchi Shohjiro , Watanabe Go , Higasidani Kohichi , Tomita Shigeyuki , Iino Kenji , Ujiie Toshimi , Yamamoto Shinichiro 
Published: May 2008

Objectives The technique used to harvest the radial artery was modified, with improved results. Skeletonized radial artery conduits prepared with phosphodiesterase-III inhibitor were compared with pedicled conduits by angiography. Methods Isolated coronary artery bypass graft surgery that used the radial artery for conduits was performed on 83 consecutive occasions from March 2003 to February 2004. The mean age of the patients was 68 ± 7 years; 65% were male. The radial arteries were harvested randomly for skeletonized (group SPD and group SPa) or pedicled (group PPD). A phosphodiesterase-III inhibitor, olprinone hydrochloride, was used as an antispastic agent during harvesting of the radial artery for both in groups SPD and PPD. Papaverine was used in group SPa. Postoperative angiograms were performed within 1 month. Diameters of the radial artery were scaled at proximal, mid, and distal sections and averaged. Optical stenosis was measured as a percent stenosis value. Results There were no significant differences among groups SPD, SPa, and PPD in morbidity or mortality rates. Graft patency rates were 97.4% in group SPD, 98.6% in group SPa, and 95.4% in group PPD (P = 0.67). Diameters of the radial artery conduits were significantly wider in group SPD compared with group PPD (P < 0.001). Spasm and stenosis were less frequent in group PPD (P < 0.05). Conclusions Skeletonized radial artery grafting prepared with a phosphodiesterase-III inhibitor indicated favorable results in angiographic studies.