bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Special Requirements for Maintenance of Mechanical Equipment in the North Sea
Authors: Larson James C. 
Published: December 2007

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

Abstract
Considerations regarding maintainability of equipment in the early phases of platform design as well as effective maintenance and parts support programs are presented to satisfy parts support programs are presented to satisfy the unique mechanical equipment maintenance requirements dictated by the North Sea environment.

Introduction
Because of the hostile environment and rather unique logistics problems prevalent in the North Sea, normal maintenance practices, to which most of us have been accustomed, are not quite sufficient. There are many reasons for this. Let's look at the more important ones.Weather - Historically, for 5 or 6 months of each year, wind and wave conditions in the North Sea are such that transportation of necessary material and supplies is extremely unpredictable. Loading and offloading by supply boats can be delayed for up to 7 days at a time due to weather. Transportation of emergency items must be made using hell copters during these periods. This is expensive and limited by size and weight of items the helicopter can carry.Communications - The various items of production equipment purchased and installed on production equipment purchased and installed on North Sea platforms originate in almost all of the industrialized countries of the world. When a problem arises with any equipment item that cannot be readily solved internally, the normal solution is to contact the original manufacturer or representative and expect to get help or service personnel usually within 24 hours. Eventually this will be the case in the North Sea, but today communication with manufacturer parts and service organizations is a real parts and service organizations is a real Problem due to lack of knowledgeable local Problem due to lack of knowledgeable local representation of original equipment manufacturers.Personnel Requirements - Because of the tremendous concentration of drilling and production activity in the North Sea today, production activity in the North Sea today, the operating companies and service support organizations have summoned technical, supervisory and craft personnel from all over the world to satisfy the manpower requirements. Many of these people are not familiar with or not presently qualified to handle the type of equipment in use on North Sea platforms. Specialized training of personnel or use of contract specially groups is required to successfully operate and maintain North Sea production systems and mechanical equipment. production systems and mechanical equipment.4. Unique Equipment Requirements - You might ask yourself, at this point, what is so different about the equipment used in North Sea production as compared to other areas in the production as compared to other areas in the offshore industry?
Steels For Refinery Equipment
Authors: Samans Carl H. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Selection of steels for petroleum refinery vessels and piping is determined by the most economical combination of code allowable stresses and ability to resist service deterioration under operating conditions. Temperature is a major factor in selection because it effects both strength and corrosion rate; refinery operating temperatures may range from -50 degrees F or lower to 1200 degrees F or higher depending on the process. Hydrogen deteriorates some steels over much of this range but the mechanism of attack varies with temperature. Design stresses for many steels are constant in the range -20 degrees F to 650 degrees F, but at and below atmospheric temperatures ferritic steels may undergo a notch-brittle transition; the probability of this hazard must be recognized. From 650 degrees F to 1200 degrees F, ferritic steels containing up to 9 percent chromium and 1 percent molybdenum resist most forms of deterioration successfully. The higher chromium ferritic steels have little merit. Above 1200 degrees F, and for severely corrosive conditions at lower temperatures, austenitic stainless steels must be used.
Using Learning Models to Capture Dynamic Complexity in Petroleum Exploration
Authors: Gallant Lawrence , Kieffel Hervé , Chatwin Richard 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Large-scale petroleum projects require capital investments and operating decisions that stretch out over many years. Estimating the profitability of such ventures is a complex task, usually requiring significant time and effort Firms typically produce spreadsheet-based cash-flow models that provide extensive detail on the costs associated with a project This paper asserts that decision-making about large investments is improved by focusing less on such "detail complexity"—drilling down into data to achieve greater detail and precision—and more on dynamic complexity. By dynamic complexity we mean the dynamics of how conditions will change over time and, equally important, how you can manage a venture to adapt to those changing conditions as they emerge.
The key element in planning an adaptive strategy is that you learn about major sources of uncertainty as they develop. Sources of uncertainty include oil prices, reserves levels, operating performance, and competitors' actions. Correctly evaluating adaptive strategies requires that you exploit newly acquired knowledge about evolving conditions to make better informed decisions. This paper discusses the importance of dynamic complexity in valuing petroleum projects and the vital role that learning models play in capturing such complexity. Several examples from exploration and production projects will be presented.
Probabilistic Play Analysis From Geoscience to Economics: An Example From the Gulf of Mexico
Authors: Moore L. R. , Mudford B. S. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Play analysis is not a new concept. However, the use of probabilistic economic analysis techniques and tools can add a new dimension to the assessment of the economic value captured when entering a new play. Over the past decade there has been considerable effort devoted to modeling the economics of hydrocarbon plays. Describing the reserves in each prospect probabilistically, and setting dependencies between geologic risk factors in the prospects to compute a composite geologic probability of success is a frequently applied method. However, the play economics are often done simplistically by computing the value based on a mean development scenario, or an assumed ratio of net present value to oil-equivalent volume.
We will show how more rigorous probabilistic economics can be folded in with the standard probabilistic reserve assessment. Once hydrocarbons are found, there are generally one or more possible development scenarios depending on reserve size and production rates. By assigning probability distributions to the engineering elements of production rates and declines, investments and expenses, distributions of economic indicators such as NPV, ROR and P/I can be calculated. Conditional logic is used to build all possible development scenarios into a single probabilistic model, which can take the place of multiple decision tree cases. Such a model can be used to investigate the inherent risks and provide probabilities of achieving a positive NPV for the play, or of adding a certain volume of reserves.
In this paper we will present a Gulf of Mexico play model as an example. In this play the number of prospects has a probability distribution. In addition, we cease exploration in the play if three consecutive dry holes are drilled. For each prospect in the play we have an economic threshold. Below this threshold we abandon the prospect and incur dry hole costs. There is also a development threshold that determines whether the development uses subsea completions, or a platform. For each development scenario the production rates, investments and operating expenses are modelled as probability distributions.
Once a robust probabilistic model is built, the sensitivity of the model to the uncertainties in many variables can be readily investigated. A powerful feature of this model is that the impact on the play economics of factors such as delays can be quantified.
Casing Design in Directionally Drilled Wells
Authors: Woodlan Bruce , Powell G.E. 
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT
Design of casing strings for directionally drilled wells requires that consideration for bending load be included with calculations concerning tension, collapse and burst. The nature of the bending load calculation is such that it cannot be incorporated into a nomograph, but instead, must be calculated by trial and error. THUMS Long Beach Co. uses a combination of graphs and calculating procedures to facilitate designing casing in highly deviated holes.

INTRODUCTION
THUMS (Texaco, Humble [now Exxon], Union, Mobil, Shell) Long Beach Co., field contractor for the City of Long Beach, Calif., was established in 1965 to develop that portion of the Wilmington field lying offshore Long Beach, Calif. Four landscaped drilling islands were constructed, in addition to a land-based drilling site, to drill an anticipated 900 wells. As of Sept. 1973, 676 wells have been drilled, with the majority having a maximum drift angle greater than 50 ° from vertical (Fig. 1). Three wells have been drilled to a maximum angle of 81 ° from vertical. When designing casing for deviated wells it is important that, along with the customary considerations, a bending load effect be included in the calculations. THUMS' wells generally build drift angle below the kick-off point (KOP) at 5 °/100 ft (16.4 °/100 m) of drilled depth to a predetermined maximum angle, hold that angle ('sail') to a point above the producing horizon, and drop angle at 2 ° ±/100 ft (6.6 ° ±/100 m) until the resultant hole angle is 45 ° or less through the producing interval. The following design procedure considers the most extreme conditions expected to be encountered in running and cementing casing in deviated holes.

MATHEMATICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Seven major areas of concern in casing design are commonly dealt with in directionally drilled wells. Each topic is discussed below with the applicable mathematical approach for each.Buoyancy1,3,6â?"Fluid in the hole when running casing strings can appreciably change the effective weight of the casing. This becomes important in calculations concerning weight supported at any one point:Equation 1Bending Load1,3â?"The buildup and drop-off portions of deviated wells cause a bending load to be introduced on the casing. This is the equivalent of adding weight to the string at a specific point.
Ranger Six, Case History of a Pool Originally Developed for Waterflooding
Authors: Wade James E. 
Published: December 2007

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.
This paper was prepared for the 45th Annual California Regional Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, to be held in Ventura, Calif., April 2–4, 1975. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon request to the Editor PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon request to the Editor of the appropriate journal provided agreement to give proper credit is made.
Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers office. Such discussion may be presented at the above meeting and, with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

Abstract
Waterflooding has long been recognized as an effective means of secondary recovery; however, little emphasis has been placed upon the application of this method early in the productive life of an oilfield. This report presents a case history of the Wilmington Ranger Six Pool which was developed in 1965 and has been under waterflood since its initial development. Performance to date indicates average oil production per well has been sustained at rates more than four times as high as comparable wells in adjacent pools under solution gas drive. The adjacent pools were waterflooded in the later stages of primary depletion.
Comparison of water-oil ratio vs. recovery performance indicates that ultimate recovery for this pool will be approximately the same as that of the adjacent pools, however, the Ranger Six water-oil ratio will remain higher throughout the productive life. This will increase the cost of operation but the increase should be more than offset by the accelerated recovery. Although the report does not cover economics the present worth profit potential of Ranger Six performance cannot fail to be recognized. performance cannot fail to be recognized. The planned development of the pool for waterflooding enabled drilling fewer wells on wider spacing, resulting in a better overall flood plan than is normally possible by later conversion of a primary recovery spacing plan.
It is concluded that early waterflooding results in accelerated recovery without loss of potential secondary reserves and offers a means of increasing oil production during a time of shortage.

Introduction
The Wilmington Oil Field, as shown in Figure 1, is located on a northwest-southeast trending anticline and is cut by a system of north-south faults which divides the field into a series of fault block reservoirs.
Laboratory Studies of Biopolymer Injectivity Behavior Effectiveness of Enzyme Clarification
Authors: Burnett David B. 
Published: December 2007

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.
This paper was prepared for the 45th Annual California Regional Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, held in Ventura, Calif., April 2–4, 1975. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon request to the Editor of the appropriate journal provided agreement to give proper credit is made.
Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers office. Such discussion may be presented at the above meeting and, with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

Abstract
Numerous studies have shown that the biopolymer XANFLOOD offers a viable alternate to polyelectrolytes such as polyacrylamides for use as mobility-control agents. Limited information is available, however, concerning the injectivity behavior of this polymer. Recent publications show that treatment of XANFLOOD solutions with certain enzymes will solubilize cellular debris and improve injectability. To study the effectiveness of this treatment, injectivity tests were Performed in a series of Berea cores Performed in a series of Berea cores with permeabilities ranging from 31 to 445 md.
The experimental results obtained from this series of tests have been correlated through the use of an "injectivity impairment" ratio, I*. When correlated to rock permeability, I* becomes a measure of injectivity behavior and shows the effectiveness of enzyme clarification.

Introduction
One of the keys to enhanced oil recovery is the use of water-soluble polymers either for use as mobility polymers either for use as mobility controls or for water-diverting agents. Of the commercially available products used in flooding, two polymers have shown the most promise: polyacrylamides and the biopolymer xanthan gum, commercially available as XANFLOOD. XANFLOOD, while being used for the same basic purpose as the acrylamides, performs in a different manner. XANFLOOD reduces the mobility of water by increasing the viscosity, not by reducing the permeability of the rock formation. permeability of the rock formation. Both laboratory studies and field tests have shown that the polymer has excellent shear stability, is insensitive to temperature, and gives high viscosity in oil field brines at low concentrations.

Rheology of XANFLOOD Solutions
Laboratory studies show that XAN-FLOOD solutions, like polyacrylamide solutions, are shear thinning. Unlike the latter, this biopolymer generally does not exhibit viscoelastic tendencies in cores.
Strategies for Steam Flood Optimization in a High-Water Saturation Reservoir in the Midway-Sunset Field
Authors: Deo Milind D. , Forster Craig , Schamel Steven 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
PRU Fee, an idle lease in the Midway Sunset Field has been a site of a U.S. DOE-sponsored Class III project. A geologic and stratigraphic model of the site was constructed using logs and core data. Geostatistical approach was used in generating reservoir images. Reservoir simulations were performed to study the effectiveness of various processes and to examine the sensitivity of parameters. The study showed that oil can be recovered economically from the lease using conventional steam flood technology provided the injectors are completed an optimum distance above the oil water contact. Simulations also showed that it was possible to recover additional oil by appropriately placing horizontal producers later in the life of the flood.
Investigation of Foamy Oil Phenomena in Heavy Oil Reservoirs
Authors: Albartamani N. S. , Ali S.M. Farouq , Lepski B. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
The so-called "Foamy Oil" phenomenon is associated with primary cold production from heavy-oil reservoirs producing under solution-gas drive. A number of heavy oil solution gas drive reservoirs show anomalously good primary performance and high oil production rates. Example are: Lindbergh, Frog Lake, Lloydminster, and Edam in Saskatchewan. The nature of gas dispersion in oil distinguishes "foamy" oil behavior from conventional heavy oil behavior. Moreover, the important issues that distinguish foamy oil from conventional heavy oil are: the amount of dispersed gas in oil, and the time for which gas bubbles remain dispersed in the oil. These reservoirs are characterized by slower decline in reservoir pressure, lower than expected GORs, higher critical gas saturation (35% to 40%), foamy produced crude oil, and higher ultimate recovery in primary production phase. Production rates from cold production wells can be many times higher than the rate predicted by Darcy equation which does not account for sand production and the "foamy" oil behavior.
Several possible causes for the anomalous production behavior have been suggested by investigators. These include the formation of wormholes and cavities around the wellbore, sand dilation, enhancement of oil mobility by nucleation of large number of microbubbles, in-situ formation of oilcontinuous foam, influx of bottom water, and non-Newtonian flow. The work presented in this paper will review modeling foamy oil behavior by investigating the nucleation of microbubbles and the formation of in-situ oil-continuous foam. The study will focus on a critical evaluation of previous work performed by other investigators. A new experimental design coupled with an analytical approach were undertaken to unravel the problem forthmentioned.
A Wormhole Network Model of Cold Production in Heavy Oil
Authors: Yuan Jian-Yang , Babchin Alex 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
High permeability channels (wormholes) are believed to be generated, starting from the wellbore and propagating into the reservoir, during the initial phase of cold production. The development of wormholes drastically enhances oil production. Understanding the wormhole development pattern, therefore, is critical to the modelling of the fluid flow behaviour and recovery rates in the cold production process. We propose that the wormhole growth can be described by the probabilistic active walker (PAW) model, which is a generalisation of the classical random walk model. This simple description may lead to an improved understanding of: the mechanisms involved in cold production, the fluid flow in the area where wormholes are formed (the wormhole zone) and field production data. Previous experimental and theoretical studies indicate that the wormhole diameter may be a function of distance from the wellbore. We assume that this function follows a power law, slowly decreasing with increasing radial distance. We calculated the mobility of a slurry of sand and oil through the wormhole network. This mobility was used to calculate oil and sand production rates. Furthermore, we related the maximum size of the wormhole zone and its expansion rate to the sand production data in a typical cold production operation. This relationship can be useful in determining well spacing. This wormhole network model can also be useful as a tool for analysing field data and for the development of field scale numerical simulations of the cold production process.
Displacement Regimes in Fully-Developed Steam Injection
Authors: Yortsos Yannis C. 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
We present an analysis of the displacement properties during the dynamic invasion of steam in a porous medium. Two fully developed regimes are identified, similar to the Stabilized Displacement (SD) and the Capillary-Viscous Fingering (CVF) regimes of the isothermal drainage problem (Yortsos et ah, 1997). Phase change and heat transfer affect the scaling of the various properties of these regimes. Near the advancing steam front, phase change and heat transfer bring about a qualitative change in the flow permeabilities, although not in the displacement pattern, which remains of the Invasion Percolation type, if injection rates are sufficiently small. The relative permeabilities in this region are larger than those for the isothermal displacement problem. A condition is developed to delineate the regions of validity of these two regimes.
Multiphase Pumps for Minas Light Oil Steam Flood, Sumatra-Indonesia
Authors: Putra Erwinsyah , D. Uphold Donald 
Published: December 2007

Abstract
Multiphase pumps are modified liquid pumps that are capable of pumping various combinations of oil, water, gas, and sand in the same pipeline without separation. Minas Light Oil Steam Flood (LOSF) Pilot Project will utilize the multiphase technology to boost casing fluid with high steam and gas content from wells to the Gathering Station without prior separation. Hence, tremendous savings in capital and operating costs are realized from strategic placement of multiphase pumps since large separators, liquid pumps and compressors are eliminated.
Two uniquely different multiphase pumps, a 500 hp twin-screw pump and a 700 hp helico-axial pump, were recently tested and qualified at the Texaco Multiphase Flow Facility, where flow rates as high as 145,000 BPD and gas volume fractions (GVF) up to 100% were achieved. An illustration of each pumping unit is given followed by a presentation of measured performance data relative to the operating conditions chosen by Caltex Pacific Indonesia (CPI). Based on test results, the advantages and disadvantages of the competing technologies are compared, noting that CPI will eventually consider these data to choose either twin-screw or helico-axial technology for the Minas Light Oil Steam Flood project.
Results obtained at the Texaco Multiphase Flow Facility indicate that twin-screw pumps are 25% more efficient than helico-axial pumps. Furthermore, twin-screw pumps are virtually insensitive to liquid slugs and large changes in inlet gas density; helico-axial pumps require slug catchers upstream of the pump inlet to absorb these intermittent slugs and large variations in GVF. It is anticipated, however, that helico-axial pumps are superior in resisting long-term wear from continuous exposure of sand, which will be investigated in Duri in the fourth quarter of 1998.