bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hyperthermia, Systemic
Authors: Rowe‐Horwege R. Wanda 
Published: April 2006

AbstractSystemic hyperthermia is deliberate heating of the whole body to achieve an elevated core temperature for therapeutic purposes. This practice has centuries of historical precedence and is founded on solid physical and biological principles. Body temperature is tightly controlled by a number of physiological processes to achieve a sustained elevation of core body temperature these must be overcome so that heat input exceeds heat losses. The physics of heat balance in human bodies is described. Numerous methods of systemic heating have been investigated and are presented. Use of radiant energy in the near infrared range is effective in heating and has minimal side effects for the patient. Thus it forms the basis of most commercially available whole‐body hyperthermia machines. The physiology of elevated body temperature and the biology of hyperthermia, along with its toxicities, is discussed in some detail as its understanding is key to development of successful systemic heat based therapies. Cancer is the main focus of whole body hyperthermia, and the rationale for, and state of the art of, cancer treatment is presented. While initial applications of systemic hyperthermia attempted to produce direct killing of malignant cells with maximally tolerated temperatures, it is now appreciated that curative effects may be achieved through lower temperatures sustained for longer durations and by combining systemic hyperthermia with radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Systemic hyperthermia can also be of use in treatment of musculoskeletal disorders, rheumatic diseases, and immune deficiencies. New directions and future applications of whole‐body hyperthermia as an aid immunotherapy, gene therapy, and drug delivery are presented. A resurgence of interest in systemic hyperthermia is predicted along with its emergence from the fringe of medical practice to become established as a mainstream medical treatment.
Immunologically Sensitive Field‐Effect Transistors
Authors: Zachariah Emmanuel S. , Gopalakrishnakone P. , Neuzil Pavel 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
The Immunologically Sensitive Field‐Effect Transistors (IMFETs) represent the amalgamation of the technologies of Solid‐state electronics and Immunodiagnostics. The immunosensor is fabricated by immobilizing immunoagent, preferably, antibody on the gate region of an Ion‐Sensitive Field Effect Transistor (ISFET). Consequently, IMFETs embodying a range of monoclonal antibodies and the unique ISFET transduction mechanism could, in principle, be made possible for detection of a wide array of analytes, ranging from small biomolecules to bacteria. There have been several studies describing the application of ISFET as the IMFET, and they are broadly discussed in two headings, viz., Direct‐acting (label free) IMFET and Indirect‐sensing IMFET. In the label free approach, antibody‐antigen reaction has been monitored without addition of enzyme labels. Whereas the latter approach utilizes the advantage of enzyme label to indirectly monitor the antibody‐antigen reaction with pH‐sensitive ISFET. This chapter describes the challenges met with the development of practical IMFETs, their strengths and limitations.
Immunotherapy
Authors: Li Qiao 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe immunotherapy of cancer, infectious disease, and autoimmune disease has developed very rapidly during recent years. For example, the current concept of “adoptive T cell immunotherapy of cancer” is quite different from how it was originally conceived. With the development of modern technology in molecular biology, cell biology, immunology, and biochemistry during the last 20 years or so, adoptive immunotherapy has grown from its initial form of a simple “blood cell transfer” into its present process, which involves host vaccination, effector cell activation/polarization and genetic modification. With the use of immune adjuvants and the identification–characterization of tumor‐reactive T cell subsets, or in combination with other therapeutic strategies, adoptively transferred T cells have become much more potent in mediating tumor regression. In addition, studies on the trafficking of infused T cells, cell transfer performed in lymphopenic models, as well as the discovery of novel techniques in immune monitoring for the generation of effector cellsIn vitroand after cell transferIn vivohave provided useful tools to further improve the therapeutic efficacy of this approach.
Bioimpedance in Cardiovascular Medicine
Authors: Hettrick Douglas A. , Zielinski Todd M. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe terms bioimpedance or tissue impedance describe both the resistive and reactive components of tissue at the applied stimulus frequency. The capacitive reactive components of the measured tissue impedance change at higher frequencies due to the relative conductive properties of tissue fluids and cellular membranes. It is the resistive and reactive applications of bioimpedance that will be discussed in this article.
Intraaortic Balloon Pump
Authors: Weller Peter , Morrow Darren 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe intra‐aortic balloon pump (IABP) is an implanted cardiac assist device that utilises the principle of counterpulsation to provide temporary assistance to the failing heart. The balloon inflates during diastole (relaxation) and deflates before systole (contraction). This has two primary effects. First, it causes a decrease in the peak aortic blood pressure during systole, called systolic unloading. Second, it causes an increase in the mean aortic blood pressure during diastole, called diastolic augmentation.Systolic unloading decreases the oxygen demand of the heart and is enhanced by earlier balloon deflation. Diastolic augmentation increases the oxygen supply to the heart and is enhanced by later balloon deflation. The IABP therefore improves the myocardial oxygen balance and this can help the failing heart to recover. Furthermore, fine adjustment of the balloon deflation time can maximize this improvement.This article introduces the medical theory and need for intra‐aortic balloon pumping. A brief historical background is then presented. The techniques and principles of counterpulsation are then described. The article concludes with an examination of current developments and problems in this arena.
Ligament and Tendon, Properties of
Authors: Azangwe G , Aspden RM 
Published: April 2006

AbstractFirst, this article considers the components of the tissue, not from a biochemical point of view, but as components that may be combined to produce mechanically stable materials. The constituents are considered in terms of the matrix in which are embedded fibers of collagen and varying amounts of elastin. Following this is a discussion of the ways these components interact in ligaments and tendons to yield composite materials with the required mechanical properties. A consideration of some of the ways in which ligaments and tendons may be damaged, and the mechanisms by which they might recover or be repaired, leads to a final, brief review of their surgical replacement. A small section on work being conducted in order to produce a tissue engineered ligament and tendon is also included.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Authors: Block W. F. , Alexander A. L. , Fain S. B. , Meyerend M. E. , Moran C. J. , Reeder S. B , Vigen K. K. , Wieben O. , Brittain J. H. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) moved out of the exclusive realm of academia and into widespread clinical practice in the 1980s. Relatively quickly, MRI became the modality of choice for several head, spine, and musculoskeletal imaging exams due to tis excellent soft tissue contrast. Although the plateau of MRI’s development and utilization has often been predicted, it continues to grow through being an amazingly adaptive technology. New mechanisms of generating image contrast have allowed the modality to go beyond the study of anatomical structure and deliver functional physiological informaion. A description of the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) phenomena, methods to spatially encode the NMR signal, image contrast mechanisms, and emerging appliactions are provided.
Mammography
Authors: Lin Pei‐Jan Paul 
Published: April 2006

AbstractX‐ray mammography has been the primary imaging modality employed in the early detection of breast cancer for the past three decades. This article covers a brief historical development, in parallel with discussions in some details, with respect to the physics of mammography. The hardware of mammography equipment including the X‐ray tubes, generators, and the image receptors are manufactured with different engineering implementation. Thus, specific commercial products are introduced to describe the technological achievements of typical representative designs. Since the radiology community as a whole is gearing toward the filmless “digital” era, the screen‐film mammography is briefly discussed while the digital mammography including computed radiography (CR) and digital radiography (DR) are given more attention in this article. Mammography products that are readily available in the U.S. market are described. This is due primarily to the fact any medical devices are regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States, but had profound effect on the equipment design and development of mammography products. The mammography related equipment, in particular, is regulated under the Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA), originally enacted in 1990.
Medical Physics Literature
Authors: Orton Colin 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Medical physics publications include books, proceedings, reports, monographs, and journals. Of special interest are the publications of two leading medical physics organizations, the Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM) in the UK, and the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) in North America. These two organizations between them have published hundreds of reports, monographs, and meeting proceedings that are used as reference materials throughout the world. From the IPEM many of these are published by the Institute of Physics Publishing (IOPP) in Bristol, UK, and from the AAPM many are published by either the American Institute of Physics (AIP) or Medical Physics Publishing (Madison, WI). In this Section we will present references to all these publications, as well as those of other organizations and independent publishers. The various primary and secondary journals will also be referenced.
Mobility Aids
Authors: Cooper Rory , Wolf Erik , Collins Diane , Chavez Eliana , Pearlman Jon , Karmarkar Amol , Cooper Rosemarie 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
The uses of mobility aids are critical to the lives of millions of people around the world with mobility impairments. Mobility aids, whether it is a wheelchair, a walker, or a prosthetic limb, give their users the independence in their everyday lives to work, play, and perform their activities of daily living. Properly prescribed mobility aids also assist in the safety of their users by reducing falls, and reducing fatigue and injuries to the upper extremities. The dramatic advancements in technology in the past decades have allowed mobility aids to be accessible to a far greater population of users, and have given users, even those with very limited functional mobility, the means to participate in whichever activities they please and also to perform their normal daily activities.
Monitoring, Hemodynamic
Authors: Gardner Reed M. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractHemodynamic monitoring relates to the measurements, display, and quantitation of parameters measured from the human cardiovascular system. For critically ill patients, the measurement and display of parameters derived from a broad array of sensors and systems, provides physicians and nurses to better understand and manage the care of the patients. Several of the hemodynamic parameters are obtained from noninvasive electrodes and probes, while others require placement of invasive catheters and injection of fluid to perform the measures. As with all systems that measure a patient’s physiological parameters, it is important to understand how to accurately and consistently measure these parameters. This article provides an insight into how to reliably and consistently measure important hemodynamic parameters needed to optimally care for these critically ill patients.
Monitoring, Intracranial Pressure
Authors: Daley Michael L. , Piper Ian 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe craniospinal axis consists of all neural tissue and contiguous fluid‐filled spaces within the cranium and spinal sac. Intracranial pressure (ICP) is a nonuniform pressure recorded within the craniospinal axis. Although the subject of intracranial pressure dates back to over 200 ago, both the invasive monitoring procedure required to measure ICP with its accompanying risk of infection and the nonunique nature of the extravascular pressure measurement have retarded the development of knowledge in this area. As a result, the intent of this article is to provide the reader with a broad perspective ICP monitoring by providing background material on (1) the physiological and anatomical characteristics of the craniospinal, (2) a history of instrumentation techniques including the most recent advances, (3) a brief review of significant clinical ICP monitoring studies with an emphasis on severe head injury, (4) a review of analysis methods, and (5) models of ICP dynamics related to analysis.
Monitoring, Umbilical Artery and Vein
Authors: Elsharydah Ahmad , Wang Haibo , Cork Randall C. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis article addresses the potential benefits of umbilical vessel catheters and associated monitoring devices. It sheds light on the catheters and monitors available on the market and explains the complications and the risks of these catheters. Furthermore, this article looks at the direction of this technology in the future, and it tries to stimulate development of new technology for use in the monitoring of critically ill newborn infants.
Neutron Activation Analysis
Authors: Hou Xiaolin 
Published: April 2006

AbstractNeutron activation analysis (NAA) is an elemental analysis technique, which is based on the excitation of the atomic nucleus of an isotope of element with neutrons, and the emission of the specific gamma rays from the excited nucleus by decay. Due to the absence of a blank and less matrix contribution, NAA is therefore suitable for the analysis of biomedical materials, and has been successfully applied for trace element biomedical study and clinical analysis. A nuclear reactor is normally used as a neutron source for the determination of trace elements; the produced radionuclides are then measured by a gamma detector consisting of a germanium detector and a gamma spectrometry system. The theory, equipment and detailed methodology, and analytical quality assurance are discussed in this article. Some applications are also highlighted.
Neutron Beam Therapy
Authors: Maughan Richard L. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
The neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932; by 1938 Robert Stone, in collaboration with Ernest Lawrence, was using a cyclotron produced fast neutron beam to treat human tumors. These original clinical trials were unsuccessful because of the poor understanding of the radiobiology of neutrons. Later, radiobiological studies established tumor hypoxia and radiosensitivity variations at different phases of the cell cycle as rationales for fast neutron therapy. Clinical studies during the early 1970s demonstrated that neutron therapy was a potentially beneficial modality in the treatment of malignant disease and definitive controlled clinical trials followed.
Increased interest in neutron therapy lead to the definition of minimum specifications for therapeutic fast neutron beam treatment facilities. These specifications included beam dose rate, penetration, collimation, and reliability. The parameters used to characterize fast neutron beams for therapeutic use include neutron yield (dose rate), the neutron energy spectrum, beam intensity profiles, and microdosimetric data. The most prolific neutron producing nuclear reactions occur when high‐energy proton or deuteron beams are incident on a solid beryllium target, or when the deuterium–deuterium or deuterium–tritium fusion reactions are employed. The relative merits of these different methods of neutron production are discussed in detail.
There have been a total of 34 centers that have treated patients with fast neutron therapy of which 6 are currently operational. The state‐of‐the‐art facilities all use cyclotrons to accelerate protons or deuterons to energies >48 MeV; they use multileaf or multirod collimators to shape the beams to the tumor contour. The latest facility uses a compact deuteron superconducting cyclotron, which offers several advantages over conventional room temperature devices.
Nuclear Medicine Instrumentation
Authors: Williams Lawrence E. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractNuclear medicine uses a variety of ionization detectors to measure radioactivity attached to pharmaceuticals designed to target specific tissues and even moleculesIn vivo. The targeting agents include naturally occurring molecules, their engineered variants, and nanostructures. Radioactive labels must emit γ rays (photons) to allow imaging, but beta or alpha emissions are used in radiotherapy of cancer. Both two‐dimensional (2D) and three‐dimensional (3D) images can be produced. The gamma camera is the most common imaging device with positron emission tomographic (PET) scanners becoming very popular because of their tomographic and quantitative outputs. Hybrid devices using gamma camera and computed tomography (CT) or PET and CT on the same scanning bed have been developed to allow better correlation of regions of elevated radioactivity with physiological structures. Small animal versions of these instruments and their hybrids are available for radiopharmaceutical research studies.
Nutrition, Parenteral
Authors: Silberman Howard 
Published: April 2006

AbstractParenteral nutrition refers to methods that provide all required nutrients intravenously. This major advance in medical therapeutics is indicated for individuals with medical conditions that preclude safe or effective oral or enteral nutrition. Nutrient solutions provide nonprotein calories as glucose or lipids or a combination thereof, synthetic amino acids as the source for protein synthesis, electrolytes, trace elements, vitamins, and essential fatty acids. Patients receiving such therapy, either in the hospital or at home, require careful monitoring, optimally by a dedicated team, to avoid complications, such as infection or metabolic derangements.
Ocular Fundus Reflectometry
Authors: Kulkarni Amol D. , Dattawadkar Amruta M. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
A qualitative method for observation of the light reflected at the fundus was developed by Helmhotz in 1851. However, there was need for quantitative assessment and with the introduction of microprocessors, it was possible to measure spatial and spectral distribution of reflectance. Experimental models of observed wavelength dependence and reflectance of light from macula were initiated. The role of these experimental models using fundus reflectometry in basic and clinical research is summarized in the present chapter.
Office Automation Systems
Authors: Cardoso Jorge 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Nowadays, the use of office automation systems is almost unavoidable in healthcare organizations. These systems allow the automation of much of the administrative work carried out by healthcare professionals and can typically be used to manage appointment scheduling, electronic medical claims submission, medical billing, patient and insurance ledgers, and patient statements. The correct use of these systems can dramatically altered the manner healthcare organizations conduct their daily business by automating the tasks performed by professionals. It is therefore indispensable to understand the objectives and functionalities of the various office automation systems that are available.
Optical Sensors
Authors: Mendelson Yitzhak 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe fundamental principle of optical sensors is based on the change in optical properties of a biological or physical medium. Optical sensors play an important role in a variety of biomedical, clinical, and environmental measurements. This article reviews the basic concept employed in the development of optical sensors, including specific examples how optical sensors are being utilized for real‐timein vivoandex‐vivomeasurement of clinically signifially significant biochemical variables.
Orthopedics, Prosthesis Fixation for
Authors: Prendergast Patrick J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractMethods of fixation of orthopedic implants include (1) use of a grouting polymer (polymethylmethacrylate) to interlock the prosthesis to the bone and (2) osseointegration, which relies on ingrowth of the bone into the implant surface. Osseointegration takes several forms involving a structured surface (wire mesh, beads, etc.), sometimes coupled with an osteoconductive layer (e.g., a hydroxyapatite coating). Both approaches are in wide use in all kinds of joint replacement. In some cases, one side of a joint replacement prosthesis is fixated with cement and the other by osseointegration; such replacements are called hybrid replacements. Both approaches are undergoing continuous development: Fixation with bone cement is improving with each new generation of cementing techniques, and improvements may include bioactive cements in the future; osseointegration is undergoing improvements of osteoconductive coatings, including the addition of growth factors and a better understanding of the relationship between implant stability and bone ingrowth. An overview is given of fixation used in the main orthopedic implant categories.
Oxygen Monitoring
Authors: Barker Steven J. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
This article reviews recent advances in the monitoring of patient oxygenation. We summarize the transport of oxygen from the atmosphere to the cell, and describe monitors that function at four stages of the O2 transport process. These four stages include respired gas, arterial blood, tissue, and venous blood. History and recent developments in pulse oximetry will be discussed. Continuous intraarterial blood‐gas sensors will be described and contrasted with other oxygen monitors. Finally, tissue oxygen monitoring and mixed‐venous oximetry are discussed.