bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Planning and Design of Fixed Berth Structures For 300,000 to 500,000 DWT Tankers
Authors: Tappler J.F. , Weersma J.F. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
The planning and design of berths for mammoth tankers completed during the past few years and now under construction, is reviewed. All these structures are of the fixed type and accommodate tankers larger than 300,000 DWT.
The range of ships to be accommodated predicates the number and spacing of the main structural components and influences the cost of the structure.
A tendency of increasing berthing energy capacity for a given size vessel is illustrated. The evaluation of mooring loads is commented on.
The cost of the structure as a proportion of the total cost of the installation has significantly changed for the recent projects, due to the increased loading rates and more extensive mechanical provisions.

INTRODUCTION
In the early sixties the first two facilities for tankers of 300,000 DWT were conceived. At that time the concept of transshipment terminals using very large vessels to shuttle between the Persian Gulf and the transshipment terminal was established. This concept set the stage for the development of a new generation of tankers, namely the mammoth tankers or as they are also known, the Bantry class tankers.
During the next few years the concept of transshipment was modified to include shipping directly to receiving ports. This in turn, prompted the construction of more of these vessels and the development of even larger tankers. In this paper reference is made to the planning and design of some of these facilities, starting with Bantry Bay and Kuwait.
No attempt was made to give a detailed description of any of the projects, because they have been described in technical publications or will be as soon as the construction is completed. An attempt was made however, to highlight aspects of the planning and design which require special attention.
Undoubtedly the design philosophy has changed somewhat since the first of these facilities were built. These changes were the result of the experience gained from the first projects and the data collected from investigations and tests. The two main design aspects are berthing energies and mooring loads, both of which need further study and experimentation. A brief summary of some of the approaches to establish berthing energy is included, while for mooring loads the necessity of model testing is advocated. Mention is also made of the high loading rates and the associated installations. The cost ratio between the main components of the structure and the mechanical installation is given, comparing the first projects against the recent installations. The basic layouts of several facilities which Harris planned and designed during the past years are used to illustrate how various solutions were found for facilities to serve 300,000 - 500,000 DWT tankers.

DEVELOPMENT OF TANKERS
The phenomenal increase of tanker size in the 19601 s required a complete reevaluation of the design of facilities to handle the new generation vessels. The largest tanker in service in 1960 was 100,000 DWT, in 1970, 326,000 DWT and in 1973 it will be 500,000 DWT.
Engineering Properties of Marine Sediments-Gulf of Paria, Trinidad, W. I.
Authors: Gershowitz Robert , Liao John 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
The engineering properties of high plasticity marine sediments in the Gulf of Paria were investigated for the design of a five mile long submarine pipeline and marine structure at the request of Texaco Trinidad, West Indies. The strength-depth relationships determined by using hand vane shear tester and laboratory tests performed on undisturbed samples indicated linear variation to a depth of approximately 80 feet. Thereafter, the rate of strength increase reduced resulting in almost constant shear strength at the maximum depth explored -- 212 feet below sea bottom in 90 feet of water. Design charts determining the anticipated settlement of the submarine pipelines and foundation pile capacities were developed.

INTRODUCTION
The construction of engineering works on the sea bed requires knowledge of the physical properties of the bottom sediments to varying depths, depending upon the type of facility contemplated. Certain types of facilities are involved only with the shallow deposits, other types of facilities with both shallow and deep deposits. This paper is involved with both shallow and deep strata - the shallow for a submarine pipeline and the deep for the foundations for a platform and an anchorage for a Single Point Mooring (SPM).
The accurate determination of the physical properties of each sediment stratum is essential to the development of a sound engineering design. The accuracy with which these determinations can be made is intimately related to the ability to either obtain undisturbed samp1e which can be tested, or to perform in-situ tests. The problem is further compounded when operations have to be performed in exposed sea locations. Several approaches to in-situ testing have been attempted with only limited degrees of success, and only in relatively shallow penetrations of the bottom. This approach, therefore, still remains in the research and development stage and is not suitable for consideration in a production type of project. The use of undisturbed sampling currently affords the best opportunity for a successful program at moderate cost.
This project required operations in 90 feet of water and utilized the cased boring techniques with almost continuous thin wall tube sampling. Shear testing was performed on site by means of a small vane shear tester and compared with the results of laboratory unconfined compression and triaxial shear tests. A design chart was developed to determine the estimated settlements of the submarine pipeline as a function of pipe diameter and specific gravity. Another chart was developed to establish the pile capacities in tension and compression.
Big bore, high flowrate, deep water gas wells for Ormen Lange
Authors: Hartmann Robin A. , Vikeså Gerd Olaug , Kjærnes Per A. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
Ormen Lange is Norway's second largest gas field located at a water depth of about 1000 meters, see Figure 1. The field development plan calls for a subsea solution with templates, manifolds and pipelines to be installed approximately 120 kilometers from shore. The development operator for Ormen Lange is Norsk Hydro, while A/S Norske Shell will take over operatorship at the start of production in October 2007. In addition, A/S Norske Shell will, after approval of the field development plan, be responsible for subsurface development, including drilling of the development wells. Ormen Lange's highly prolific reservoir capacity, in terms of permeability, size and pressure, presented the opportunity to consider big bore, high flowrate wells during the initial design concept.
Figure 1. Ormen Lange development area. (Available in full paper)
This paper describes the process of the big bore well concept selection for the Ormen Lange field, adding value to project economics, but within the boundaries of reservoir uncertainties and risks associated with each concept considered.

Introduction
The Ormen Lange field has a gas volume in place of about 528 GSm3, from which 397 GSm3 is recoverable (P50). The gas reserves cover a geographical area of approximately 340 km2, and the field is approximately 40 km long and 8 - 10 km wide. Norsk Hydro discovered the field in 1997. Five exploration and appraisal wells have been drilled on Ormen Lange.

Reservoir targets and template locations
Based on the results of the appraisal campaign, indicating a possibility for reservoir compartmentalization with partial sealing faults, the spreading of reservoir targets was concluded as the optimum reservoir drainage strategy. The target locations, as well as the appraisal targets (excluding appraisal location 6305/1-1, which is located further to the north outside the depicted area), are shown in Figure 2. To accommodate the spreading of the targets, the subsea development calls for two templates in the main production area (templates A and B), with a mutual distance of about 3 km. In addition, two more future templates are included (templates C and D). The well step-outs result in six wells with step-outs of less than 1.5 km from templates A and B and the remaining 18 wells with stepouts of maximum 2.5 km. The base case is 24 wells. See Figure 3 for template locations and well trajectories.

Reservoir properties
The main production area of the Ormen Lange field is at a water depth of 850 meter TVDMSL, and the single reservoir at 2705 m TVDMSL. The reservoir pressure is 289 bar while the reservoir temperature is 96 degrees Celsius. The depth reference to initial reservoir condition is 2,913 m TVDMSL. The temperature at the seabed is -2 degrees Celsius. The net reservoir height is 37.5 meters with around 500 mDarcy permeability, 27% porosity. The gas condensate ratio is 10,600 Sm3/Sm3 while the water gas ratio is 2.89 10−6. The net gross ration is 0.92.
Ocean Disposal of Copper Mining TaiIings
Authors: Kuo Chin Y. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
Ocean disposal of copper mining tailings through an outfall is proposed on the south coast of Puerto Rico.
If the tailings are discharged at a great depth well below the mixing zone and at the head of Cuchara Canyon, which has a steep bottom slope and is V-shaped, the tailing water and solids would not appear on the sea surface and in the coastal areas.

SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM
A massive increase in the already growing level of ocean dumping has been warned. More attention has been given to banning the dumping of specific materials and transporting them to designated safe sites8.
Copper mining in Puerto Rico has been a big political, economic and environmental controversy for a long time 6. Several studies were made for this mining project. The results of the study on the proposed ocean disposal of mining tailings are summarized herein. This study illustrates the selection of a suitable site for the dumping of mine tailings and perhaps solid wastes as well.
The companies plan to extract the ore from Rico Vivi and Tanama deposits (Pig. 1). One concentrator will be built. The concentrates will be pumped to a smelter and. the tailings will be piped through an outfall to the southern coast to a point about 2 mile.3 offshore from Punta Cuchara just west of Ponce.
The ecological problems raised by the conservationists are not included here. Two technical questions are discussed regarding the potential movement of the discharged tailings in the marine environment. These are analyzed based on the data gathered from the companies, marine geological surveys and physical oceanographic records. The questions are (1) would the tailings, which might carry contaminates, be washed back to the coast by surface or deep sea currents, and (2) would the tailing solids substantially build up a shallow water zone that stops the function of the outfall?

ANALYSIS
Potentially, the tailings would be composed of very fine crushed solid particles (approximately 60 percent by weight with a specific gravity of 2.8) and 40 percent fresh water. The slurry-like mixture has a specific gravity of 2.08. When the tailing is discharged through the outfall into the receiving ocean body, the jet of the solid-water mixture diffuses horizontally. The suspended particles generate a density current. The fresh water entrains the sea water and rises like a buoyant plume that mayor may not be submerged below the sea surface, depending on the discharge rate of the tailing and the density field of the ocean.
To estimate the maximum height that the tailing would rise (on the conservative side), the maximum height of the rise of the fresh water should be found since the solid particles are heavier than the fresh water. This calculation would predict the depth of the hazard zone if any contaminating materials were carried by the tailing.
Estimated fresh-water requirement for the tailing disposal is 3,150 gal/min.2 The proposed location of the outfall is at a depth of 800 ft. Using the formula proposed by Brooks3 based on the analysis given by Moton.
Importance of Mass Transport Complexes in the Quaternary Development of the Nile Fan, Egypt
Authors: Newton C.S. , Shipp R.C. , Mosher D.C. , Wach G.D. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
Mass transport complexes (MTCs) within the Quaternary section of the ultra-deep water Nile Fan, offshore Egypt, form a significant portion of the Quaternary sedimentary section. This indicates the importance of mass-failure processes in deep water fan progradation. Regional mapping within the western platform of the Nile Fan reveals MTCs generally comprise 30%, but locally up to 94% of the Quaternary sedimentary column. Interpretation of the Quaternary section (upper 1 km of sediment) of a recently acquired, large, 3D seismic survey on the Nile Fan reveals the presence of five large mass transport complexes (MTCs) on the mid-slope of the western platform of the Nile Fan. These MTCs are on average 150 ms thick, but can obtain thicknesses of up to 357 ms. One of the MTCs is 175 km in length from the upper to the lower slope and comprises approximately 670 km3 of sediment.

Introduction
Slope failure deposits are common features of continental margins around the world1. Despite the fact that they are considered destructive sedimentary processes, their relevance to margin progradation is becoming increasingly recognized. Margin progradation is perhaps best studied in areas where, it is accelerated in high sedimentation rate environments, such as the deep water fan systems. The Nile Fan is the one of the largest deep water fans in the world. In ultra-deep water, the Quaternary section is in excess of 1 km thick. It is the objective of this study to investigate the architecture of the Quaternary section of the deep water Nile fan, and to understand the role of mass transport processes in the construction and progradation of the fan system.
Slope failure is generally recognized by identifying escarpments, unconformities, and sedimentary deposits with certain characteristics suggesting mass transport (e.g., hummocky surfaces and incoherent internal reflections). Without referring to a specific physical process or depositional style, these deposits are referred to as mass transport complexes (MTCs). Large mass transport complexes are considered to be those that are generally greater that 2500 km2 in area and up to several hundreds of metres thick.
The deep water continental slope environment has been studied for some time, but it is only recently that the oil and gas industry has become interested in these areas for their enormous hydrocarbon potential. This interest, combined with seismic imaging improvements and widespread availability of 3D seismic data, has resulted in large 3D seismic surveys of continental slope margins worldwide. From an industry perspective, research conducted using these datasets, has greatly improved understanding of turbidite channel and levee systems. Other important elements of deep water depositional system, such as the role and significance of MTCs, have been overlooked. A large 3D seismic data set has been acquired over the Nile Fan (Figure 1) and will provide the foundation for this investigation.
Experimental and Theoretical Studies of Deep Penetrating Anchors
Authors: O&apos;Loughlin C.D. , Randolph M.F. , Richardson M. 
Published: October 2008

Abstract
Dynamic anchors have been shown to provide a cost-effective alternative to other forms of anchoring system in deep water. These anchors are torpedo shaped and are designed so that after release form a designated height above the seafloor, will penetrate to a target depth in the seabed by the kinetic energy obtained through "free-fall" and through the self-weight of the depths are 2 to 3 times the anchor length and expected anchoring capacities lie in the range 3 to 5 times the dry anchor weight. Although suggested in concept in 1999, and uncertainties in respect of the penetration depth and resulting capacity for a given seabed strength profile, and how these parameters are affected by the geometry of the anchor and its flukes.
This paper presents results from a series of centrifuge model tests undertaken in order to evaluate different methods of predicting the anchor performance. Prediction models incorporating viscous enhancement of the soil resistance, and drag coefficients based on measured free-fall terminal velocities, are shown to give reasonable agreement with the centrifuge model results.

Introduction
The geotechnical focus of the offshore oil and gas industry has recently shifted to the development of cost-effective anchoring systems that meet both the geotechnical and economic extraction in deep water. One such system, referred to as a Deep Penetrating Anchor (DPA), has been proposed by Lieng et al. (1999). The DPA is a rocket shaped anchor with a dry weight of 500-1000kN and a height of 10-15m, which after release from a designated height above the seabed (typically 20-40 m), penetrates to a target depth in the seabed by the kinetic energy obtained through free-fall and self-weight of the anchor. The uplift forces due to environmental loading are mainly resisted by the friction developed along the soil-structure interface (i.e. between the soil and the shaft and "flukes" of the anchor). A more detailed description of various aspects of the DPA concept is given in Lieng et al. (1999) and Lieng et al. (2000). Reduced scale field trials have recently been performed in Trondheim, Fjord (Norwegian Sea) on instrumented and non-instrumented DPAs of length 4.4 m, shank diameter 0.4 m and with 4 flukes, 0.475 m wide and 2.0m long(see Figure 1). A schematic and photograph of the DPA are shown on Figures 1a and 1b, and the installation procedure is summarised on Figure 1c.
Medeiros (2001, 2002) describes tests performed in the Campos Basin on a conceptually similar Torpedo Anchor (see Figure 2). These specific types of this anchor, referred to in this paper as Types I, II and III, have been proposed as a means of anchoring flexible risers, mobile offshore drilling units and floating production systems respectively. Type I anchor is essentially a 30 inch (762 mm) diameter hollow cylindrical pile of length 12 m, filled with high density scrap material to maximise self weight and with a conical tip to aid penetration.
A New Generation of Free Standing Deep Ocean Instrument Capsules for Seismic and Oceanographic Applications
Authors: Hill J. Wayne 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
The basic pressure housings used in all units are 24-in. OD aluminum hemisphere sets with a 1-in. wall thickness and 16,400-ft designed operating -depth. These sets are used in several different combinations and configurations as a basis for both seismic and oceanographic instrumentation capsules. Units using four-, two- and one-sphere combinations have been deployed successfully. The instrumentation includes digital data recording and an acoustical control and digital data transmission system. The free-standing ocean floor capsule has been adapted to many uses and configurations and has proved to be extremely versatile and reliable. The basic technology of these systems is developed and only waits to be employed to replace more expensive and less satisfactory methods.

INTRODUCTION
Increased scientific interest in phenomena occurring below the surface of the ocean has prompted expansion of the deep-sea instrument capsule program at the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, U. of California, San Diego. The basic building block of all systems is the 24-in. OD, 1-in. wall thickness aluminum pressure hemisphere rated for a 16,400-ft operating depth. These are installed in pairs with an O-ring on each side of a center plate. Center plates of one-, two- and three-coplanar instrument mounting holes have been constructed and tested as illustrated in Figs. 1 through 3. Instrumentation is typically mounted from swinging brackets split at the line of the center plate to allow access to both interior and exterior components. In multiple-sphere systems interconnecting electrical wiring is routed through small holes drilled in the center plate between instrument mounting holes. This system eliminates the need for underwater electrical connectors between housings, thus eliminating several typically more troublesome components. Any underwater electrical connectors that are employed are placed in triangular cut-outs between spheres as in Fig. 4. This affords maximum protection from accidental bumping or snagging of a connector during handling. The basic hemispherical package is used in several different combinations and configurations as a basis for both undersea seismic and oceanographic applications.

THE FOUR-SPHERE CAPSULE
Fig. 5 illustrates the most complex of the capsules which uses four hemisphere sets, three with coplanar instrument mounting plate and one above for an extra flotation and stability in the water. These house a long period Block-Moore vertical seismometer, a two-axis tiltmeter, a low power digital data-recording system, and a 10-channel underwater acoustic command system that includes a digital data transmission link.
The data link sends 24 separate' channels of data to the surface at 100 bits/sec for storage in a decoding and memory unit. Results can be displayed individually by channel or printed out serially on a printer. The present system has a very low bit-error rate as long as position is maintained within 300 directly over the capsule.