bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Primary Cell Cultures and Immortal Cell Lines
Authors: Stacey Glyn 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Primary cell cultures can be established from tissue explants or, more usually, from disaggregated tissue samples. Cells that can be subcultured many times are called cell lines and examples have been isolated from diverse tissues and cell types. Continuous cell lines of unlimited lifespan can be generated by means of a number of immortalization techniques, although in most cases such cell lines have arisen spontaneously.
Peroxisomes: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Völkl Alfred , Fahimi H Dariush 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Peroxisomes are ubiquitous cell organelles that are particularly enriched in mammalian liver and kidney. They contain oxidases producing hydrogen peroxide and catalase, which degrades it. Their main functions are in the metabolism of complex lipids such as bile acids, leucotrienes and prostaglandins. Peroxisomes can be isolated by classical density gradient centrifugation methods and by more recent immunochemical techniques.
Antibiotic Molecules: Intracellular
Authors: Borregaard Niels 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIntracellular antibiotic molecules are the essential components of innate, i.e. nonadaptive, immunity. Some are stored proteins with highly specific antibiotic activity, others are stored peptides that have a broad antibacterial spectrum, yet others are short‐lived molecular reagents that are generated by specific activation of phagocytes, the cells equipped especially for microbicidal activity.
Blood Coagulation
Authors: Jesty Jolyon 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The blood coagulation system acts in concert with the platelets to seal damaged blood vessels by the formation of a clot that consists of aggregated platelets interwoven with fibrin. Coagulation is initiated by the subendothelial membrane protein tissue factor and proceeds through a highly regulated proteolytic cascade to the production of thrombin and the fibrin clot.
Inflammation: Chronic
Authors: Kumar Rakesh K , Wakefield Denis 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Chronic inflammation may result from failure to eliminate an acute inflammatory irritant, from an autoimmune response to a self antigen, or may be caused by an innately chronic irritant of low intensity that persists. It is characterized by simultaneous inflammation and repair, with recruitment and activation of macrophages, lymphocytes and other cells triggered by the coordinated action of cytokines and growth factors.
Immunosuppressive Drugs
Authors: Ringe Burckhardt , Braun Felix 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Immunosuppressive drugs are used for the prevention or treatment of rejection after transplantation of solid organs, tissues and cells, as well as therapy of autoimmune and a variety of other diseases. Primary goals of immunosuppression are: (1) to effectively control immune responses against foreign antigens, and (2) to minimize any undesired drug side effects and toxicities. The development of numerous substances, together with the understanding of their molecular action has paved the way to meet these goals, and to individualize immunosuppression. The objective of this inventory is to give a systematic overview on immunosuppressive agents currently in use or under evaluation for transplantation, as a guide for scientific research and clinical practice.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Authors: Siliciano Robert F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a potentially fatal transmissible disease, caused by
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1
(HIV‐1). AIDS has claimed over 20 million lives and over 40 million people are infected with HIV‐1. While there is as yet no cure or effective vaccine for AIDS, there are treatments that can forestall the development of overt disease and restore immune function.
Hypersensitivity: Anaphylactic (Type I)
Authors: Bannon Gary A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Type I hypersensitivity reactions occur in individuals who have been previously sensitized to a specific allergen. They are the result of allergen recognition by immunoglobulin E on mast cells and basophils and cause a variety of symptoms such as itching or tingling of the lips, tongue or throat; nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea; sneezing, runny nose and wheezing, shortness of breath and coughing. In some cases, the reaction can be so severe that the circulatory system shuts down and tracheal swelling occurs, leading to a life‐threatening condition known as anaphylaxis.
Innate Immune Mechanisms: Nonself Recognition
Authors: Parish Christopher R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The innate immune system contains a range of cell‐bound and soluble proteins which eliminate pathogens by recognizing unique molecular patterns expressed by microorganisms, but not by host cells. Alternatively, host cells express proteins that protect them from attack by the alternative pathway of complement activation, whereas foreign organisms lack these protective proteins and are, therefore, susceptible to complement attack.
Histocompatibility Antigens
Authors: Mehra Narinder K 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The histocompatibility antigens are cell surface glycoproteins expressed on nucleated cells whose major function is to bind peptides within the cell and present them at the cell surface for inspection by T cells of the immune system. These antigens are a part of the major histocompatibility complex, which exists in most vertebrate species and whose antigens were originally defined as the most important molecules involved in the rejection of transplanted tissues exchanged between individuals of the same species.
Monoclonal Antibodies: Therapeutic Uses
Authors: Zola Heddy 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMonoclonal antibodies are biological products made in the laboratory. They use the ability of the immune system to make specific high‐affinity reagents to bind to almost any molecular structure. In recent years, the therapeutic applications of monoclonal antibodies have developed rapidly, and they currently form the fastest growing sector of the biotherapeutics industry.
Monoclonal Antibodies: Diagnostic Uses
Authors: Zola Heddy , Roberts Thomson Peter 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Diagnosis of disease depends frequently on the identification, quantitation or localization of particular molecules, cells or organisms in tissue or body fluids. Antibodies, because of their exquisite specificity, are particularly useful reagents in this context, and monoclonal antibodies are often superior to polyclonal mixtures of antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies are used widely in the diagnostic laboratory.
Integrins: Signalling and Disease
Authors: Krissansen Geoffrey W , Danen Erik HJ 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cell‐surface adhesion molecules of the integrin family are not a passive glue, but rather are dynamic molecules that mediate the transfer of information across the membrane in both directions; influencing cell growth, the cell cycle, differentiation, programmed death, survival and motility. They contribute to the pathogenesis of a diverse array of acquired and hereditary diseases, and hence are major targets for therapeutic intervention.
Antibody Microarrays
Authors: Wingren Christer , Borrebaeck Carl 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Antibody‐based microarray is a novel technology with great promise within proteomics. A microarray can be printed with thousands of antibodies carrying the desired specificities, the biological sample added (e.g. a proteome) and any specifically bound analytes detected. Global proteome analysis and protein expression profiling using this tool will provide new opportunities for biomarker discovery, drug target identification, disease diagnostics and insights into disease biology.
Lymphocytes: Antigen‐induced Gene Activation
Authors: Criado Gabriel , Madrenas Joaquín 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Lymphocytes are activated upon antigen recognition by their clone‐specific surface antigen receptors. Lymphocyte activation includes multiple signalling cascades that converge in the cell nucleus to cause significant changes in the pattern of gene expression that determine the phenotype of activated lymphocytes and ultimately, the type of immune response.
Cocaine and Amphetamines
Authors: Rebec George V 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
As stimulants, cocaine and amphetamines heighten arousal and increase behavioural activation. More ominously, rapid delivery of these drugs to the brain creates a state of euphoria (the so‐called ‘flash’ or ‘rush’) that can lead to further drug seeking. Repeated use of these drugs changes brain circuitry and increases the likelihood of addiction. Cocaine and amphetamines are phenylisopropylamines whose stimulant properties have been known for centuries.
Visual Cascade
Authors: Baehr Wolfgang , Liebman Paul 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Vision begins in the outer segments of rod and cone photoreceptor cells when visual pigments absorb light photons and become activated. Approximately 10
4
–10
5
cyclic nucleotide molecules are affected by activation of one rhodopsin molecule, so that signal generation requires enormous amplification through numerous molecules and mechanisms in the visual cascade.
Adrenergic Receptors
Authors: Malbon Craig C , Wang Hsien‐yu 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Adrenergic receptors are cell‐surface receptors for two major catecholamine hormones and neurotransmitters that regulate key physiological responses, including cardiovascular and pulmonary functions. Operating via heterotrimeric G proteins, adrenergic receptors constitute one of the most intensely studied classes of membrane proteins, whose expression and function are subject to regulation at many different levels, including transcriptional, posttranscriptional and posttranslational.
Global Water Cycle
Authors: Arnell Nigel W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The global water cycle describes the circulation of water around the world from one store to another via repeated evaporation of water from land and the oceans and precipitation back to the surface. The greatest amount of water is stored in the sea, and most fresh water in ice sheets and groundwater. Much groundwater is decoupled from the current hydrological cycle, having been formed in earlier wetter periods. The ‘mobile’ part of the cycle comprises only a small proportion of the total water.
Amine Transporters
Authors: Zhen Juan , Reith Maarten EA 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Amine transporters in plasma membranes mediate the transport of dopamine, (nor)adrenaline ((nor)epinephrine) and serotonin. These transporters are members of the larger Na
+
‐ and Cl
−
‐dependent neurotransmitter transporters.
Haematopoietic Growth Factors: Therapeutic Uses
Authors: Engelhardt Monika , Guo Yalin , Fetscher Sebastian , Mertelsmann Roland 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Haematopoietic growth factors (HGF) belong to the family of cytokines that are glycoprotein products of activated cells. Their main biological function is to influence the intercellular cell communication and thereby cell survival, self‐renewal, proliferation, differentiation and activation at all levels of haematopoietic cell development. The clinical application of HGF was one of the main contributions in medicine and has increased the therapeutic options achieved during the last two decades of the twentieth century.
Sirenia (Dugongs and Manatees)
Authors: Domning Daryl P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Sirenia are an order of large, aquatic, plant‐eating, mostly tropical placental mammals that includes the modern seacows (dugongs and manatees) and their extinct relatives. Their nearest living relatives are the Proboscidea (elephants). Together with some extinct orders (Desmostylia and Embrithopoda), Sirenia and Proboscidea make up a group known as Tethytheria, after their likely origin along the shores of the ancient Tethys Seaway in the Old World.
Palaeognathae (Flightless Birds)
Authors: Leonard Leona M , Dyke Gareth J 
Published: September 2006

AbstractCurrent evolutionary consensus suggests that there are two broad subdivisions within living birds (Neornithes), respectively neognathous birds (Neognathae) and palaeognathous birds (Palaeognathae). Palaeognaths, the subject of this paper, are largely characterized by their primitive skull morphology. The group includes a number of well‐known flightless birds, such as the ostrich, rhea, emu, cassowaries and kiwis as well as the small, flighted tinamous.
Universal Tree of Life
Authors: Brown James R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The universal tree of life represents the proposed evolutionary relationships among all cellular life forms, which are classified into three main urkingdoms or domains; the Archaea (archaebacteria), Bacteria (eubacteria) and Eucarya (eukaryotes). While the flood of whole genome deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequences from species in all the three domains have provided rich data sets to reconstruct the universal tree, it has also raised important new questions about the evolution of life. In particular, early genome evolution might have been largely shaped by the widespread occurrence of lateral or horizontal gene transfer between distantly related species from different domains.
Sauria (Lizards)
Authors: Benton Michael J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Lizards are generally small fast‐moving four‐legged slender terrestrial animals. The group of 4880 species of lizards, however, contains some exceptions: the large predatory Komodo dragon, the marine Galapagos iguana, the gliding
Draco
, various limbless forms, and burrowers.
Chiroptera (Bats)
Authors: Jones Kate E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Bats are the second largest order of placental mammals after rodents, consisting of at least 1116 species in 18 families and 202 genera. They are unique among mammals as they are the only group to have evolved truly powered flight. Bats have a worldwide distribution with extremely diverse ecologies, life histories, morphologies and unique sensory adaptations.
Extinction: K–T Mass Extinction
Authors: MacLeod Norman 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The K–T mass extinction event occurred at the end of the Cretaceous System (K, for kreta or chalk, a common Cretaceous rock type) and the beginning of the Tertiary System (T), when approximately 40–75% of marine invertebrate species became extinct as a result of climate changes brought about by a sharp fall in global sea level, a major episode of continental flood basalt volcanism, and a large bolide (asteroid or comet) impact.
Kidney Development
Authors: Sariola Hannu , Bard Jonathan 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIn higher vertebrates, the pronephros and mesonephros are transitory embryonic organs: the permanent functional kidney is the metanephros. The metanephros is derived from intermediate mesoderm, and its differentiation is regulated by reciprocal inductive tissue interactions between the ureteric bud and the nephrogenic mesenchyme.
Ear and Lateral Line of Vertebrates: Organization and Development
Authors: Fritzsch Bernd 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The mechano‐electric transducers of vertebrates (the hair cell) form the basis for two distinct sensory systems, the lateral line and the inner ear. These two sensory systems share other features such as development and the central projections to the hindbrain and are therefore grouped together as the octavo‐lateral system. This paper deals with the mechano‐sensory hair cells, the organization of sensory organs in the lateral line and inner ear, their central projection, the development of the inner ear and, to a lesser extent, the lateral‐line system as well as the system of efferent cells modifying their sensory responses.
Autonomous Cell Specification: Overview
Authors: Byrum Christine A , Wikramanayake Athula H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Autonomous cell specification is a form of specification in which the developing cell is able to differentiate (express proteins typical of the mature cell) without receiving external signals. This is possible when cytoplasmic determinants (the cytoplasmic regulatory factors necessary for specification) are partitioned into the cell during cleavage.
Bone Morphogenetic Proteins and their Receptors
Authors: van Bezooijen Rutger Leo , Heldin Carl‐Henrik , ten Dijke Peter 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are important cell–cell signalling molecules that were first identified by their ability to induce cartilage and bone, and subsequently were shown to be multifunctional proteins. BMPs transmit their signals from membrane to nucleus through distinct combinations of type I and type II serine/threonine kinase receptors and their intracellular effectors known as Smad proteins. Transcription of target genes is regulated in a complex manner in which interactions with other signalling components and pathways define the final response.
Sperm–Egg Interactions: Sperm–Egg Binding in Mammals
Authors: Evans Janice P , Hardy Daniel M , Storey Bayard T 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Fertilization of the mammalian egg occurs through an ordered sequence of reactions in which the sperm adheres to, then penetrates, the zona pellucida. It then binds to and then fuses with the egg's plasma membrane, so that the gametes fuse to form the zygote. The zona pellucida and egg plasma membrane are then modified after fertilization to block polyspermic fertilization. The interactions between the sperm and egg involve specific molecules on both gametes that mediate the interactions; malfunction may cause infertility.
Botulinum Toxin
Authors: Keller James E , Vann Willie F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Botulinum neurotoxin is produced by the bacteria
Clostridium botulinum
and causes the rare paralytic disease botulism. Purified toxin has gained acceptance to temporarily treat certain human diseases characterized by excessive nerve activity, and also for cosmetic treatment of facial ageing (e.g. BOTOX
®
).
Phycology
Authors: Lewin Ralph A , Borowitzka Michael A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The study of algae is generally called ‘phycology’, from the Greek word phykos meaning ‘seaweed’. Just what algae are is difficult to define, because they belong to many different and unrelated classes including both prokaryotic and eukaryotic representatives. Broadly speaking, the algae comprise all, mainly aquatic, plants that can use light energy to fix carbon from atmospheric CO
2
and evolve oxygen, but which are not specialized land plants like mosses, ferns, coniferous trees and flowering plants. This is a negative definition, but it serves its purpose.
Crenarchaeota
Authors: Huber Harald 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Crenarchaeota, one of the meanwhile four kingdoms of the archaeal domain, consist primarily of hyperthermophiles, thriving at temperatures of up to 113°C. They have been isolated from submarine hydrothermal systems or from continental solfataric fields. So far, 3 orders with 24 genera and more than 50 species have been validly described.
Euryarchaeota
Authors: Huber Harald 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Euryarchaeota, one of the meanwhile four kingdoms (or phyla) of the archaeal domain, consists of the strict anaerobic methanogens, the extreme halophiles, the hyperthermophilic Archaeoglobales and Thermococcales, and the cell wall free Thermoplasmatales. So far, 9 orders with 56 genera and more than 190 species have been described today. This dramatic increase (especially in the amount of genera) compared to the last edition 6 years ago is based to a significant part on the reclassification of many organisms within the methanogens and the halophiles.
Catabolic Plasmids
Authors: Pemberton John M , Schmidt Radomir 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Catabolic plasmids are linear or circular, accessory deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) elements present in the cytoplasm of many bacteria from virtually every ecological niche on Earth. They confer on their hosts the ability to degrade and recycle complex, naturally occurring and synthetic molecules, including a vast array of environmental pollutants. Catabolic plasmids are the biological solution to environmental pollution.
Bromoviridae
and Allies
Authors: Scott Simon W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The family
Bromoviridae
consists of five genera:
Alfamovirus
,
Bromovirus
,
Cucumovirus
,
Ilarvirus
and
Oleavirus
. All viruses in these genera possess tripartite genomes of single‐stranded, linear, positive‐sense ribonucleic acid (RNA), in which expression of the downstream codon of the RNA3 is via a subgenomic messenger RNA (mRNA) (RNA4).
Raspberry bushy dwarf virus
(RBDV), the sole member of the genus
Idaeovirus
, shares features in common with members of the genus
Ilarvirus
and
Alfamovirus
, but possesses a bipartite genome and has not been assigned to a family. The genome of
Pelargonium zonate spot virus
(PZSV) has recently been sequenced and may be the first representative of a new genus within this family.
Bacteriophage T4
Authors: Mathews Christopher K 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Analysis of molecular events following infection of
Escherichia coli
by bacteriophage T4 has revealed some of the most fundamental principles of biology, including the chemical nature of genes and mechanisms of gene expression. In addition, the phage has provided researchers with virus‐coded proteins that are continuing to serve as reagents to help fuel the biological revolution that began in 1953 with Watson and Crick and is continuing today.
Rotaviruses
Authors: Palombo Enzo A , Bishop Ruth F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Rotaviruses are infectious agents, transmitted by the faecal–oral route, that cause severe gastroenteritis in the young of mammals and birds. Distinguishing features include a genome consisting of 11 segments of double‐stranded RNA, distinctive morphological appearance by electron microscopy and unique morphogenesis involving transient lipid‐enveloped particles. Morbidity and mortality rates of rotavirus diarrhoea are sufficiently high in young children throughout the world to justify vaccination to protect against this disease.
Bacterial Inclusions
Authors: Shively Jessup M , Cannon Gordon C , Heinhorst Sabine , Bryant Donald A , DasSarma Shiladitya , Bazylinski Dennis , Preiss Jack , Steinbüchel Alexander , Docampo Roberto , Dahl Christiane 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Bacterial inclusions are discrete structures seen within the confines of prokaryotic cells, generally intracytoplasmic, but in some instances in the periplasmic region.
Enteroviruses
Authors: Chapman Nora M , Kim Kyung‐Soo , Tracy Steven M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Enteroviruses are commonly encountered, widely circulating, single‐stranded positive‐sense ribonucleic acid (RNA) genome human viruses that cause a variety of benign to serious diseases including myocarditis, aseptic meningitis, and possibly type 1 diabetes. Numerous cell culture and mouse models of pathogenesis are available which with molecular clones of the viral genomes, make the enteroviruses, especially the group B coxsackieviruses, an excellent system to probe molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis of common viral illnesses.
Nematophagous Fungi
Authors: Nordbring‐Hertz Birgit , Jansson Hans‐Börje , Tunlid Anders 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Nematophagous fungi are microfungi that can capture, kill and digest nematodes. They use special mycelial structures, the so‐called traps, or spores to trap vermiform nematodes or hyphal tips to attack nematode eggs and cysts before penetration of the nematode cuticle, invasion and digestion.
Yeast Artificial Chromosomes
Authors: Bruschi Carlo V , Gjuracic Kresimir , Tosato Valentina 
Published: September 2006

AbstractYeast artificial chromosomes are shuttle‐vectors that can be amplified and modified in bacteria and employed for the cloning of very large deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) inserts (up to 1–2 Mb pairs) in the yeastSaccharomyces cerevisiae.