bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Propellant-Actuated Deep Water Anchor
Authors: Taylor Robert J. , Beard Richard M. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
A propellant-actuated direct embedment anchor is being developed to moor deep ocean surface and subsurface structures. The anchor is designed to have a long-term holding capacity of 20,000 lb. and function in sea floors ranging from very soft sediments to hard rock (basalt) in water depths from 100 ft to 20,000 ft. Anchor flukes were designed for sediments and rock. The sediment fluke uses a new quick keying design to maximize efficiency. A launching system utilizing existing ammunition components was developed that was capable of providing the energy necessary to propel the flukes to the required penetration depths. The anchor has been fabricated and tested on land and in water at 110 ft. The anchors functioned properly during the water firings; short-term capacities in silt using reduced propellant charges were about 45,000 lb. Continued testing under a variety of conditions is planned.

INTRODUCTION
Deep ocean anchorage has long been a neglected area of development. Anchoring requirements for sophisticated structures, weather buoys, surface and subsurface instrument arrays, and any number of other constructions must be satisfied by conventional drag or deadweight anchors, anchors ill-suited to the demands imposed on them in the deep ocean. To help alleviate this problem, the Naval Facilities Engineering Command is sponsoring a program being conducted by the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory to develop practical direct embedment anchors that are both reliable and efficient for use in mooring deep ocean surface or subsurface structures. Operational requirements for the anchor are that it be functional in water depths to 20,000 ft, have a long-term holding capacity of 20,000 Ib and develop this capacity in sea floors from soft clay to hard rock.
To date, a propellant-actuated anchor has been designed, fabricated and tested on land and in water at 110 ft. During its first in water tests, the anchor functioned properly and held short-term loads of about 45,000 Ib in silt, using reduced propellant charges. Also, the anchor demonstrated that it could be safely and quickly assembled and deployed at sea.

BACKGROUND
Present deep-water installation techniques require continuous at-sea operation through a long time period. Therefore, the installation process is vulnerable to inclement weather. It would be advantageous if improved hardware and procedures were available to ease and speed installation. The solution to this problem, however, encompasses a broad spectrum of considerations. Anchor designs, special appurtenances, connective gear, and special operational techniques are among the more critical areas that need improvement. The single most important consideration is the anchor design because improved anchors can alleviate problems in the other areas. Based upon the operational requirements established in the program objectives, the state-of-the-art and the available time frame, it appeared that this critical mooring problem could be most easily solved through development of a propellant-actuated direct embedment anchor.
The Application of Skimmers, Piston Films,and Sorbents for Open Water Spills
Authors: Bianchi Ralph A. , Johanson Edward E. , Farrell James H. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
As a part of research and field test programs conducted for the Environmental Protection Agency, American Petroleum Institute, the U. S. Navy', and the State of Massachusetts opportunities were presented to asses s the use of skimmers, piston films, and sorbents in open water spills. This paper presentssome of the results of the work performed for the U. S. Navy and the information drawn from the Portland oil spill. Problem areas that require more work are identified.
A series of test programs were conducted using two oil skimmer s to clean up free slicks of oil simulants, petroleum oil and oil sorbent mixtures in Boston Harbor Channel. Tests were also conducted using a skimmer with sweeps in open waters at the Portland oil spill from July 26 through August 4, 1972.
Several modes of operation were employed. A self-propelled skimmer was maneuvered through free slicks and a skimmer without propulsion was operated beside a U. S. Navy LCVP in Boston Harbor Channel. The latter skimmer was also operated beside commercia1 support vessels on the Portland oil spill to harvest oily weeds, oil sheens with the aid of piston films, and large slicks of heavy residual fuel oil.
An assessment of the skimmers tested and used in the various modes and in combination with piston films and sorbents was made. Preliminary oil spill cleanup guidelines were developed for the assessment and some of the conclusions drawn were as follows:Skimmers can be highly effective in open water on both free slicks, windrows, and on oil escaping from a boom,Sorbents playa valuable role in cleanup in open water in an. unexpected way. They make the slick highly visible to the skimmer operator,Piston films are effective in certain, specific operations. They serve as a polishing action to force a sheen into strips that the skimmer can then harvest and to prevent the spreading of oil during harvesting operations.There is a great need for a transfer system to remove the oil, sorbents, seaweed, and debris from oil skimmers. A film showing the results of the test program and of the harvesting of oil and oil-soaked straw in the Portland oil spill is presented in conjunction with the paper.

INTR ODUCTION
Over the past two years a series of Dynamic Inclined Plane skimmers have been designed and built for the Environmental Protection Agency, the American Petroleum Institute, the U. S. Navy, the Canadian Government, and the State of Massachusetts. Under these contracts a wide variety of tests have been performed.
Progress and Prospects of Marine Mining
Authors: Archer A.A. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
A great deal has been said and written, particularly in the first decade, about the mineral potential of the sea bed. The demand for most minerals and mineral-based commodities has continued to increase at an approximately exponential rate. A considerable and steadily increasing effort has been devoted to research and development of the new technology needed for marine mining. Nevertheless, with the exception of hydrocarbons, to which only brief reference will be made in the paper, the scale on which marine minerals have been recovered is still very modest. Few minerals are being exploited, and of these sand and gravel appear to contribute the largest proportion of the total value. The paper all discuss the reasons for the apparently slow development of this sector of the minerals industry which, since it seems likely that little if any mining is processing in more than, perhaps, 50 m of water, has hardly got its knees wet. However, plans for the winning of manganese nodules from oceanic depths are now well advanced and large capital sums have been committed. The scale of manganese nodule mining and its possible impact on the traditional sources of the metals concerned will be discussed. The conclusion reached will be that there can be no doubt that the sea bed will become an important source of raw materials that will continue to be consumed at an increasing rate for a long time. It seems almost certain that, at least for many years, marine minerals will help to meet part of the increased demand; they are unlikely to replace land-based sources.

DEFINITION
Marine mining is here defined as the commercial recovery of minerals other than oil and natural gas from the surface of, or below, the sea bed by operations connected only indirectly with the land (i.e., by ships or pipelines). The recovery of minerals and fresh water from sea water, beach mining (even where this extends below high-water mark by the construction of embankments) and the winning of such minerals as coal, iron ore, tin and mercury in the seaward extensions of mines on land are thus excluded. Ideally, minerals recovered from estuaries and coastal lagoons should also be excluded; in practice, this is seldom possible as such operations are not always separated in published data.

THE PRESENT: GENERAL
The number of operations falling within this definition and the number of countries involved are remarkably limited in view of the widespread interest shown in marine mining prospects during the last few years. Indeed, as if to mirror the increasing demand for the minerals concerned, the volume of literature on marine mining seems to be increasing exponentially to the point where it is tempting to suggest that publishing is the largest sector of the marine mining industry.
Metalliferous Muds of the Marine Environment
Authors: Amann H. , Backer H. , Blissenbach E. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
Oozes with U, Mo, V and Th of the shelf are of no commercial value at present, but are little known and may constitute a future potential.
Metallilerous muds enriched predominantly in Fe and Mn, and with Zn, Cu, Pb, Ag and Cd, originate in shallow to deep waters through water cycling, magmatic activities or a combination of these. The only deposit of this type of commercial interest is in the Atlantis II deep of the Red Sea. The southern part of this deep contains 150 to 200 million tons of mud (dry, salt-free) with about 5 percent Zn and 1 percent Cu. Lilting the mud appears feasible, metal extraction more problematic. Altogether, no definite decision as to an over-all feasibility has been reached.
Prospection methods and tools applicable also to other submarine mineral projects and sea-floor survey have been developed and tested in two cruises in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden with R/V Valdivia (1971 to 1972). Several new deeps, some with metallilerous sediments, became known. The entire sea-bed area has not been covered adequately for an over-all rating of the mineral potential.
From their origin in an early stage of continental drift, the Red Sea metallilerous muds allow the assumption that such deposits also formed during the respective stages in former geological times and remain to be detected and developed.

MODE OF OCCURRENCE
Mud deposits enriched in metals form on the bottom of the shelf and the deeper ocean where metal supply and biochemo physical conditions of deposition coincide favorably and where little other sediment is admixed. Such muds have not attained economic importance, but may represent large future reserves. The only occurrence already in the range of speculation about its exploitability is the Red Sea deposit of the Atlantis II deep that is discussed in this paper in more detail following a resume of the genesis of metal-enriched deposits of the sea bed in general.
On the basis of different depth of origin and nature of metal supply, the mud deposits can be subdivided as follows:organic-rich muds or oozes of the shelf (metals from sea water Fig. lA) andmetallilerous muds of the shallow to deep sea bed - metals from water cycling (leaching and redeposition); metals from magmatic sources, mostly through volcanism (Fig. 1B); and various mixed types (Fig. 1C). (Abyssal clays or oozes, mostly residual deposits, remain unconsidered, as even the long-term utilization, e.g., substitutes for cement rock or for aluminum ore, is too speculative; compare MERO).

Organic-Rich Muds or Oozes
Organic-rich muds or oozes (Fig. 1A) generally occur on the shelf in shallow basins holding not more than some tens of meters of such sediments and are typically present along the western continental margins of Africa and South America.
Fish Protein Concentrate: The State of the Art
Authors: Knobl George M. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
Fish protein concentrates (FPC's) may be defined as those products obtained from fish in which the protein is more concentrated than in the original raw material. FPC's may range from light-colored, bland powders to dark powders having intensely fishy tastes, or they may be pastes with a similar wide range of colors and tastes. Both powders and pastes may be water soluble or insoluble and may be high in nutritive value or low in nutritive value.
FPC's may be prepared by a variety of methods which can be classified as chemical (solvent extraction) or biological (enzymatic and microbial) procedures.
During the last 20 years most efforts to make FPC's have involved the use of solvents, usually isopropyl alcohol, and several pilot plants and a few full-scale industrial plants have been constructed. Some of these plants are now in operation. Others were operated for a short time and then, for various reasons, operations ceased.
The biological procedures for making FPC's, in general, have not advanced beyond the laboratory or small pilot-plant stage.
This paper reviews FPC efforts to date and the major problem areas encountered in its utilization.

INTRODUCTION
Fish protein concentrates (FPC's) may be defined as any products obtained from fish having higher protein contents than the original raw material. FPC's may range from light-colored, bland powders to dark powders having intensely fishy tastes, or they may be pastes with a similar wide range of colors and tastes. Both powders and pastes may be water soluble or insoluble and may be high in nutritive value or low in nutritive value.
FPC's may be prepared by a variety of methods which can be classified as chemical (solvent extraction) or biological (enzymatic and microbial) procedures.
During the last 20 years most efforts to make FPC have involved the use of solvents, usually isopropyl alcohol, and several pilot plants and a few full-scale industrial plants have been constructed. Some of these plants are now in operation. Others were operated for a short time and then, for various reasons, which will be presented in this paper operations ceased. The type of FPC produced by solvent extraction of raw fish is usually a bland nearly odorless, lightly-colored, water insoluble but highly nutritive powder, intended for use as a protein supplement.
The biological procedures, in general, have not advanced beyond the laboratory or small pilot-plant stage. The forms of FPC produced by biological methods have the advantage of being water soluble and would likely to be lower in cost than solvent extracted products. However, they may be lower in nutritive value, depending on the process and often retain a higher lipid level with a corresponding stronger flavor and odor.
This paper reviews FPC efforts to date and the major problem areas encountered in its utilization.
Future Directions In Fish Protein Research
Authors: Finch Roland 
Published: October 2008

INTRODUCTION
The world catch of fish has increased steadily since World War II from 19.6 million metric tons in 1948 to 69.3 million metric tons.1 Although the ultimate sustainable world catch has been predicted to be two to three times this level,2 the increase in over-all catch, and particularly that used for human consumption, has recently shown signs of slowing down. There are reports of serious local resource depletions that give rise to concern about these predictions. One example is the problem of the great Peruvian anchovy fishery that alone accounted for much of the increase in world landings in recent years. This fishery suffered a serious setback in 1972 because of a decline in abundance and a change in environmental conditions that places the resource beyond the reach of the fleet. Consequently, the government of Peru closed the fishery temporarily.
It is possible that the depletion of these and other important fish stocks are due in some measure to pollution, but the general belief is that the great increase in the capacity and efficiency of fishing operations has been primarily responsible. If any event, we see a limit to the speed and extent with which world fish supplies may increase to meet the needs of the rapidly growing world population.
In the U. S, the picture has been somewhat different. The total domestic catch since 1950 has remained essentially constant between 1.8 and 2.4 million tons, although this gross figure conceals considerable species to species shifts. Imports have increased over the same period from 1.6 to around 6.8 million tons with those in some years, notably 1968, exceeding this. Much of this increase has been in industrial products (fish meal and solub1es) but imports of edible fish have also grown over threefold during this time.
In addition to the factor of fish catch the future of the fish supply available to the U.S. is affected by increases in consumption of fish by other countries. The U. S. is finding itself in increasing competition for the world fishery harvest. For example, in 1971, for the first time Japan outbid U. S. importers for a large amount of shrimp caught in West Africa, India and Southeast Asia with a consequent decrease in imports. The recent increases in trade in salt cod at a time when the world catch of cod is declining has meant the U.S. must bid higher prices to attract imports of frozen cod. With the world tuna catch beginning to peak out, tuna prices rose 20 to 30 percent in 1972. These trends can be expected to continue and provide an increasing problem in meeting the fishery product needs of our own rapidly increasing population.
Studies on Experimental Harvesting and Regrowth of Plexaura Homomalla in Grand Cayman Waters
Authors: Hinman Jack W. 
Published: October 2008

The prostaglandins are lipid acids which are important metabolic regulators for all animal species including man.1 Some members of this family of compounds have considerable potential as medicinal agents. 2 Weinheimer and Spraggins 3 reported the is flation of the prostaglandins, (15R)-PA2 and its acetate methyl ester, from the sea whip Plexaurahomomalla obtained from the waters of Florida. More recently a new variant of this gorgonian was discovered in certain Caribbean waters from which (15S)-PGA2 and its acetate methyl ester could be isolated. 4 In addition, two new natural prostaglandins, the lS(S) and l5(R)-5,6-trans isomers of PGA2 (and the corresponding 15-acetate methyl esters), were found. 5 Since these compounds can serve as useful intermediates in the preparation of clinically important prostaglandins, 6 studies were undertaken to determine the ecological and economical feasibility of utilizing P.homomalla as a raw material. These studies-included surveys to supplement existing knowledge on distribution and abundance of the species, harvesting methods, regrowth rates and the influence of harvesting on the reef ecology.
The most extensive studies have been carried out in the off-shore waters of Grand Cayman Island, B.W.I. with the full cooperation of the Cayman Islands Government. A comprehensive review and evaluation of this work was conducted in May, 1972 at an International Symposium organized by Dr. F.M. Bayer and Dr. G.L. Voss of the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science of the University of Miami. The proceedings of the symposium are being published in StudiesinTropicalOceanography. In addition similar studies have been carried out in the coastal waters in the Bahamas and other islands in the Caribbean. In this presentation I shall try to summarize the more important aspects of these studies, and indicate the trend we see for this research. Two objectives of this project were as follows:Estimate the quantities of P.homomalla available.Develop methods for harvesting which would be ecologically acceptable and would provide maximum opportunity for replenishing the natural supply.
This study was initiated in December, 1970 with the advice, recommendations and active participation of Dr. F. M. Bayer, Dr. Robert A. Kinzie III and Mr. Sid R. Anderson, Jr. Grand Cayman Island was chosen as the study site for the early experiments because of the abundance of P.homomalla, a minimum of logistics problems and because of the interest and splendid cooperation of the Cayman Islands' government. In addition, we were fortunate to enlist the able assistance of Mariculture, Ltd., a research-minded corporation located on Grand Cayman Island. This company is studying the domestication and commercial production of the green sea turtle. They were in a position to provide the boats, divers, pilots, freezer storage, etc. required to make our project feasible.
Navigation Satellites for Geophysical Exploration
Authors: Bybee Hal H. 
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT
The Navy Navigation Satellite System was originally designed for military navigation by the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University but is now released for civilian navigation. It consists of six beacon satellites in polar orbits for which the Navy maintains the accuracy of the transmitted navigation data. Several different passive receivers are available for these coded satellite signals.
The navigation mathematics is an iterative process of least squares fitting of the satellite data. At sea discrete position fixes are produced instead of continuous navigation. On land several fixes may be combined to resolve altitude uncertainty. Two different physical interpretations of this data elucidate the geometric basis for the solutions and their accuracy relationships.
The current state of the art in satellite navigation accuracy is only possible because intelligent techniques are being used to counteract the inherent error sources of the system. Special receiver design reduces interference problems. Mathematical modeling removes most of the effects of transmitting the satellite signals through the imperfectly known ionosphere and troposphere. Good dead reckoning alleviates the errors specifically identified with receiver antenna motion.
Although satellite positioning can be used alone, integrating it into other navigation systems produces the best results. The other system produces dead reckoning for the fix computation while the fixes produce calibration factors for the first system. The redundant information between the components of the integrated system increases the accuracy of error smoothing and correction in both real time and postprocessing.
In filling the nitch of sophisticated global position reference, the Navy Navigation Satellite System has proved a boon to the geophysical exploration industry.

INTRODUCTION
The navigation satellites currently being used in geophysical exploration are the Transit satellites making up the Navy Navigation Satellite System. This system was designed to provide world-wide position fixes in latitude and longitude at predictable intervals ten to twenty times a day for multiple users with minimal equipment. Accuracies of 110 feet are being obtained by some users.
This paper covers the basic satellite system from hardware through position fix computation. Various error sources and their impacts on accuracy are examined for "stand alone" systems, "integrated, real-time marine navigation" systems, and postmission processing.

HISTORY
On 4 October 1957, the Russians launched the first Sputnik ushering in the space age. By early 1958 the Applied Physics Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University had assessed the feasibility of a Doppler shift satellite navigation technique and proposed it to the Navy. December 1962 saw the prototype satellite launched, and by July 1964 the Navy Navigation Satellite System was operational.