bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
ECOLOGICAL SEPARATION OF THE LARGE MAMMAL SPECIES IN THE TARANGIRE GAME RESERVE, TANGANYIKA1
Authors: Lamprey H. F. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryThe ecological separation of 14 common ungulate species living in close contact with each other in a Tanganyika game reserve is shown to be achieved by six different factors:1. the occupation of different vegetation types and broad habitats;2. the selection of different types of food;3. the occupation of different areas at the same season;4. the occupation of the same area at different seasons;5. the use of different feeding levels in the vegetation;6. the occupation of different dry season refuges in the Masai area when the competition for food is greatest (zebra and wildebeest).Habitat preferences are indicated by the frequency distribution of each species along the central of three 8,000 yard parallel transect paths which were traversed nearly daily for four years. Characteristic patterns of frequency are apparent for each of the species in the vegetation zones represented in the transect area. Certain species show a tendency, sometimes strong, to concentrate along the boundaries between adjoining vegetation zones and in the ecotones between the zones. This is ascribed to a greater diversity of food, availability of shelter from the sun and/or greater protection from predators.Records of the animal species eating particular plant species are shown and (qualified in the light of other observations) used to deduce food preferences. The species are classified broadly into grass‐eaters, browsers and mixed feeders (grass and browse). In the case of the three common grass‐eaters, buffalo, wildebeest and zebra, a percentage analysis of the grass species eaten indicates that little differential preference is shown but that they take the palatable grasses largely in proportion to the frequency in which they occur in the habitats most used by the ungulate concerned. Buffalo are separated by their preference for denser vegetation. Wildebeest and zebra largely overlap ecologically in all respects except that the bulk of the populations of each species move to different dry season areas. Those species which are able to live without drinking free water, notably impala and Grant's gazelle, are able to make use of wild areas of waterless country when the animals requiring water are forced to move into dry season concentration areas near water.The influence of the animals on the habitats and on other species is discussed and instances are given of species helping to shape the habitat to the advantage of both themselves and other species. Elephants are the main habitat modifiers and their capacity to improve water supplies and change the vegetation, and their facilitation of the feeding of other species is described. The formation of mixed herds is interpreted as being protective to one or both species concerned and is a further important facilitation. Little or no hindrance of one ungulate species by another was seen although herbivores show antagonistic behaviour towards carnivores smaller than themselves.
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED‐NECKED OTTER (LUTRA MACULICOLLIS LICHTENSTEIN) IN TANGANYIKA
Authors: Procter John 
Published: April 2008

SummaryThe Spotted‐necked Otter (Lutra maculicollis Lichtenstein), locally common in northwestern and south‐western Tanganyika, was not listed in the country's fauna until 1951. There is no previous literature about the otter in Tanganyika, and very little about it in other parts of Africa, although it is widely distributed south of Lat. 10° N., and common in Lake Victoria, where this study was made. It is a typical otter, weighing under 20 lbs., and reaching just over three feet overall. Sexes are rarely distinguishable in the field. The amount of white coloration varies from practically none to nearly the whole underside. Eyesight is poor but scent and hearing are moderately acute. Four kinds of call were noted. It is predominantly a lake‐dweller and spends almost all its waking life in the water, being comparatively clumsy on land. Most otters seen were in parties of four to six individuals and all move about considerably, although there is no true migration. Swimming otters use mainly the hind feet and dives normally last 15 seconds. Urination and defaecation take place on land and much time is spent basking and grooming. The main food is small fish but larger fish and some molluscs and crustaceans are also eaten. Otters are diurnal and the main fishing period is soon after dawn. The breeding cycle may be as follows: July—mating; September—young born; November—young taught to swim and fish; January—family parties moving about. Main enemies are man and probably crocodiles. Otters do not appear to have an adverse effect on the fishing industry.
THE ARABIAN ORYX (ORYX LEUCORYX PALLAS)
Authors: Stewart D. R. M. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryThe Arabian Oryx (Oryx leucoryx Pallas) is in danger of extinction and in May, 1962, an expedition attempted to capture and remove to a place of safety a breeding nucleus of the species.The habitat, which consists of the central sand sea of southern Arabia and the gravel plains surrounding it, is subject to extreme conditions of aridity and carries only sparse vegetation. The species is the smallest of the four oryxes and the only one found outside Africa. It differs mainly in its size, light colouring and the shape of its hooves, which are broad and rounded and probably adapted to walking on loose sand. Very little is known of the life history and social structure. Herds containing varying numbers of both sexes usually number 1–15. The gestation period is 240 days, one calf being born at a time, and the calving season appears to vary widely. The oryxes prefer the gravel plains, where there is most food, but can retire into the sand sea when alarmed or if rain falls there provided the heat is not too great. They cover great distances in search of food and feed principally on grasses, together with a few herbs, fruits and roots. Information on food preferences was obtained from the literature, faecal analysis, stomach contents and observation of the tracks of feeding animals. The oryxes exist for long periods without free water, but take it readily when it is available. To obtain shade during the heat of the day, they dig hollows with their horns and hooves.The species is now found in only a small part of its former range, which extended from southern Arabia to Mesopotamia and the Syrian Desert. With the advent of modern transport and weapons its numbers have been drastically reduced by Arab hunting parties, who believe various parts of the animal to have magical properties. Apart from man it is not affected by predators. Despite one or two attempts to conserve it within its natural range, its survival almost certainly depends upon the establishment of a herd elsewhere. Since the expedition was limited for political reasons to the extreme western end of the species' present range. and only captured three animals, attempts are being made to obtain further specimens; about 12 exist in captivity, and a further expedition might be possible in one of the few areas where any remain in the wild.
ESTIMATION OF THE LARGE MAMMAL DENSITIES, BIOMASS AND ENERGY EXCHANGE IN THE TARANGIRE GAME RESERVE AND THE MASAI STEPPE IN TANGANYIKA
Authors: Lamprey H. F. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryAn account is given of the transect system of game counting used in this study, including the use of a visibility profile to determine the absolute area covered. Monthly density figures derived from the transect counts over four years are given for each of the common species separately and for the large mammal population as a whole.Direct aerial counting and total counting on the ground were employed to provide checks on the transect results and the former method was also used to obtain an overall population estimate of the Tarangire Game Reserve.The application of statistical analysis to the numerical data obtained is discussed and, because of the time‐serial correlation of the monthly values, a non‐parametric method is employed to confirm the significance of as many as possible of the density fluctuations indicated.Within the Tarangire Reserve, the annual density of large mammals varied between c. 60 animals per square mile in the rains and c. 250 animals per square mile during the dry season concentration. Aerial and ground survey and counting of the dispersed animals in the Masai Steppe provided data on the extent and the routes of the dispersal of animals after they leave the Reserve in the rains, and indicate a dispersal density of 2.5 animals per square mile (as compared with 80–140 animals per square mile in the similar country of the Serengeti Plains). The lowness of this density is attributed to human activity over the last 50 years, particularly to the removal of dry season water supplies.The seasonal fluctuations in numbers in the Tarangire Reserve, due to the movement of some species, are discussed and the ungulates are classified as residents and immigrants. The residents are further divided into those which have partial dispersal in the rains and those which do not. Impala numbers fluctuate seasonally but with a phasing which is the opposite of that of the immigrant species. A further element in the population consists of passage migrants which occur irregularly in the Tarangire Reserve as they move from one part of the dispersal area to another in the rains.Estimates of the biomass and of the metabolic energy expenditure rate in the transect‐area population indicate that the total varies between 16,000 Calories per hour per square mile (16,000 lbs weight: 60 animals per square mile) in the rains, and 170,000 Calories per hour per square mile (207,000 lbs weight: 250 animals per square mile) in the dry season. The results confirm the very high carrying capacity of African Acacia savanna game range.
THE FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF BOCK HYRACES (genera PROCAVIA and HETEROHYRAX) IN KENYA
Authors: Sale J. B. 
Published: April 2008

Summary1. The paper is based on field observations and studies of a captive colony.2. A classified list of food plants is discussed under the headings of lowland habitat, drought conditions and alpine habitat. Rock hyraces are shown to have a very wide food selectivity. Water requirements and some unusual foods are mentioned briefly.3. Feeding behaviour is shown to be of two types described as “group” and “casual” feeding. The pattern of group feeding is described and its diurnal occurrence discussed. Casual feeding is briefly considered.4. Evolutionary changes in hyrax feeding habits have been in the direction of decreasing selectivity of food material. The relationship of hyraces to the ungulate stock is supported by a number of similarities between the feeding behaviour of modern hyraces and ungulates.
AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY ON THE ECOLOGY OF HYRAX (DENDROHYRAX BRUCEI AND PROCAVIA JOHNSTONI) IN THE SERENGETI NATIONAL PARK
Authors: Turner M. I. M. , Watson R. M. 
Published: April 2008

Summary1. Dendrofoyrax brucei and Procavia johnstoni populations have been studied in kopjes surrounding the senior author's house.2. The two species have been described and a short historical review of the Hyracoidea is given. Some notes are made concerning “Hyraceum”.3. The kopjes under study are described, being typical of granite outcrops in the Serengeti region.4. The adaptations of both species of hyrax for the kopje habitat are described. Observations are made on the diurnal activity patterns in relation to climatic conditions.5. A list of all plants available to the animals is presented, and those eaten by either species are indicated. Comment is made on the lack of overlap in the diets of the two species, and this is suggested as being partly due to lack of pressure on food resources.6. A discussion on the possible evolution of the kopje‐dwelling habit is held, which concludes that reconvergence may have taken place as a result of forest giving way to woodland and plains.
A COUNT OF THE LARGE MAMMALS OF THE LAKE MANYARA NATIONAL PARK: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Authors: Watson R. M. , Turner M. I. M. 
Published: April 2008

Summary1. The method of counting the large mammals in Lake Manyara National Park is described.2. The results of the count are listed, and the biomass estimated.3. It is suggested that the present population exceeds the carryingcapacity because elephant and buffalo are being made to enter and stay in the Park by increasing cultivation round the boundaries.4. The rise in lake level has aggravated the position by cutting off another route of entry an d exit.5. The extinction of the plains game population is likewise attributed to the new lake level and increased cultivation.
OESTROUS BEHAVIOUR, OVULATION AND THE FORMATION OF THE CORPUS LUTEUM IN THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT,
Authors: Short R. V. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryA female elephant was observed throughout most of oestrus, and was then shot. The cow was mated by many different bulls during the course of oestrus. Initially, there seemed to be little competition between bulls for the cow, but as oestrus wore on, fighting broke out amongst the bulls and one eventually appeared to establish mastery, driving the other bulls away. It was interesting that this master bull showed no discharge from his temporal glands.
MATING AND COURTSHIP OF THE BLACK RHINOCEROS
Authors: Goddard John 
Published: April 2008

SummaryDuring a study of the rhinoceros population at Ngorongoro Crater and Olduvai Gorge, mating or courtship behaviour was observed on six occasions. Precopulatory, copulatory and post‐copulatory behaviour is described and illustrated. Mating takes place at any time of the year and there is little doubt that the species is polygamous and polyandrous. The impermanence of the mating bond, and the pugnacity of the male rhinoceros when a female is in oestrus, is shown with the aid of a documented description.
THE STATUS OF THE DUGONG (DUGONG DUGON MOLLER); KENYA, 1961
Authors: Jarman P. J. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryThe scarcity of dugong (Dugong dugon Miiller) throughout their former range and lack of knowledge of the species' ecology justifies this record of the opinions of the fishermen in the Lamu district of Kenya, where the species is still plentiful.The area and the programme of questioning are described. The social life, reproduction, movements and predators of the dugong are recorded as reported by the fishermen. The present distribution is contrasted with the past. My observations on the food plants and their distribution are given, as well as the fishermen's estimation of the part each plays in the dugong's diet.The need for calm water over feeding grounds, afforded by depth of water or shelter from winds, seems to be a controlling factor in the distribution of dugong. Man appears to be the main predator.
THE GIRAFFE OF NAIROBI NATIONAL PARK: HOME RANGE, SEX RATIOS, THE HERD, AND FOOD
Authors: Foster J. B. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryThe giraffe of Nairobi National Park, Kenya have been studied for one year. Each animal seen has been photographed from the left side and the pattern on the neck used to recognize each individual. While the pattern may become darker with age, it does not significantly change in detail even over many years. At present 65 adult male, 72 adult female and 30 immature giraffe can be recognized. Movements of individuals are described as well as associations with other individuals. The 3ex ratio of the giraffe is discussed in relation to that found in the plains ungulates. The population of giraffe in the Park is considered to be particularly high and the relation of giraffe to the vegetation is discussed briefly.
AGEING THE UGANDA DEFASSA WATERBUCK KOBUS DEFASSA UGANDAE NEUMANN
Authors: Spinage C. A. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryChronological ages have been assigned to the defassa waterbuck of western Uganda using four complementary techniques. These are the “jaw board” method in which collected skulls are sorted into arbitrary groups based upon tooth eruption and attrition; tooth impressions taken from immobilised animals at yearly intervals; counting of cementum lines in sectioned incisor teeth, and growth of horns in young males. Using these methods an animal could be aged to within plus or minus six months.
LIVEWEIGHTS AND BODY MEASUREMENTS OF SERENGETI GAME ANIMALS
Authors: Sachs R. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryMore than 300 game animals shot in the Grumeti Controlled Area, Tanzania during research into game utilisation were weighed and measured. The results are presented and compared with other available data. Considerable variation is apparent between animals of the same species from different areas.The techniques of linear measurement are fully described in an attempt to standardise measurements for comparative purposes.
THE PATHOLOGY OF SOME DISEASES FOUND IN WILD ANIMALS IN EAST AFRICA
Authors: Murray Max 
Published: April 2008

SummaryFifty‐four post‐mortem examinations were carried out on wild animals. A wide range of disease conditions was found and a number of these are discussed in detail. Two conditions of particular importance were parasitic bronchitis and muscular dystrophy; these were found in approximately one third of the antelopes examined.
EYE LENS WEIGHT AND AGE IN AFRICAN ELEPHANTS
Authors: Laws R. M. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryEye lens dry‐weights have been determined for 543 African elephants from three populations in East Africa. When plotted against estimated ages based on tooth replacement and wear criteria they indicate growth curves with rapid initial growth in lens weight, succeeded by a phase of rectilinear growth which apparently persists throughout life.Parameters for the regressions of lens dry weight on age have been calculated by sex and locality. Confidence limits are fitted and no significant difference in the growth rates can be demonstrated, except for a sex difference in the values for the α intercept.Variability at age is slightly greater in males than females, but is little greater than i3 indicated by studies on other species using known‐age animals. This is taken to confirm the accuracy of the age criteria adopted and leads to conclusions on their precision.It is suggested that this method might provide an objective check on the accuracy and precision of age estimates in other species.
THE ECOLOGY OF THE NILE CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS NILOTICUS LAURENTI) ON CENTRAL ISLAND, LAKE RUDOLF
Authors: Modha M. L. 
Published: April 2008

Summary1. Lake Rudolf, nothern Kenya, has one of the largest undisturbed populations of the Nile Crocodile. In 1965 the Kenya Game Department initiated the Lake Rudolf Crocodile Research Project. Central Island, where the crocodiles live under undisturbed conditions, was chosen for studying breeding behaviour and ecology of the reptile. Eight months were spent on the island.2. On the island most of the crocodile population was confined to a crater lake, Lake C, which supported up to 500 animate at the height of the 1965‐66 breeding season.3. The 1200 m shoreline of Lake C was shared out between about a dozen large males each guarding his territory by patrolling up and down the shore. The territorial shore lengths ranged from 60 to 230 m. The territories extended about 50 m into the water.4. The crocodiles were first seen courting on 10.10.65 in Lake C. The territorial males exhibited a “courtship splash display”. Copulation ranged from 30 to 100 seconds; eleven copulations averaged 58 seconds.5. The factors important in site selection for nesting are shade, suitable soil, proximity to water and the degree of slope of the shore. Because the shores of a second crater lake, Lake A, satisfied these conditions they had the largest number of nests. The fully exposed sites on Lake C, and the Lake Rudolf shores, had very few nests.6. The females dig the nests with their forelimbs, using them in turn. The hind limbs and the belly are used to push away the soil collecting at the mouth of the burrow. The female guards the nest constantly throughout the incubation period of three months against monitor luzards. Laying began in the third week of November, 1965 reaching its peak during the second week of December. The crocodile egg is oblong, measuring 55.5 to 89.0 mm in length and 43.0 to 54.0 mm in width. Mean weights of the eggs from 15 clutches ranged from 83.7 to 126.6 g. Clutch sizes on Central Island varied from 14 to 46 eggs, giving a mean of 33 eggs per clutch.When the young are about to hatch, the mother releases them by digging up the nest. The young when they hatch are about 31.0 cm long and weigh about 76.8 g. They are guarded by the mother for at least six weeks. Infant mortality is probably very considerable.
THE USE OF M.99 FOR THE IMMOBILISATION OF THE DEFASSA WATERBUCK, (KOBUS DEFASSA PENRICEI)
Authors: Hanks J. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryWaterbuck were darted with the new “Hypodart” fired from the crossbow, and with the “Cap‐Chur” gun.Eleven waterbuck were successfully immobilised with M.99 alone. The remaining 37 received M.99 in conjunction with an ataractic, acetylpromazine maleate. Hyoscine hydrobromide, a parasympatholytic drug, never formed part of the immobilising dose and was given to only five of the immobilised animals. Not only is this drug unnecessary; its use is a positive disadvantage and was responsible for the death of one waterbuck. Three other waterbuck died, two of these probably from heat stroke, a consequence of using acepromzine on a hot day. The remaining animal damaged a leg when trying to get up and was killed by lion five days later.This paper gives justification for combining M.99 and acepromazine in the approximate ratio of 1:1 for the immobilisation of this species, and suggests that the losses experienced by other workers through torticollis may well have been the result of the acepromazine.
ESTMATING LTVE WEIGHTS OF EIJEPHANTS FROM HIND LEG WEIGHTS
Authors: Laws R. M. , Parker I. S. C. , Archer A. L. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryA correlation between dissected hind leg weight and Uve weight is demon‐strated for 38 African elephants. Cal‐culated regressions are presented for adult males and for females and immature males. Considered as a per‐centage of Uve weight, hind leg weight varIes between 5.3 and 6.3% according to live weight, and can be used to predict live weight accurately.
INVASION OF THE SERENGETI NATIONAL PARK BY ELEPHANTS
Authors: Lamprey H. F. , Glover P. E. , Turner M. I. M. , Bell R. H. V. 
Published: April 2008

Summary1. Elephants were first recorded in the Serengeti in 1955 and were probably absent f or at least the previeras 40 years.2. Elephant numbers have inereased, mainly through immigration, to their present level of approximately 2,000 and have remained at this level for the last three years.3. Vegetation changes caused by elephants in the Serengeti include the destruction of the larger trees at the rate of at least six per cent, per year.4. Recovery of the woodfends from the effeets of elephants is retarded by the inhibiting effeets of bush fires on the regeneration of young trees.5. The policy and management implications of the elephant invasion are discussed.
HORNS AND OTHER BONY STRUCTURES OF THE SKULL OF THE GIRAFFE, AND THEIR FUNCTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE
Authors: Spiiiage C. A. 
Published: April 2008

SummaryThe gross morphology of the giraffe skull and its superficial anatomy is described. The parietal, median, occipital, orbital, azygous horns and other exostoses are described. The giraffe's peculiar mode of intra‐specific fighting is explained and the features of the giraffe's skull are related to this. It is concluded that the skull of the male giraffe is highly specialised for its particular mode of fighting. The male differs in this respect from the female whose skull is not so developed and who fights with her forefeet.