bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Limited Test Ban Negotiations, 1954–63: How a Negotiator Viewed the Proceedings
Authors: Goodby James 
Published: March 2006

AbstractThe test ban treaty negotiations had their origins in a larger-than-expected U.S. thermonuclear explosion in the Pacific in 1954. Nearly a decade later, in 1963, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States concluded a treaty that permitted underground explosions but banned them in other environments. It was the first treaty of the Cold War to place limits on nuclear operations, but it was not what the negotiators had originally sought – a complete ban on tests. A substantial amount of pre-negotiations on the limited test ban treaty occurred during the Eisenhower administration. The idea itself first surfaced very early in these pre-negotiations. The willingness of two U.S. presidents and a British prime minister to persevere in the face of domestic opposition and foreign difficulties shows the importance of individuals in the negotiating process. The effect on negotiations of world events not directly related to the talks is demonstrated by the impact of the Sino-Soviet split, the unsettled status of Berlin and Germany, and the Cuban Missile Crisis. Single-issue lobbyists, representing the interests of weapons laboratories and the views of those opposed to U.S.-Soviet cooperation, caused major difficulties during the years of negotiations, as reflected in the interagency bargaining that preceded policy decisions. This included the use of scientific information both to advance and to block the negotiations. As a leading member of the advisory and negotiating teams during much of the period discussed in this article, the author pays tribute to professionals in the Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations whose dedication and ingenuity kept the negotiations alive until circumstances finally crowned the effort with success.
Shear and Static Instability of Inertia–Gravity Wave Packets: Short-Term Modal and Nonmodal Growth
Authors: Achatz Ulrich , Schmitz Gerhard 
Published: March 2006

Abstract
The problem of nonmodal instabilities of inertia–gravity waves (IGW) in the middle atmosphere is addressed, within the framework of a Boussinesq model with realistic molecular viscosity and thermal diffusion, by singular-vector analysis of horizontally homogeneous vertical profiles of wind and buoyancy obtained from IGW packets at their statically least stable or most unstable horizontal location. Nonmodal growth is always found to be significantly stronger than that of normal modes, most notably at wave amplitudes below the static instability limit where normal-mode instability is very weak, whereas the energy gain between the optimal perturbation and singular vector after one Brunt–Väisälä period can be as large as two orders of magnitude. Among a multitude of rapidly growing singular vectors for this optimization time, small-scale (wavelengths of a few 100 m) perturbations propagating in the horizontal parallel to the IGW are most prominent. These parallel optimal perturbations are amplified by a roll mechanism, while transverse perturbations (with horizontal scales of a few kilometers) are to a large part subject to an Orr mechanism, both controlled by the transverse wind shear in the IGW at its statically least stable altitude, but further enhanced by reduced static stability. The elliptic polarization of the IGW leaves its traces in an additional impact of the roll mechanism via the parallel wind shear on the leading transverse optimal perturbation.
Dynamics of the Intertropical Convergence Zone of the East Pacific
Authors: Raymond David J. , Bretherton Christopher S. , Molinari John 
Published: March 2006

AbstractThe dynamical factors controlling the mean state and variability of the east Pacific intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and the associated cross-equatorial boundary layer flow are investigated using observations from the East Pacific Investigation of Climate (EPIC2001) project. The tropical east Pacific exhibits a southerly boundary layer flow that terminates in the ITCZ. This flow is induced by the strong meridional sea surface temperature (SST) gradient in the region. Away from the equator and from deep convection, it is reasonably well described on a day-to-day basis by an extended Ekman balance model. Variability in the strength and northward extent of this flow is caused by variations in free-tropospheric pressure gradients that either reinforce or oppose the pressure gradient associated with the SST gradient. These free-tropospheric gradients are caused by easterly waves, tropical cyclones, and the Madden–Julian oscillation.Convergence in the boundary layer flow is often assumed to be responsible for destabilizing the atmosphere to deep convection. An alternative hypothesis is that enhanced total surface heat fluxes associated with high SSTs and strong winds act to produce the necessary destabilization. Analysis of the moist entropy budget of the planetary boundary layer shows that, on average, surface fluxes generate over twice the destabilization produced by boundary layer convergence in the east Pacific ITCZ.
Dynamics of Singular Vectors in the Semi-Infinite Eady Model: Nonzero β but Zero Mean PV Gradient
Authors: de Vries H. , Opsteegh J. D. 
Published: March 2006

Abstract
A nonmodal approach based on the potential vorticity (PV) perspective is used to compute the singular vector (SV) that optimizes the growth of kinetic energy at the surface for the β-plane Eady model without an upper rigid lid. The basic-state buoyancy frequency and zonal wind profile are chosen such that the basic-state PV gradient is zero.
If the f-plane approximation is made, the SV growth at the surface is dominated by resonance, resulting from the advection of basic-state potential temperature (PT) by the interior PV anomalies. This resonance generates a PT anomaly at the surface. The PV unshielding and PV–PT unshielding contribute less to the final kinetic energy at the surface.
The general conclusion of the present paper is that surface cyclogenesis (of the 48-h SV) is stronger if β is included. Three cases have been considered. In the first case, the vertical shear of the basic state is modified in order to retain the zero basic-state PV gradient. The increased shear enhances SV growth significantly first because of a lowering of the resonant level (enhanced resonance), and second because of a more rapid PV unshielding process. Resonance is the most important contribution at optimization time. In the second case, the buoyancy frequency of the basic state is modified. The surface cyclogenesis is stronger than in the absence of β but less strong than if the shear is modified. It is shown that the effect of the modified buoyancy frequency profile is that PV unshielding occurs more efficiently. The contribution from resonance to the SV growth remains almost the same. Finally, the SV is calculated for a more realistic buoyancy frequency profile based on observations. In this experiment the increased value of the surface buoyancy frequency reduces the SV growth significantly as compared to the case in which the surface buoyancy frequency takes a standard value. All growth mechanisms are affected by this change in the surface buoyancy frequency.
Explicit Simulation of Aerosol Physics in a Cloud-Resolving Model: Aerosol Transport and Processing in the Free Troposphere
Authors: Ekman Annica M. L. , Wang Chien , Ström Johan , Krejci Radovan 
Published: March 2006

Abstract
Large concentrations of small aerosols have been previously observed in the vicinity of anvils of convective clouds. A 3D cloud-resolving model (CRM) including an explicit size-resolving aerosol module has been used to examine the origin of these aerosols. Five different types of aerosols are considered: nucleation mode sulfate aerosols (here defined by 0 ≤ d ≤5.84 nm), Aitken mode sulfate aerosols (here defined by 5.84 nm ≤ d ≤ 31.0 nm), accumulation mode sulfate aerosols (here defined by d ≥ 31.0 nm), mixed aerosols, and black carbon aerosols.
The model results suggest that approximately 10% of the initial boundary layer number concentration of Aitken mode aerosols and black carbon aerosols are present at the top of the convective cloud as the cloud reaches its decaying state. The simulated average number concentration of Aitken mode aerosols in the cloud anvil (∼1.6 × 104 cm−3) is in the same order of magnitude as observations. Thus, the model results strongly suggest that vertical convective transport, particularly during the active period of the convection, is responsible for a major part of the appearance of high concentrations of small aerosols (corresponding to the Aitken mode in the model) observed in the vicinity of cloud anvils.
There is some formation of new aerosols within the cloud, but the formation is small. Nucleation mode aerosols are also efficiently scavenged through impaction scavenging by precipitation. Accumulation mode and mixed mode aerosols are efficiently scavenged through nucleation scavenging and their concentrations in the cloud anvil are either very low (mixed mode) or practically zero (accumulation mode).
In addition to the 3D CRM, a box model, including important features of the aerosol module of the 3D model, has been used to study the formation of new aerosols after the cloud has evaporated. The possibility of these aerosols to grow to suitable cloud condensation or ice nuclei size is also examined. Concentrations of nucleation mode aerosols up to 3 × 104 cm−3 are obtained. The box model simulations thus suggest that new particle formation is a substantial source of small aerosols in the upper troposphere during and after the dissipation of the convective cloud. Nucleation mode and Aitken mode aerosols grow due to coagulation and condensation of H2SO4 on the aerosols, but the growth rate is low. Provided that there is enough OH available to oxidize SO2, parts of the aerosol population (∼400 cm−3) can reach the accumulation mode size bin of the box model after 46 h of simulation.
Cirrus Mammatus Properties Derived from an Extended Remote Sensing Dataset
Authors: Wang Likun , Sassen Kenneth 
Published: March 2006

Abstract
The first quantitative and statistical evaluation of cirrus mammatus clouds based on wavelet analysis of remote sensing data is made by analyzing the University of Utah Facility for Atmospheric Remote Sensing (FARS) 10-yr high-cloud dataset. First, a case study of cirrus mammata combining a high-resolution lidar system and a W-band Doppler radar is presented, yielding an assessment of the thermodynamic environment and dynamic mechanisms. Then, 25 cirrus mammatus cases selected from the FARS lidar dataset are used to disclose their characteristic environmental conditions, and vertical and length scales. The results show that cirrus mammata occur in the transition zone from moist (cloudy) to dry air layers with weak wind shear, which suggests that cloud-induced thermal structures play a key role in their formation. Their maximum vertical and horizontal length scales vary from 0.3 to 1.1 km and 0.5 to 8.0 km, respectively. It is also found that small-scale structures develop between the large-scale protuberances. The spectral slopes of the lidar-returned power and mean radar Doppler velocity data extracted from the cirrus cloud-base region further indicate the presence of developed three-dimensional, locally isotropic, homogeneous turbulence generated by buoyancy. Finally, comparisons of anvil and cirrus mammata are made. Although both are generated in a similar environment, cirrus mammata generally do not form fallout fronts like their anvil counterparts, and so do not have their smooth and beautiful outlines.
Arctic Mixed-Phase Cloud Properties Derived from Surface-Based Sensors at SHEBA
Authors: Shupe Matthew D. , Matrosov Sergey Y. , Uttal Taneil 
Published: March 2006

Abstract
Arctic mixed-phase cloud macro- and microphysical properties are derived from a year of radar, lidar, microwave radiometer, and radiosonde observations made as part of the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) Program in the Beaufort Sea in 1997–98. Mixed-phase clouds occurred 41% of the time and were most frequent in the spring and fall transition seasons. These clouds often consisted of a shallow, cloud-top liquid layer from which ice particles formed and fell, although deep, multilayered mixed-phase cloud scenes were also observed. On average, individual cloud layers persisted for 12 h, while some mixed-phase cloud systems lasted for many days. Ninety percent of the observed mixed-phase clouds were 0.5–3 km thick, had a cloud base of 0–2 km, and resided at a temperature of −25° to −5°C. Under the assumption that the relatively large ice crystals dominate the radar signal, ice properties were retrieved from these clouds using radar reflectivity measurements. The annual average ice particle mean diameter, ice water content, and ice water path were 93 μm, 0.027 g m−3, and 42 g m−2, respectively. These values are all larger than those found in single-phase ice clouds at SHEBA. Vertically resolved cloud liquid properties were not retrieved; however, the annual average, microwave radiometer–derived liquid water path (LWP) in mixed-phase clouds was 61 g m−2. This value is larger than the average LWP observed in single-phase liquid clouds because the liquid water layers in the mixed-phase clouds tended to be thicker than those in all-liquid clouds. Although mixed-phase clouds were observed down to temperatures of about −40°C, the liquid fraction (ratio of LWP to total condensed water path) increased on average from zero at −24°C to one at −14°C. The observations show a range of ∼25°C at any given liquid fraction and a phase transition relationship that may change moderately with season.
Childhood Cruelty toward Animals among Criminals and Noncriminals
Authors: Kellert Stephen R. , Felthous Alan R. 
Published: March 2006

This paper examines the relationship between childhood cruelty toward animals and aggressive behavior among criminals and noncriminals in adulthood. Data were derived from personal interviews with 152 criminals and noncriminals in Kansas and Connecticut. A standardized, closed, and open-ended interview, requiring approximately 1-2 hours to complete, was administered to all subjects. Aggressiveness was defined by behavioral criteria rather than by reason for incarceration. Childhood cruelty toward animals occurred to a significantly greater degree among aggressive criminals than among nonaggressive criminals or noncriminals. Additionally, the occurrence of more than 40 cases of extreme animal crielty facilitated the development of a preliminary classification of nine distinct motivations for animal cruelty. Finally, family violence, particularly paternal abuse and alcoholism, were significantly more common among aggressive criminals with a history of childhood cruelty toward animals.
Carbocisteine inhibits rhinovirus infection in human tracheal epithelial cells
Authors: Yasuda H. , Yamaya M. , Sasaki T. , Inoue D. , Nakayama K. , Yamada M. , Asada M. , Yoshida M. , Suzuki T. , Nishimura H. , Sasaki H. 
Published: March 2006

The aim of the study was to examine the effects of a mucolytic drug, carbocisteine, on rhinovirus (RV) infection in the airways.Human tracheal epithelial cells were infected with a major-group RV, RV14.RV14 infection increased virus titres and the cytokine content of supernatants. Carbocisteine reduced supernatant virus titres, the amount of RV14 RNA in cells, cell susceptibility to RV infection and supernatant cytokine concentrations, including interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8, after RV14 infection. Carbocisteine reduced the expression of mRNA encoding intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, the receptor for the major group of RVs. It also reduced the supernatant concentration of a soluble form of ICAM-1, the number and fluorescence intensity of acidic endosomes in the cells before RV infection, and nuclear factor-κB activation by RV14. Carbocisteine also reduced the supernatant virus titres of the minor group RV, RV2, although carbocisteine did not reduce the expression of mRNA encoding a low density lipoprotein receptor, the receptor for RV2.These results suggest that carbocisteine inhibits rhinovirus 2 infection by blocking rhinovirus RNA entry into the endosomes, and inhibits rhinovirus 14 infection by the same mechanism as well as by reducing intercellular adhesion molecule-1 levels. Carbocisteine may modulate airway inflammation by reducing the production of cytokines in rhinovirus infection.
Intracranial Pathology in Elders with Blunt Head Trauma
Authors: Rathlev Niels K. , Medzon Ron , Lowery Doug , Pollack Charles , Bracken Mark , Barest Glenn , Wolfson Allan B. , Hoffman Jerome R. , Mower William R. 
Published: March 2006

Objectives:
To examine presentations and prevalence of head injury among elder victims of blunt trauma and to estimate the prevalence of occult injuries associated with a normal level of consciousness, absence of neurologic deficit, and no evidence of significant skull fracture.
Methods:
The study population consisted of all patients aged 65 years or older enrolled in the National Emergency X‐Radiography Utilization Study (NEXUS) II head injury cohort. The authors assessed the prevalence and patterns of intracranial injuries among this cohort and compared the prevalence of specific presenting signs and symptoms among injured and uninjured patients. An occult injury subcohort was also constructed, and injury prevalence was examined among this group.
Results:
A total of 1,934 elder patients were identified among the 13,326 subjects in NEXUS II (14.5%). Significant intracranial injury, defined as an injury that typically requires procedural intervention or is associated with persistent neurologic impairment or long‐term disability, was found in 178 elder patients (9.2%; 95% confidence interval = 8.0% to 10.6%) as compared with 697 individuals among 11,392 younger patients (6.1%; 95% confidence interval = 5.7% to 6.6%). Focal neurologic deficits were present in 55.8% of elder patients with injury. Prevalence of specific injuries among elder and younger patients, respectively, included the following: subdural hematoma, 4.4% and 2.4%; contusion, 4.0% and 3.2%; epidural hematoma, 0.5% and 1.0%; and depressed skull fracture, 0.2% and 0.5%. Forty‐two elder patients (2.2%) had an occult injury, compared with only 92 younger patients (0.8%).
Conclusions:
Elder patients with head trauma are at higher risk of developing a significant intracranial injury, including subdural and epidural hematoma. An occult presentation is also more common in elders.
Antibiotic Treatment of Acute Respiratory Infections in Acute Care Settings
Authors: Gonzales Ralph , Camargo Carlos A. , MacKenzie Thomas , Kersey Ayanna S. , Maselli Judith , Levin Sara K. , McCulloch Charles E. , Metlay Joshua P. 
Published: March 2006

Objectives:
To examine the patterns of antibiotic use for acute respiratory tract infections (ARIs) in acute care settings.
Methods:
Chart reviews were performed retrospectively on a random sample of adult ARI visits to seven Veterans Affairs (VA) and seven non‐VA emergency departments (EDs) for the period of November 2003 to February 2004. Visits were limited to those discharged to home and those with primary diagnoses of antibiotic‐responsive (pneumonia, acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis, pharyngitis, sinusitis) and antibiotic‐nonresponsive conditions (acute bronchitis, nonspecific upper respiratory tract infection [URI]). Results are expressed as adjusted odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals.
Results:
Of 2,270 ARI visits, 62% were for antibiotic‐nonresponsive diagnoses. Seventy‐two percent of acute bronchitis and 38% of URI visits were treated with antibiotics (p < 0.001). Stratified analyses show that antibiotic prescription rates were similar among attending‐only and housestaff‐associated visits for antibiotic‐responsive diagnoses (p = 0.11), and acute bronchitis (76% vs. 59%; p = 0.31). However, the antibiotic prescription rate for URIs was greater for attending‐only visits compared with housestaff‐associated visits (48% vs. 15%; p = 0.01). Antibiotic prescription rates for total ARIs varied between sites, ranging from 42% to 89%. Patient age, gender, race and ethnicity, smoking status, comorbidities, and clinical setting (VA vs. non‐VA) were not independently associated with antibiotic prescribing.
Conclusions:
Acute care settings are important targets for reducing inappropriate antibiotic prescribing. The mechanisms accounting for lower antibiotic prescription rates observed with housestaff‐associated visits merit further study.
The role of single spiking spherical neurons in a fast sensory pathway
Authors: Nogueira Javier , Castelló María E. , Caputi Angel Ariel 
Published: March 2006

SUMMARY
One difficulty in understanding the brain is that of linking the structure of the neurons with their computational roles in neural circuits. In this paper we address this subject in a relative simple system, the fast electrosensory pathway of an electric fish, where sensory images are coded by the relative latency of a volley of single spikes. The main input to this path is a stream of discrete electric images resulting from the modulation of a self-generated carrier by the environment. At the second order cell level, a window of low responsiveness, reducing potential interference from other stimuli, follows activation of the path.
In the present study, we further characterize the input–output relationship at the second order neurons by recording field potentials, and ascertain its cellular basis using in vitro whole cell patch recordings. The field potentials from freely behaving, socially interacting fish were obtained from chronically implanted fish restrained in a mesh pen. In addition, at the end of some experiments the fish was curarized and the fast electrosensory path responses to artificial stimuli were further explored. These in vivo approaches showed that larger stimuli cause larger and longer windows of low responsiveness. The simple spherical geometry of the second order cells allowed us to unveil the membrane mechanisms underlying this phenomenon in vitro. These spherical cells respond with a single spike at the onset of current steps of any amplitude and duration, showing inward and outward rectification, and a long refractory period. We postulate that a low-threshold K+ conductance generates the outward rectification. The most parsimonious interpretation of our data indicates that slow deactivation of this conductance causes the long refractory period. These non-linear properties of the membrane explain the single spiking profile of spherical cells and the low-responsiveness window observed in vivo. Since the electric organ discharges are emitted at intervals slightly longer than the duration of the low-responsiveness window,we propose that the described cellular mechanisms allow fish streaming self-generated images.