bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Photodiodes
Authors: Gray Bonnie 
Published: April 2006

AbstractA photodiode is a solid‐state sensor that responds to light by producing a measurable electronic current. Operating as a quantum threshold detector, a photodiode will only detect photons that exceed a certain energy level (the bandgap energy of the photodiode material) while not detecting photons below this level. This article covers the basics of pn‐junction, PIN, and avalanche photodiode operation, as well as the use of photodiodes in several example applications in biology and medicine. Photodiodes are attractive for biomedical applications because they are inexpensive compared with many other detection mechanisms, easy to use, small scale, readily available, and capable of operation in an array for parallel sensing. They are ideal for applications involving bed‐side monitoring such as pulse oximetry, rapid diagnosis including point‐of‐care instrumentation based on lab‐on‐a‐chip technology, and other instances where equipment benefits from greater miniaturization or portability. Semiconductor photodiodes are fabricated using similar methods used to produce transistors and integrated circuits and continue to evolve together with integrated circuits to be efficient and inexpensive photodetectors while maintaining their basic simplicity.
Plethysmography
Authors: Valentinuzzi Max , Belalcazar Andres 
Published: April 2006

AbstractAfter introducing the concept of plethysmography, a basic elementary model is presented along with its mathematical description. The three sections that follow describe the main techniques traditionally used in this kind of measurement (i.e., mechanical plethysmography, photoplethysmography, and impedance plethysmography). The rest of the chapter deals with applications, first, as the so‐called body plethysmography for respiratory measurements, and second, as applied to specific body parts; these include the thorax, respiratory measurements, and the heart (for cardiac output). Finally, a brief reference is also made to limb's vascular assessment. A critical evaluation and discussion closes the chapter followed by a selected list of references.
Protein Structure, Folding, and Conformation
Authors: Najarian Kayvan , Ford Belma 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe information needed to determine protein structure is contained in the amino acid sequence of the protein. The standard methods for determining protein structure, x‐ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), require a high‐quality crystal sample. Producing a quality sample is a time‐consuming and labor‐intensive process. This is the rate‐limiting step in structural proteomics. Researchers have turned to prediction methods to devise methods to predict a three‐dimensional protein structure. The most successful methods combine different techniques to address the challenge instead of relying only on sequence information. Some protein prediction method contains a model of the protein and the corresponding force field, a technique to scan the energy landscape, and techniques to analyze the prediction method. This article provides a brief survey of protein folding prediction methods.
Radiation Safety
Authors: Martin Colin J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractRadiation is used in a wide range of applications in hospitals and health care. It offers tremendous advantages in the ability to image, diagnose, and treat disease, but it can damage human health in various ways, the most important of which is increasing the risk of inducing cancer. This article discusses the risks from exposure to ionizing radiation, in both the short and the long term and considers the different routes through which staff and patients may be exposed to radiation in health care. The basic principles of radiation protection, detection of radiation, and management of radiation safety in a hospital environment are considered. The various types of risk from different applications are considered. For example, in radiology, the x‐rays are generated by equipment and present only an external hazard, whereas in nuclear medicine, radioactive materials are used that may be taken into the body and irradiate tissue from the inside. Finally, in radiotherapy, where radiation is used to kill cancer cells, the radiation levels are higher and greater precautions must be put in place to minimize the exposure of staff. Different ways in which radiation safety is achieved for the various applications are described. The article also considers the risks from nonionizing radiations in the form of optical radiations, i.e., lasers and ultraviolet that are hazardous to the eyes and skin, and electromagnetic fields, which heat tissue and may induce other effects.
Rehabilitation Engineering: An Overview
Authors: Cooper Rory A. , Ding Dan , Cooper Rosemarie , Wolf Erik , Algood David , Corfman Thomas , Rentschler Andrew J. , Boninger Michael L. , Chaves Eliana 
Published: April 2006

AbstractRehabilitation deals with correction or compensation for functional deficits not responsive to surgery or pharmacology. Rehabilitation engineering is the application of engineering science and technology to the medical rehabilitation of persons with disabilities. The scope of rehabilitation engineering extends from basic cellular and molecular engineering investigating potential therapies for people with disabilities to the other extreme, including direct clinical service delivery to persons with disabilities. The critical aspects of rehabilitation engineering education are that people are well grounded in engineering principles, scientific methods, clinical practices, advocacy and legislative issues, pathology, epidemiology, and disability.
Assistive Robotics
Authors: Hillman Michael R. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Robotic technology has great potential to benefit the lives of people with disabilities. Not only in the obvious role as a manipulator, whether mounted on a desk, wheelchair, mobile base, or body worn, but also as an aid to mobility, education, and communication. Assistive robotics is the bringing together of several technologies with the needs of people with various disabilities.
Spasticity and Upper Motor Neuron Dysfunction
Authors: Sherwood Arthur , McKay W. Barry 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis chapter presents an overview of the set of symptoms generally classified as spasticity. Definitions of spasticity are reviewed, and this chapter suggests the use of a recently presented definition, “disordered sensori‐motor control, resulting from an upper motor neurone lesion, presenting as intermittent or sustained involuntary activation of muscles.” Following a brief discussion of mechanisms, assessment of spasticity is organized by consideration of the domains of the international classification of functioning, disability, and health (ICF) and clinical and laboratory scales reviewed.
Bioenergetics and Systemic Responses to Exercise
Authors: Verheyden Bart , Beckers Frank , Aubert André E. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractSport is the most popular form of culture in societies across the world. In the last 50 years, the multidisciplinary research area of exercise physiology has tremendously improved our knowledge about the systemic response and adaptations to exercise.During exercise, the human metabolism gradually increases and is associated with a global increment in energy expenditure. Increased energy consumption is necessary to provide adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to the working musculature where it serves as the immediate source of energy. Muscle cells produce ATP by a single or a combination of three metabolic pathways depending on the type of exercise (intensity and duration). Generally, aerobic pathways provide a large amount of ATP low‐moderate intensities, whereas the anaerobic pathways provide a limited amount of ATP at near maximal to maximal intensities. A series of systemic structural and functional alterations enable an efficient energy delivery to the working musculature during exercise. Adaptations in the cardiovascular system enhance O2transport from the lungs to the target muscle. Increased pulmonary ventilation facilitates CO2removal and O2uptake in the lungs. The amount of O2that can be subtracted from the arterial capillaries in the working musculature can be improved by muscular adaptations to exercise. In fact, because exercise is a whole body commitment, acute alterations in a single exercise bout and adaptations to exercise will extend to all physiological systems of the body.Although it is impossible to govern a detailed description of all the changes accompanying (repeated) physical exercise training, the first section of this chapter reviews some prior knowledge about the exercise metabolism and the most important systemic responses and adaptations to exercise. In the second section, an overview of the latest generation biomedical engineering contributions to the field of exercise physiology will be presented and some of the less known applications will be briefly described (e.g., pulse oximetry, magnetic resonance velocity mapping, and magnetic resonance spectroscopy).
Technology Assessment of Medical Devices
Authors: Cunningham David , King William , Henning Timothy 
Published: April 2006

AbstractTechnology assessment involves systematically gathering and weighing a wide variety of information in order to identify commercially viable opportunities. Small entrepreneurial companies and universities generate much of the new technology. A process often followed by large companies to find and evaluate new technologies is described with the aim of facilitating interactions between the holders of new technology and large companies. Technology assessment generally follows the steps of obtaining new leads, screening leads, evaluating preliminary technology, performing due diligence, and negotiating a deal. The importance of a clear business strategy and proper consideration of intellectual property are emphasized.
Telemedicine
Authors: Hung Kevin , Zhang Yuan-Ting 
Published: April 2006

AbstractTelemedicine is the delivery of medical diagnosis, treatment, and patient care by means of telecommunication, information technologies, and electronic technologies with medical expertise. It helps to provide medical services to underserved areas and promotes medical resources sharing, cost reduction, and improvement in healthcare support for the current and foreseen aging population. Disciplines of telemedicine include teleanesthesia, telecardiology, teledermatology, teleconsultation, telemonitoring, home telecare, telepsychiatry, teleneurology, teleradiology, teleoncology, teleophthalmology, telepathology, and telesurgery. Various standards are used to ensure efficient communication between telemedicine systems and medical devices. A current trend is mobile telemedicine, which utilizes the emerging wireless communication and mobile computing platforms.
Ventilatory Pattern Variability in Mammals
Authors: Webber Charles L. , Zbilut Joseph P. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe mammalian ventilatory control system consists of coordinated actions of the central and peripheral nervous systems and muscles of breathing to effect dynamic expansions and contractions of the lungs. Mechanical and chemical feedbacks report on the status of the process in order to keep blood gas tensions of oxygen and carbon dioxide within homeostatic ranges. As a result of the nonlinear interactions of numerous variables, differential phasic delays between efferent and afferent signals, and the presence of noise and environmental perturbations, variables of breathing (tidal volume, cycle durations, etc.) normally exhibit fluctuations over many different time scales. Loss of dynamic flexibility because of central nervous system (CNS) damage or cardiovascular compromise can lead to abnormal and ominous breathing patterns incompatible with life. Mathematical models of ventilatory control instruct on how the breathing system is regulated in health and disease.
Virtual Instrumentation
Authors: Obrenović Željko , Starčević Dušan , Jovanov Emil 
Published: April 2006

AbstractVirtual instrumentation merges sensing technologies with hardware and software technologies to create flexible and sophisticated instruments for various control and monitoring applications. Biomedical applications require sophisticated and flexible instrumentation, accomplished by using general‐purpose computing platforms with various application‐specific input/output devices. Virtual instrumentation brings many advantages over “conventional” instrumentation. Employing general‐purpose computing platforms significantly decreases the price of instruments. Standard system interfaces allow seamless integration of virtual instruments in a distributed system, whereas software reconfiguration facilitates flexibility and scalability. Most general virtual instrumentation concepts are directly applicable in biomedical applications; however, specific features of the biomedical instrumentation must be taken into account. In this article, we present a brief history and current state of virtual instrumentation for biomedical applications. We explain the general architecture of a virtual instrument, describe the most frequently used tools and platforms, and present typical examples of biomedical applications of virtual instrumentation.
Virtual Reality
Authors: Riva Giuseppe 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe basis for the virtual reality (VR) idea is that a computer can synthesize a 3‐D graphical environment from numerical data. Using visual and auditory output devices, the human operator can experience the environment as if it was a part of the world. This computer‐generated world may be either a model of a real‐world object, such as a house, or an abstract world that does not exist in a real sense but is understood by humans, such as a chemical molecule or a representation of a set of data, or it might be in a completely imaginary science fiction world. Further, because input devices sense the operator's reactions and motions, the operator can modify the synthetic environment, creating the illusion of interacting with and thus being immersed within the environment.These characteristics also allow a definition of VR in terms of human experience: a real or simulated environment in which a perceiver has the experience of presence in an environment by means of a communication medium. This definition clarifies the possible role of VR in medicine: a communication interface based on interactive 3‐D visualization, able to collect and integrate different inputs and datasets in a single real‐like experience.
Wheelchair Engineering
Authors: Cooper Rory , Ding Dan , Kwarciak Andrew M. , Cooper Rosemarie , Guo Songfeng , Spaeth Donald M. , Zipfel Emily , Kelleher Annmarie , Boninger Michael L. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe wheelchair is one of the most frequently used devices by people with disabilities. Wheelchairs provide mobility, seated support and access to the community. Designing, selecting, fitting and engineering wheelchairs is deceptively complex, and new technologies are adopting more and even leading areas such as robotics, and automotive engineering. There are a wide variety of wheelchairs needed to match the demands of users, and to accommodate the changing dynamics of disability. This chapter will describe various types of wheelchairs and their interfaces.
Wound Healing
Authors: Poole-Warren Laura A. , Ly Mai 
Published: April 2006

AbstractWound healing normally progresses via a cascade of events beginning with hemostatsis and migration of inflammatory cells, followed by angiogenesis, matrix deposition, epithelial regeneration (in cutaneous and other epithelialised tissues), and remodeling of the newly deposited tissue matrix. In nonhealing or chronic wounds, this process seems to be disrupted and often fails to produce the vascularized granulation tissue needed for tissue repair. Technological advances over the past two to three decades have provided many new approaches to wound therapy. These include novel biomaterials for wound dressings, engineered drugs and drug delivery systems, tissue‐engineered interactive wound coverings, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, nitric oxide releasing agents, and various physical therapies including devices for electrical stimulation and photostimulation. Many of these have reached clinical practice, and some have generated improvements in wound healing rates. Barriers to adoption of new technologies for wound healing include complex application methods, failure to demonstrate significant benefits in animal and clinical trials, and the vast differences between therapies required for different wound types at different stages. Consequently, this extremely crowded market offers a high degree of choice between the many therapies for which there is often insufficient evidence of efficacy. Although traditional therapies such as saline‐soaked gauze persist, the future offers hope in many forms, via better understanding of cell and molecular processes involved in wound healing and combined approaches to therapy.
Blood Oxygen Saturation Measurements
Authors: Teng Xiao-Fei , Zhang Yuan-Ting 
Published: April 2006

AbstractBlood oxygen saturation indicates the percentage of hemoglobin molecules saturated with oxygen. It is a vital sign of a patient's health, considering that without a constant oxygen supply, a human being cannot survive for a prolonged time. Blood oxygen saturation measurements can be categorized into chemical methods and optical methods. Chemical methods need a blood sample forin vitroanalysis, whereas optical methods measure blood oxygen saturation by passing specific wavelengths of light through the blood. As optical methods can achieve measurements noninvasively, they have been widely used in clinical applications. Among the optical methods, pulse oximetry, which can measure blood oxygen saturation with comparable accuracy, is the one that has been widely used in clinical environments. Beyond its traditional applications for adults on extremities, pulse oximeters for fetal use and measurement at the retina are under active development.
Heart Sounds and Stethoscopes
Authors: Zhang Yuan-Ting , Chan Gregory , Zhang Xin-yu , Yip Lung 
Published: April 2006

AbstractHeart sounds are the acoustic vibrations produced during the systole and diastole of the cardiac cycle. The art of evaluating the acoustic properties of heart sounds is known as heart auscultation. Heart auscultation has long been the most common technique for assessing the cardiac function of a patient. Conventional medical practice uses a mechanical stethoscope for auscultation. Often, the practitioners would need to rely on their hearing ability and their subjective judgement on the interpretation of the sounds. With the introduction of electronic stethoscopes, people are now hoping to measure and analyze heart sounds in a more objective manner. The rapid development in microchip technology in the past decade has resulted in electronic stethoscopes that are portable, robust to noise, and convenient to use. The future trend of electronic stethoscope would be a multifunctional auscultatory device with graphical display, wireless data transmission, real‐time signal processing for noise removal, selectable frequency response, etc. The newly developed electronic stethoscopes allow heart sounds to be digitally recorded and downloaded to a computer for analysis. Many of the computer‐based heart sound analysis techniques adopted by researchers, for example, wavelet transform and neural network, have already provided new insight into the diagnostic value of heart sound. The exploration of further techniques in the coming years would hopefully help to realize the full potential of heart sound auscultation as a tool the early detection of heart diseases.
Wireless Biomedical Sensing
Authors: Zhang Yuan-Ting , Lui Clifford K.C. , Luk B.L. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractWireless biomedical sensing is a technique that measures physiological signals of humans or animals from a distance without a wire connection. Its basic components are sensor/transducer, transmitter, and receiver with an electromagnetic wave as the most widely adopted transmission medium. The theory of wireless communication with an enhanced biomedical aspect is presented. The current status and future trends of this field are also discussed.
Telemedicine in Emergency Medical Services
Authors: Umpierrez Maria Fernanda Cabrera , Arredondo Maria Teresa 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
This chapter presents a new approach for the management of prehospital health emergencies: the integration of telemedicine services into an EMS community as a mean of improving the quality of care, accessibility, and cost‐effectiveness.
A reference architecture is specified based on a set of services that support the development of integrated prehospital health emergency management systems according to a proposed model.
The experimental work has been carried out with the collaboration of emergency medical services in Madrid that contributed to the initial design, the service provision, and the evaluation of the results. The evaluation of the proposed study cases has allowed determining the influence of the telemedicine services in the scenario of prehospital health emergency management.
Health Care Technology for the Developing World
Authors: Malkin Robert 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
To deliver health care effectively, even the most basic hospital must have functioning technology. Yet, in a developing world hospital, as much as 60% of the equipment does not work. Although it is tempting to blame the problem exclusively on the political or economic conditions of the third world, in fact, biomedical engineering has played a role in the failure to transfer the technological advances of the developed world to the population of the developing world. This article discusses the interaction of biomedical engineering and the developing world, as well as the tremendous opportunity that biomedical engineers have to contribute solutions to common third world problems.
EEG
‐Based Brain‐Computer Interface System
Authors: Pfurtscheller Gert , Graimann Bernhard , Neuper Christa 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
A brain computer interface (BCI) transforms electrophysiological signals originating from the human brain into commands that control devices or applications. In this way, a BCI provides a new nonmuscular communication channel, which can be extremely useful for people with severe neuromuscular disorders such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and brainstem stroke. The immediate goal of our current research is to provide these users with an opportunity to communicate with their environment. Future applications also include the field of multimedia and virtual reality.
Present day BCIs use a variety of electrophysiological signals such as slow cortical potentials, evoked potentials (P300), oscillatory activity recorded from scalp or subdural electrodes, and cortical neuronal activity recorded from implanted electrodes. EEG is by far the most frequently used input source, because it is readily available and noninvasive. The poor signal‐to‐noise ratio of scalp–recorded signals requires the application of advanced signal processing methods.
This article outlines and explains the current approaches and methods used in BCI research with emphasis on the signal processing part of the system, consisting of preprocessing, feature extraction, and classification. However, the success of a BCI depends not only on the methodologies applied, but also on the capability of the user to develop and maintain the skill to produce the brain patterns employed by the BCI. Therefore, the interaction between the BCI system and the user, in terms of adaptation and learning, is a challenging aspect of any BCI development and application.