bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
‘Antecedentless’ anaphors: deixis, anaphora, or what? Some evidence from English and French
Authors: Cornish Francis 
Published: December 2008

Taking a cognitive perspective, and concentrating on instances of exophora (or so-called ‘antecedentless’ anaphora), where by definition there is no co-occurring expression in terms of which a given anaphor might be interpreted (i.e. a potential ‘antecedent’), I aim to show, firstly, that so-called exophora falls within the category of anaphora proper and not deixis; secondly, that it is in terms of a conceptual representation of the situation being evoked, and not in terms of the physical situation itself, that the anaphor is interpreted; and finally, that exophora is in reality a more central manifestation of anaphora than the ‘endophoric’ type, where the ‘antecedent’ expression co-occurs with the anaphor.I will base the discussion on naturally occurring data from French and English, and will consider the contributions of gender- and number-marking within pronominal anaphors, as well as of such features of the anaphoric segment as the argument and referent-order statuses assigned to an anaphor by the governing predicator and its modifiers, and the stress and pitch characteristics of the anaphor. All these features play an important role in the assignment of a full interpretation to so-called ‘endophoric’ anaphors just as much as ‘exophoric’ ones, thereby weakening the theoretical basis for the distinction between the two types.
Boundaries as obstruents: Old English voicing assimilation and universal strength hierarchies
Authors: Lass Roger 
Published: December 2008

I. The facts about the behaviour of fricatives in Old English in relation to surrounding segments are well known; but these facts (and some others) illustrate some interesting general principles that seem not to have been thoroughly discussed. A classic formulation of the data is that of Sweet (1953: 3):… f and s, in addition to their modern values, could represent respectively the sounds of v and z, letters which were not normally used in O.E. These three letters, f, s, p, had the sounds of f, s, and th in thin (‘breathed’ or ‘voiceless’) initially and finally in accented words; next to ‘voiceless’ consonants (such as p, t); and when double; … They had the sounds of v, z, and th in then (‘voiced’) when single between vowels, or between a vowel and another ‘voiced’ sound (such as l, r, m, n)….To generalize this, we might say that in Old English fricatives were voiced between sonorants, and voiceless if geminate or contiguous to a major boundary, or in clusters with voiceless obstruents (of which as we will see geminates are a special case). One way of capturing these facts would be a rule which states simply that fricatives are voiced between sonorants, and voiceless elsewhere.
Phonology in syntax
Authors: Hetzron Robert 
Published: December 2008

In the present study I am adducing arguments against the assumption that there is a discrete level of grammar where all syntactic operation has stopped and the assignment of phonetic values to the then existing structure (the output of transformations) begins.The concept of ‘surface structure’ has received the following definitions in Chomsky's various works: ‘a proper bracketing of the linear, temporarily given sequence of elements, with the paired brackets labelled by category names (that is a labelled tree diagram, with such categories as Sentence, Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase, Noun, and a small number of others serving as labels)' (Chomsky, 1966: 21), ‘the organization into categories and phrases that is directly associated with the physical signal’ (Chomsky, 1968:25). These definitions take the physical event of speech as a starting point, and refer to the organization of the sentence on this level (cf. Chomsky, 1965a: 15). One finds, on the other hand, that in the Chomskyan system ‘surface structure’ is also defined in terms of derivation, as the last item in a finite sequence of phrase-markers, the output of the transformations (Chomsky, 1970: 53 f., 87), and such surface structures ‘are mapped into phonetic representations by the phonological rules’ (ibid.: 54) and are assigned intonational contours by rules of phonological interpretation (ibid.: 77). This is summed up in the formula ‘phonology: Pn→phonetic representation’ (ibid.: 87, where Pn is the surface structure, the last phrase-marker).
The Duke of York gambit
Authors: Pullum Geoffrey K. 
Published: December 2008

A Duke who has not been satisfactorily identified with any historical figure is lampooned in a traditional rhyme (believed to have been directed originally at the King of France) as follows:The Grand Old Duke of YorkHe had ten thousand menHe marched them up a great high hillAnd he marched them down again.The implication is that this was incompetent and self-defeating activity on his part. Linguists very frequently seem to give evidence of a tacitly held belief that there is similarly something inept and risible about a linguistic analysis which determines that certain structures are assigned a derivation of the general form A→B→A, that is a derivation in which an underlying representation (or some nonultimate remote representation) is mapped on to an intermediate form distinct from it, and then on to a surface (or other superficial) representation which is identical with the earlier stage.
The grammar of ‘content’ and ‘container’
Authors: Schwartz-Norman Linda 
Published: December 2008

I. In this paper I will examine the systematic alternation in grammatical relations (or functions) of noun phrases in the semantic rôles that I will refer to as ‘content’ and ‘container’ for that class of English verbs which appear in the syntactic frames given in (I):(I)(a)…V NP1 IN/ON(TO) NP2…load the hay on the waggon(b)…V NP2 WITH NP1…load the waggon with the hay.This class of verbs, exemplified by load, spread and spray is particularly interesting because of the claim made in Anderson (1971) that the noun phrase which stands in the grammatical relation of direct object is semantically interpreted as being wholly involved in the action or wholly in the state indicated by the verb. Thus, for verbs that may appear in both of the frames in (I), if Anderson's analysis is correct, the semantic interpretation of structures like (a) and (b) will be distinct in that in (a), NP1 should be interpreted holistically and NP2 should not, while in (b), NP2 should be interpreted holistically, and NP1 should not. After first examining some general characteristics of this class of verbs, I will point out some problems which are presented by Anderson's analysis.
In Support of extrinsic ordering
Authors: Vago Robert M. 
Published: December 2008

1. Most versions of generative phonological theory contain a provision for restricting the ordering of rules in the grammar of individual languages.1 The use of language particular, or extrinsic, ordering statements has recently been challenged by Koutsoudas, Sanders & Noll (1974). These authors propose an alternative theory whose principal claim is that the ordering of rules follows from universal principles. Within this theory, which we may term the Unordered Rules Theory, a derivation proceeds as follows:(i) (a) A representational string is checked against the structural descriptions of all the rules. If only one rule is applicable, then that rule is applied (optionally, in case the rule is optional); if two or more rules are applicable, then universal principles, such as (6) below, may enforce the applicational precedence of one rule over another rule; if the conditions of the universal sequencing principles are not satisfied, then the rules are applied simultaneously.
A tough object to trace
Authors: Quirk Randolph 
Published: December 2008

where t is the ‘trace’ of the (wh) object and where wh becomes obligatorily null (cf. 23) in the ‘infinitival relative’ (and the ‘complementizer’ for as well if the infinitive has no subject, such as you in this instance)Among the numerous constructions, disparate on the face of it, that Chomsky insightfully brings together in this paper is ‘that of the infinitival complements of easy, etc.’ (47) which he sees as having ‘an embedded S … with an obligatory PRO subject’ (48). I do not wish to comment1 on the merits or otherwise of such an analysis but only to question ‘the assumption that the complement clause’ in
On implicational and distributional universals of word order
Authors: Hawkins John A. 
Published: December 2008

This paper argues that the theory of Universal Grammar must include both implicational universals and universals of language distribution in the description and explanation of word order.Implicational universals are of the form: if a language has some property (or properties) P, then it will also have some property (or properties) Q. These ‘if P then Q’ statements require that a language must not have property P without property Q (*P –O).
Factuality and intonation
Authors: Oakeshott-Taylor John 
Published: December 2008

ABSTRACTStarting from the well-known difference betweenI ‵thought he was married (which he is)– where the complement is given a factual interpretation – andI thought he was ‵married (but he isn’t)– which is counterfactual – this article examines the syntactic, semantic, contextual and prosodic conditions under which factual and counterfactual interpretations can emerge. Factuality is distinguished from factivity, and concerns a person’s (usually the speaker’s) subjective assessment of whether the propositional content of a sentence or sentence fragment conforms or conflicts with his perception of reality. The modal nature of factuality is stressed, as is the contribution of tense and intonation to the emergence of factuality interpretations.
The syntax and interpretation of futurate conditionals in English
Authors: Haegeman Liliane , Wekker Herman 
Published: December 2008

ABSTRACTDefining the constraints on the use of the modalswillandwouldin futurateif-clauses in English poses problems to both descriptive and theoretical linguists. One ‘rule’ often referred to is that while futurewilland counter- factualwoulddo not normally occur in conditional sub-clauses withif, volitional and dispositionalwillandwouldcan be used in that context.This paper attempts to account for this general rule and for the so-called exceptions to it in terms of two different syntactic positions ofif-clauses in the sentence. It is suggested that the contrast can be formalized within current versions ofX̄-theory.
Diachronic syntax and learnability: free relatives in thirteenth-century Spanish
Authors: Rivero María-Luisa 
Published: December 2008

ABSTRACTDiachronic change emerges from the construction of grammars by successive generations of learners by exposure to primary data. Learners receive little information concerning what is ungrammatical in their language. To propose learnable systems, linguists should use positive data and not depend on negative information (the learnability criterion). Learnability is relevant to historical linguistics under the view that links diachronic change to grammar construction by the learner. This perspective is used to establish the system of two types of free relatives in thirteenth-century Spanish (quanto que vs. quanto-constructions), and the changes that led to the disappearance of the first type in later centuries.
The syntax of English genitive constructions
Authors: Lyons Christopher 
Published: December 2008

As is well known, English has two genitive or possessive constructions, the ‘proposed’ and the ‘postposed’, exemplified in (1).In each case we have an NP, with a head N (book, office, dog, house, plants) modified by a possessive expression (John's, a man's, mine, etc.). This expression is itself an NP in the genitive Case, and I shall refer to it as the ‘genitive phrase’. By contrast with other familiar languages more highly inflected than English, genitive Case is hot marked by an inflection on the head of a genitive phrase, but by the clitic ’s, which is attached right at the end of the phrase. The exception is where the genitive phrase is not a full NP but a personal pronoun, in which case we get an inflected form (irregular in pattern) as in these other languages: I - my/mine, he - his, etc. These possessive forms of pronouns have almost identical distribution to that of full NPs in the genitive (there are some differences which I shall point to below), and so it seems clear that they are genitives, despite the morphological difference; personal pronouns are highly irregular morphologically anyway, and not only in English. This is assumed in all recent work I know of, and I shall take it to be uncontroversial.
Hierarchies and the choice of left conjuncts (with particular attention to English)
Authors: Allan Keith 
Published: December 2008

Over the last decade or so, hierarchies such as the animacy hierarchy, the personal hierarchy, the case hierarchy, the definiticity and referentiality hierarchies and so forth have been identified as determinants of constituent order. It is my intention in this paper to review the set of hierarchies and rank them as determinants of NP sequencing in English. I shall from time to time compare and contrast the effect of a hierarchy in other languages with what we find in English; but it remains to be seen whether the ranking which obtains for English has a wider application: I make noa prioriclaim that it does. The hierarchies and families of hierarchies are ranked as follows, from the most powerful determinant to the least:(1) the familiarity hierarchy;(2) the topic < comment, given < new hierarchies;(3) the universal sequencing conventions;(4) the definiticity and referentiality hierarchies;(5) the personal, social status, and role hierarchies;(6) the dominant descriptor hierarchies;(7) the formal hierarchies.
Colour terms in Russian: reflections of typological constraints in a single language
Authors: Corbett Greville , Morgan Gerry 
Published: December 2008

One of the milestones in typological studies is Berlin & Kay's (1969) account of basic colour terms, which has produced a steady stream of research of various types. Berlin & Kay summarized their work as follows.In sum, our two major findings indicate that the referents for the basic color terms of all languages appear to be drawn from a set of eleven universal perceptual categories, and these categories become encoded in the history of a given language in a partially fixed order (1969: 4–5).
Coordination and grammatical relations
Authors: Hudson Richard 
Published: December 2008

The most serious recent work on the theory of coordination has probably been done in terms of three theories of grammatical structure: Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (GPSG–see especially Gazdar, 1981; Gazdaret al., 1982; 1985; Saget al., 1985; Schachter & Mordechay, 1983), Categorial Grammar (CG–see especially Steedman, 1985; Dowty, 1985) and Transformational Grammar (TG–notably Williams, 1978, 1981; Neijt, 1979; van Oirsouw, 1985, 1987). Each of these approaches is different in important respects: for instance, according to whether or not they allow deletion rules, and according to the kinds of information which they allow to be encoded in syntactic features. However, behind these differences lies an important similarity: in each case the theory concerned makes two assumptions about grammatical structure in general (i.e. about all structures, including coordinate ones):I The basic syntagmatic relations in sentence-structure are part-whole relations (consituent structure) and temporal order; note that this is true whether or not syntactic structure is seen as a ‘projection’ of lexical properties, since these lexical properies are themselves defined in terms of constituent structure and temporal order.
The morphological basis of anaphora
Authors: Burzio Luigi 
Published: December 2008

Chomsky (1981: 188, 220; 1986a: 166) formulates the Binding Theory essentially as in (1).(1) (A) An anaphor must belocally bound(B) A pronoun must not belocally bound(C) An R-expression must not be boundThe notion ‘bound’ is defined as ‘c-commanded by a co-referential element’. As for the notion ‘locally’, that of Chomsky (1986a) differs somewhat from that of Chomsky (1981), and much recent literature addresses the issue, especially in connection with the phenomenon of ‘Long Distance Anaphora’. (For relevant discussion see Burzio (1989c and references therein) and also Levinson, this volume.) For most of our purposes, it will be sufficient to assume Chomsky's (1981: 188) ‘within its [i.e. the anaphor's/pronoun‘s] governing category’, or even the formally simpler (though empirically less adequate) ‘within the same minimal clause’. The empirical effects of the Binding Theory in (1) can then be illustrated as in (2a, b, c) – instances of local binding, non-local binding, and no binding respectively. In each case the connecting line expresses intended co-reference, much as co-indexation in later examples. Each ungrammatical case is accounted for by the principle indicated in parentheses.
The expression of ‘inferentiality’ in Abkhaz
Authors: Hewitt B. G. 
Published: December 2008

In Comrie (1976: 108) we read: ‘Several languages have special inferential verb forms, to indicate that the speaker is reporting some event that he has not himself witnessed, but about whose occurrence he has learnt at second hand (though without, incidentally, necessarily casting doubt on the reliability of the information)’. Two pages later Comrie writes follows:Serebrennikov (1960: 66) lists the following languages known to him where there is a close formal relation, down to identity, between the expression of perfect and inferential meaning: Turkic languages: the Uralic languages Nenets (Yurak-Samoyed), Finnish, Estonian, Man (Cheremis), Komi (Zyryan), Udmurt (Votyak), Mańśi (Vogul); Georgian; and the Indo-European languages Latvian, Bulgarian, and Albanian.
Proper names in communication
Authors: Sophia A. , Marmaridou S. 
Published: December 2008

It has long been observed that, although proper names are mainly used to identify individuals uniquely in our universe of discourse, and therefore have a clearly referential function, they are also used connotatively, when, for example, they stand as a shorthand for whatever characteristics a specific individual may at one time have been associated with. These two uses can be illustrated in the following sentences:(1) Judas was Jesus Christ's disciple who betrayed Him.(2) Every great man nowadays has his disciples, but it is always Judas who writes the biography (Jespersen, 1965: 66).
Be-heading the word
Authors: Bauer Laurie 
Published: December 2008

Notions of ‘head’ and ‘modifier’ have a long and respectable history in syntax, although they have changed considerably in recent years. But the application of similar notions to morphology is relatively new. The extension of these notions to morphology has been prompted by two developments:(i) Intimations from dependency grammarians that their approach to language ought to be generalizable to morphology (Andersen, 1980); and, far more importantly(ii) The development of lexicalist theories of word-formation using an X-bar notation.
Synonyms and syntax
Authors: Hudson Richard , Rosta Andrew , Holmes Jasper , Gisborne Nikolas 
Published: December 2008

Recent work in a variety of different theoretical traditions has tended to emphasize the close match between syntax and semantics (Dixon 1991; Langacker 1987, 1990, 1995; Levin & Rappaport Hovav 1991, 1992; Wierzbicka 1988). It is very easy to be left with the impression that, if only we could analyse the relevant syntactic and semantic structures correctly, this match would be total. The following are fairly typical statements:The picture that emerges is that a verb's behavior arises from the interaction of its meaning and general principles of grammar. Thus the lexical knowledge of a speaker of a language must include knowledge of the meaning of individual verbs, the meaning components that determine the syntactic behavior of verbs, and the general principles that determine behavior from verb meaning. (Levin 1993: 11)
Polygamy, Purdah and Political Representation: Engendering citizenship in 1950s Pakistan
Authors: ANSARI SARAH 
Published: December 2008

AbstractDebates on Islam, citizenship and women's rights have been closely interconnected in Pakistan, from the time of the state's creation in 1947 through to the present day. This article explores the extent to which during the 1950s campaigns to reform Muslim personal law (which received a boost thanks to the outcry against 1955 polygamous marriage of the then Prime Minister, Muhammad Ali Bogra) were linked with wider lobbying by female activists to secure for women their rights as Pakistani citizens alongside men. Through a close examination of the discussions that were conducted on the pages of English-language newspapers, such asDawnand thePakistan Times, it highlights in particular what female contributors thought about issues that were affecting the lives of women in Pakistan during its early, and often challenging, nation-building years.
Question level and cognitive processing: Psycholinguistic dimensions of questions and answers
Authors: Koivukari A. Mirjami 
Published: December 2008

ABSTRACTPrevious research provides evidence about a relationship between the quality of questions and the depth of processing of an input. If questions about a subject matter are asked in a certain way, students are likely to process it in depth. In this article, inputs, question levels, and depths of processing are described. Three categories of coding were defined through observation of secondary classrooms in Zaire: (a) reproducing words (rote), (b) reproducing content (comprehension 1), (c) generating new content (comprehension 2). After teacher training emphasizing student comprehension, statistically significant shifts from Category 1 behavior to Category 2 and 3 behavior were observed in the experimental classes. It is suggested that surface or deep processing can be induced by manipulating certain dimensions of inputs and questions.
A quantitative and qualitative analysis of speech markers in the native and second language speech of bilinguals
Authors: Olynyk Marian , D'Anglejan Alison , Sankoff David 
Published: December 2008

ABSTRACTThe present study investigated the use of five speech markers in the native and second language production of French-English bilinguals in a military setting. We propose that these speech markers, mechanisms for self-repair and turn-taking in conversations, are a major component of fluency. The ten participants, five high fluency speakers and five low fluency speakers, were tape-recorded with their peers in three different situations in their native and second languages, and the frequency of occurrence of speech markers was tabulated for a 5-minute segment for each situation.It was hypothesized that speakers who used differentially more prepositioned repairs (progressives) or markers placed before the repair that do not require a reorganization of the expectation of what is to follow based on what has been produced in the turn so far, would be judged more favourably than those who used more postpositioned repairs (regressives). There was no quantitative difference in the frequency of occurrence of speech markers between the high and low fluency speakers, but the high fluency speakers used more progressive than regressive types of marker. Progressive markers place fewer demands on the interlocutor than regressive markers, which require constant readjustments on the part of the listener. The profiles were similar for each individual in the native and second language but in every case there were fewer markers in the native than in the second language. Furthermore, there were fewer markers in the planned (teaching) than in the unplanned (interview) situation. The findings have important implications for the evaluation of second language fluency.