bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Nonionizing Radiation, Biological Effects of
Authors: Wood Andrew 
Published: April 2006

AbstractNon‐ionizing radiation (NIR) refers to that part of the electromagnetic spectrum with a wavelength greater than approximately 100 nm. It is customary to include static electric and magnetic fields under the heading of NIR, and some also include ultrasound. When compared with ionizing radiation, there is a perception that NIR is intrinsically less dangerous (because it does notionize), so that the need for legislative control is less compelling. It should be emphasized that all forms of NIR, if present at a sufficiently high intensity, have the capacity to cause serious injury. It is perhaps fortunate that technologies employing NIR have developed in such a way that instances of serious injury are relatively rare and fatality virtually zero. The accepted hazards of most forms of NIR occur within a short time of exposure. The exception to this is ultraviolet radiation (UVR), particularly solar UVR, where risks of skin cancer and cataract have a stochastic nature and the diseases occur several years after exposure. The perception among sections of the wider community is that all forms of radiation, including NIR, can lead to disease in the long term, despite a lack of consistent evidence. This article reviews the nature of interactions of NIR with biological tissue, explains the rationale behind present‐day exposure limits, and explores some of the uncertainties that have led to the “Precautionary Principle” being invoked. It also briefly reviews some properties of NIR that have led to its use in diagnosis and therapy.
Biomaterials: An Overview
Authors: Seal Brandon L. , Panitch Alyssa 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Biomaterials are materials of metallic, ceramic, polymeric, or composite origin that are used or that have been designed for use in medical devices or in contact with the body in order to augment, replace, or restore the function of diseased or damaged tissues or organs. Applications involving biomaterials range from load bearing orthopedic devices to degradable sutures to living skin equivalents. Although the types of materials used as biomaterials is diverse, most implanted biomaterials elicit a very similar inflammatory and foreign body response. In an attempt to minimize adverse biological responses and improve the performance of biomaterials at a tissue, cellular, and molecular level, current research in biomaterials has led to a paradigm change in which biomaterials consist of, mimic, or are designed to interact specifically with biological elements and systems. Continued adaptation of biomaterials design to biological responses will result in better performing devices that work with the body to promote tissue regeneration and healing.
Biomedical Engineering Education
Authors: Benkeser Paul 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Educational programs in biomedical engineering have been under development for >40 years. The past decade has seen a significant increase in both the number of programs and student interest in those programs. This rapid growth has fueled a movement to establish a common vision of the knowledge and skills that all biomedical engineers need to possess. A partnership between industry, biomedical engineering educators, and learning science researchers is needed to ensure that this will be a shared vision and will enable students to be well prepared for careers in this field.
Biosurface Engineering
Authors: Molnar Peter , Hirsch‐Kuchma Melissa , Rumsey John W. , Wilson Kerry , Hickman James J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractBiological organisms are very complex and highly organized systems. One way biology achieves this high order of organization is the use of spatially and temporally controlled extracellular guidenance clues. Recent developments in surface chemistry, micro‐ and nanofabrication, and cell biology make it possible to recreate some of these organizational clues in a spatially controlled manner. Using these tools, active surfaces can be created that direct the behavior of cells in a controlled manner. In this article, the authors summarize the historical development of the field of cell patterning and give an overview of the available surface modification and patterning methods. They make a detailed comparison of the most commonly used techniques while listing their benefits and limitations as well as pointing out current difficulties that need to be overcome to make this methodology more applicable to real biomedical and biotechnological applications.
Blind and Visually Impaired, Assistive Technology for
Authors: Y. J. Szeto Andrew 
Published: April 2006

AbstractOne of the most debilitating human conditions is blindness or severe visual impairment. Many assistive devices have been developed during the past decades to ameliorate the two primary challenges associated with this disability: access to reading material and independent mobility. This article presents an overview of the consequences of this impairment and examines the various technological aids currently available and under development to address these problems. This article discusses the consequences of blindness and severe visual impairment; assistive technology that facilitates access to written information; assistive devices that enhance independence in the activities of daily living; and mobility and navigational aids that enable persons who are blind or severe visual impaired to achieve safer and more independent travel. The article concludes with a prospective look at assistive technology likely to become available in the not too distant future.
Blood Pressure Measurement
Authors: Isik Can 
Published: April 2006

AbstractBlood pressure is one fundamental vital sign, and its measurement is of great importance to medical professionals and the general public alike. This article describes direct and indirect methods of measuring blood pressure. There are many techniques of blood pressure measurement in the market, and more are being investigated in the laboratories and tested in the field. A number of these techniques are covered here, giving particular emphasis to the oscillatory techniques extensively employed in devices targeted for clinical use as well as those targeted for home use. Also included are limitations of different techniques, possible remedies to those limitations, and an analysis of the accuracy of a variety of blood pressure measurement devices.
Bone Cement, Acrylic
Authors: Li Chaodi , Zhou Yan 
Published: April 2006

AbstractBone cement has been widely used in orthopedic surgeries since Sir John Charnley first introduced the self‐curing bone cement for the fixation of artificial joints in 1958. Several important aspects of material characteristics of bone cement, including its material compositions, short‐ and long‐term mechanical properties are discussed in this article. This article aims to provide comprehensive information for the orthopedic community on cement applications.The article is arranged in seven sections and begins with a brief introduction and description of bone cement compositions, followed by a section on cement setting procedure and cementing technique. Then, the thermal aspect (polymerization heat and potential bone thermal damage) and volumetric change effects (porosity and residual stress) are discussed. The final section focuses on the main mechanical properties of cement, including the static strength, fatigue failure, and viscoelasticity of bone cement. Finally, the article ends with a brief summary of potential research directions.
Brachytherapy, High Dosage Rate
Authors: Das Rupak 
Published: April 2006

AbstractBrachytherapy is a form of radiotherapy whereby a radioactive source is used inside or at short distance from the tumor. There are three different forms of brachytherapy: interstitial, intracavitary, and skin therapy. In interstitial brachytherapy, the radioactive sources are implanted inside and throughout the tumor volume; in intracavitary brachytherapy the sources are placed in the body cavities very close to the tumor; while in skin therapy the sources are placed on the skin surface. Conventionally, brachytherapy implants have delivered the radiation at a low dose rate (dose rates of <1 Gy/h). Low dose‐rate (LDR) interstitial implants can be temporary (meaning that the radioactive sources are left in place for a period of time, usually a few days, and then removed) or permanent (left in place without removal), while intracavitary implants are temporary. The advent of methods to deliver the dose at a much higher dose rates, in the range of 1–5 Gy/min, brought an increase in the use of brachytherapy. All high dose‐rate (HDR) brachytherapy treatments are temporary and treatments are administered using discrete fractions.
Cardiac Output, Thermodilution Measurement of
Authors: Trautman Edwin D. , D’ambra Michael N. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractIf a substance is introduced at a constant rate into the flowing bloodstream and allowed to “mingle” with the blood, then the measured steady‐state concentration of that substance downstream of the site of introduction is inversely proportional to the flow rate. If a small amount of the substance is introduced rapidly, then the concentration integrated over time is inversely proportional to flow rate. In thermodilution the indicator substance is heat (or cold) whose concentration is measured using a thermistor on a pulmonary artery catheter. The indicator is typically 10 mL of iced or room temperature saline introduced rapidly as a bolus into the right atrium, producing a temperature transient that rises rapidly and then decay exponentially. In practice, the indicator recirculates before the transient returns to baseline and an extrapolation needs ato be made. There are other practical considerations, such as indicator warming during injection, baseline temperature fluctuations, variations in curve shape, variation in thermal properties of blood, and anatomical abnormalities that can affect the accuracy and reproducibility of the measurement. All told, the accuracy is to within 2–7%, when compared to other measurement techniques. Continuous measurements are possible using a filament heater on the catheter to produce small thermal fluctuations and sophisticated signal processing to extract the signal from the background noise. Pulmonary artery catheters have many uses and are placed in patients for hemodynamic and cardiac assessments beyond cardiac output. Catheters and cardiac output computers are available from a number of manufacturers. The bolus thermodilution measurement of cardiac output is convenient and practicle and is considered the “gold” standard by which other techniques are compared.
Cell Counter, Blood
Authors: Zhang Yi , Neelamegham Sriram 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis article discussed the basic principles of hematology with emphasis on humans. Enumeration of cell population distribution in peripheral blood is examined using optical, electrooptical and light scattering techniques. As seen, such experimental modalities can be automated and the resulting hematology analyzers can be used for clinical application. Even though the exact strategy of cell counting varies between various manufacturers of automated cell counters, performance standards for such instrumentation have been established by the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standard (NCCLS) and the International Council for Standardization in Hematology (ICSH). The parameters evaluated here include (1) accuracy in measurement within a single batch and between batches of blood samples; (2) carryover of parameters between consecutive samples; (3) linearity or the ability to get similar measurements when the sample is diluted to different levels before being read; and (4) clinical sensitivity or the specificity and efficiency with which flags are generated during analysis to detect abnormal readouts.
Chromatography
Authors: Edwards Thayne L. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractChromatography is the process of separating a mobile phase mixture into its individual components using the relative interactions of the components with a stationary phase. Chromatography is often used as a method of purification, even when the components are closely related. When used in conjunction with a concentration or mass‐based sensor, it can also be a power analytical method. This chapter explores the basic processes of the various types of chromatography and the closely related techniques of field‐flow fractionation (FFF) and electrophoresis. Some of the basic theory of chromatography will be given in terms of retention mechanism and separation performance. In addition, a description of the basic types of chromatography, electrophoresis, and FFF will be given in relation to their theory and application.
Codes and Regulations: Radiation
Authors: Thomadsen Bruce , Glasgow Glenn , Edwards Benjamin , Lieto Ralph 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Several govermental agencies regulate radiation and radioactive meterials, each having a difference perspective of the problems to be addressed. An interested party is well advised to cinsult the most current verions of the regulations, which nowadays can be found on‐line. While particular regulations change very slowly in response to changing situations, the regulations as a whole change frequently. Regulations arise from recommendations from nationlal and international scientific and professional organizations, but are shaped by the governmental organization writing the regulation. A major division falls between regulations for ionizing and nonionizing radiations. For ionizing radiation, until currently, there was another division between radiation and radioactive materials generated by reactors and those from other accelerators, but the ssshape of the changes is yet to be seen. Many states have taken over much of the role of the U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission in their domain through agreements with that angency.
Colorimetry
Authors: Shen Li‐Jiuan , Mandel Richard , Shen Wei‐Chiang 
Published: April 2006

AbstractColorimetry is based on the observation that molecules absorb light. The wavelengths and efficiency of absorption depend on both the structure of the molecule and its environment, making absorption of light a useful tool for characterizing both small molecules and macromolecules. Colorimetric methods utilize these light‐absorbing spectral properties to measure the presence, concentration, or enzymatic activity of substances. Colorimetric methods have clinical applications primarily for the quantitative analysis of biological substances and enzymes or drugs and their metabolites in specimens using either their known spectral characteristics or their reactivity with other substances having known spectral characteristics. Colorimetry is also one of the commonly used detection methods in the development of modern analytical technologies, such as enzymed‐linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and microarray assays, in biomedical sciences.
Colposcopy
Authors: Selim Mostafa A. , Shalodi Abdelwahab D. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
The history, the colposcope and the digital advances in the instrument is described. The clinical application of the colposcope in diagnosis and treatment of the neoplasia of the cervix is emphasised.The terminology used to explain the changes in the transformation zone of the cervix is explained.
Communication Devices
Authors: Cook Albert 
Published: April 2006

Abstract

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems supplement, but do not replace other modes of communication, such as speech, gestures, vocalizations, or facial expressions. The need for AAC, may be
congenital
(e.g., cerebral palsy or developmental disability) or a
cquired
. The severity of need varies from mild to moderate to severe based on physical, cognitive, and linguistic involvement. The overall prevalence from mild to severe for AAC needs is 0.2–0.6% of the total population. There are two basic communication needs that lead to the use of augmentative and alternative communication systems: conversation and graphics. These two needs differ in many important aspects. Conversational needs are those that would typically be accomplished using speech if it were available. The characteristics of AAC devices can be grouped into three major components: (1) control interface, (2) processor, and (3) activity output. The control interface links to a selection method, selection set, and an optional user display. Two selection methods are used in AAC systems. Direct selection is the fastest and easiest selection method to understand and use because the user merely chooses the one that he or she wants. Indirect selection is used to provide access for individuals who lack the motor skills necessary to use select directly and involves one or more intermediate steps between the user’s action and the entry of the choice into the device. Assessment of persons for AAC and training of them to develop skills are very important parts of a service delivery system.
Communication Disorders, Computer Applications for
Authors: Cress Cynthia J. , Green Jordan R. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis chapter provides an overview of the types of computer and technology applications used in the field of communication disorders. The introduction outlines the range of communication disorders for which technology has been applied. The main body of the article highlights current ways in which computer technology has been applied for administration, analysis of typical function, assessment, intervention, and assistive devices. Within each section, applications are discussed for speech, hearing, and language disorders. Each section concludes with benefits and limitations of computer technology for the type of application discussed. A final section outlines directions of future research and development in the areas of speech, hearing, language, and assistive devices.
Computed Tomography, Single Photon Emission
Authors: Fahey Frederic H. , Ziessman Harvey A. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract

Single photon emission computed tomography (or SPECT) provides a three‐dimensional (3D) representation of the
in vivo
distribution within a patient's body of a radiopharmaceutical that was given as part of a diagnostic nuclear medicine study. This chapter will devote most of its attention to the use of the rotating gamma camera.
Contraceptive Devices
Authors: Kane Mollie 
Published: April 2006

AbstractContraceptives and contraceptive devices are possibly the most widely used medical devices today. In the United States, 42 million women, or 7 in 10 women ages 15–44, are currently sexually active and do not want to become pregnant (1). In 2002, 98% of women who had ever had intercourse had used at least one method of contraception. Ninety percent had used a condom at least once. Of reproductive age women (15–44 years), 62% were currently using contraception.
Coronary Angioplasty and Guidewire Diagnostics
Authors: Banerjee Rupak K. , Roy Abhijit Sinha , Back Lloyd H. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Percutaneous coronary transluminal angioplasty (PTCA) is an interventional procedure most widely used to revascularize diseased coronary vessels. Since its inception in 1964, modern‐day PTCA involves the use of cutting edge devices that have vastly improved the usefulness of this procedure, with minimal damage to coronary vessels such as left anterior descending, left circumflex, and right coronary arteries. In this article, the authors give an overview of key devices and instruments that have become synonymous with coronary angioplasty. Additionally, the authors present a summary of their past work on coronary diagnostics using customized guidewires, a key component of coronary angioplasty. Guidewires are commonly used to measure two hemodynamic indices, myocardial fractional flow reserve and coronary flow reserve, to evaluate the degree of success achieved in opening up a diseased (or blocked) coronary vessel. However, the presence of guidewire introduces an additional flow obstruction effect, which necessitates that some correction be applied to myocardial fractional flow reserve and coronary flow reserve. This process would enable estimation of true severity of coronary lesion, and its possible treatment using PTCA. This article provides these corrections through simple correlations that could be useful for diagnosis of focal coronary lesions under clinical settings.
Cystic Fibrosis Sweat Test
Authors: Warwick Warren J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractCystic fibrosis (CF, cystic fibrosis of the pancreas, mucovisidosis) is an autosomal recessive genetic clinical condition that occurs in ∼1 in 2500 Caucasian newborn infants. The frequency ranges from ∼1:200 in genetically isolated populations to 1:30,000 in certain ethnic and racial groups. The measurement of the increased chloride in the sweat is the most reliable diagnostic test for the presence of two mutations of the CFTR mutation. This excessive sweat chloride is found in >98% of patients with the genetic potential to develop the clinical diseases associated with these CFTR mutations.
Cytology, Automated
Authors: Tyrer Harry W. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
The goal of automated cytology is to identify and classify cells. This requires a multidisciplined approach in which engineers, physicist, and computerists interact with biomedical scientist and clinicians. Currently a cell can be described in terms of its function (what it does) and its appearance under the microscope (morphology). Automated cytology begins by measuring features to determine a cell’s morphology or function. By far this is done with either absorption or fluorescent materials that attach to cellular compounds. Other detection strategies include current flow through cells, optical polarization from cellular molecules, acoustic energy absorption, and other electromagnetic and spectroscopic means. These detection systems have been placed into two main types of instrumentation that can be easily classified as low resolution (high cell throughput) and high resolution (low cell throughput) systems. The low resolution systems suspend cells in medium, which then flow past a detector’s field of view. A few features are collected on large numbers of cells, providing substantial statistics on the population of cells under consideration. An interesting set of variations includes sorting of specific subpopulations and even sorting of individual cells. These systems support data analysis of cells, which includes forming histograms, cluster analysis, modeling of specific types of histograms, and so on. High resolution systems consist of a microscope connected to a computer. Typically a light detector reads light intensities obtained by scanning the cell, and operations take place on the scanned cell. Data analysis can be used to identify important features of cells. Currently, there are a number of applications for these systems including medical diagnosis, basic immunology research, hematology and oncology, to name a few areas. The future for automated cytology is open since these systems provide objective data on the cells, are useful in diagnosis and treatment evaluation, save time, and provide new information.
Drug Infusion Systems
Authors: Ozcelik Selahattin 
Published: April 2006

AbstractDrug infusion systems are being extensively used in hospitals as well as in home therapies. Device‐based drug delivery systems are used in a wide range of pharmacological therapy and can be classified as injection–infusion systems, transdermal patch‐based systems, and inhalation systems. These devices range in complexity from simple manual gravity drippers to fully automated sophisticated complete infusion systems. Contributions of engineering, basic sciences, and technological advancements have significantly improved drug administration in patients and have significantly eliminated medication errors due to users. This article focuses on the injection–infusion systems, reviews basic types and operational principles of these systems, and presents recent developments and advancements.