bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Bacterial DNA Polymerase I
Authors: Li Ying , Waksman Gabriel 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Bacterial DNA polymerase I is a family of enzymes that are involved in bacterial DNA lesion repair, as well as DNA replication. These enzymes have a multidomain structure containing a polymerase activity, a proofreading 3′–5′ exonuclease activity and/or a 5′–3′ exonuclease activity within one polypeptide chain.
Integrase Class Site‐specific Recombinases
Authors: Scocca John J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The integrase family of recombination proteins promote coordinated conservative DNA breakage–rejoining reactions at duplex DNA sites of defined sequence. They ensure accurate partition of duplicated circular prokaryotic chromosomes or insert and remove temperate phage genomes from host chromosomes through formation of a DNA–integrase phosphodiester linkage between a tyrosyl residue and a 3′‐phosphoryl group.
Cleavage and Gastrulation in Zebrafish Embryos
Authors: Köppen Mathias , Heisenberg Carl‐Philipp 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
During zebrafish gastrulation, the interplay between patterning events and morphogenesis creates an embryo out of a seemingly unstructured blastula stage embryo, an embryo with distinct polarities along its anterior–posterior, dorsoventral and left–right axes at the end of gastrulation.
Rhabdoviruses
Authors: Pringle Craig R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The viruses classified in the family Rhabdoviridae have monopartite, negative‐sense, single‐stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) genomes, 11–15 kb in size; the virions have helical nucleocapsids contained within bullet‐shaped or bacilliform enveloped particles. Rhabdoviruses infect animals, plants and invertebrates; some rhabdoviruses multiply in both invertebrates and vertebrates, and others in both invertebrates and plants, but none multiply in all three hosts. The family includes several viruses responsible for considerable economic losses in agriculture and commercial fisheries; Rabies virus is the most significant human pathogen.
RNA
Plant and Animal Virus Replication
Authors: Rybicki Edward P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
RNA plant and animal viruses may have double‐stranded (ds) or single‐stranded messenger‐sense (+) or antimessenger‐sense (−) RNA genomes, which may be single‐ or multi‐component, and may be encapsidated in simple protein capsids, or complex membrane‐enveloped particles. The different types of viruses have a wide variety of different strategies for the replication of their genomes, and the production of infectious particles.
Vesicular Stomatitis Virus
Authors: Pringle Craig R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Vesicular stomatitis virus is the prototype rhabdovirus. It is an important animal pathogen that causes a disease which is difficult to differentiate clinically from that caused by foot‐and‐mouth disease virus. Its broad host range, rapid lytic growth cycle, unique morphology and susceptibility to interferon have all contributed to its popularity as a model system in experimental virology.
Viral Culture Methodologies
Authors: Harper David R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Virus culture is used both to prepare and to analyse viruses. The techniques of virus culture are based on the culture of cells from host organisms, in which the virus is grown and maintained. Viruses may be prepared as components for vaccines or testing kits, or for use as genetic vectors. Cultured viruses may be used to test new antiviral drugs, to increase understanding of cellular biology, or to study the viruses themselves.
Pathogenic Viruses: Clinical Detection
Authors: Olivo Paul D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Clinical detection of pathogenic viruses requires clinical acumen to recognize the signs and symptoms of a viral infection followed by a thoughtful diagnostic plan. This involves obtaining appropriate specimens, handling these specimens properly, and ordering the most useful confirmatory tests. Finally, the results of these tests must be interpreted in the context of the clinical picture and the pathogenesis of the particular virus being considered.
Affinity Chromatography
Authors: Fassina Giorgio 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Affinity chromatography is a separation technique based on the use of specific and selective immobilized ligands able to associate reversibly to a desired biomolecule. Samples are passed through affinity columns that are equilibrated with a buffer favouring interaction between the immobilized ligand and the target biomolecule. Unrelated contaminants will be eluted in the column void volume and a suitable buffer change will lead to elution of the adsorbed biomolecule.
Bacteriophage Display of Combinatorial Antibody Libraries
Authors: Andris‐Widhopf Jennifer , Steinberger Peter , Barbas Carlos F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Bacteriophage display of combinatorial antibody libraries is one means by which monoclonal antibodies of a desired specificity can be selected without the use of conventional hybridoma technology. Phage display is the expression of proteins and peptides on the surface of a bacteriophage particle, and a combinatorial antibody library is a collection of rearranged variable‐region gene segments that have been randomly combined through the use of recombinant molecular biology techniques to yield a large ‘library’ of antibodies.
Basophils
Authors: Galli Stephen J , Wedemeyer Jochen 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Basophils are a type of leucocyte (‘white blood cell’) that circulates in the blood and can participate in the expression of allergic diseases, such as asthma and hay fever; these cells also can contribute to resistance to parasite infections. When they participate in allergic reactions or responses to parasites, basophils release histamine and many other biologically active molecules that can contribute to inflammation.
Erythrocytes
Authors: Gershon Harriet 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The erythrocyte is a highly specialized cell designed for the transport of the oxygen in the circulation from the lungs to the body tissues and for the removal of carbon dioxide from the tissues. Erythrocytes of primates function in the clearing of the blood of complement‐bearing immune complexes and pathogens and also have antiinflammatory functions.
Follicular Dendritic Cells (B Lymphocyte Stimulating)
Authors: Burton Gregory F , Kapasi Zoher F , Qin Dahui , Wu Jiuhua 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) are found in virtually all secondary lymphoid tissues (e.g. lymph nodes, spleen, Peyer's patches, and tonsils). Their main role is in trapping and retaining minute quantities of antigen that serve as a repository to help maintain potent anamnestic (memory) antibody responses for years, but they also have roles in germinal centre formation and in signalling to lymphocytes.
Immune System:
In Vitro
Study
Authors: Blom Bianca , de Waal Malefyt René 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The immune system involves a network of specialized organs, cells and molecules that collaborate in the protection of an organism against disease. To gain more insight into the complex interactions between cells,
in vitro
methods and techniques have been developed to study the origin, structure and function of these organs, cells and molecules.
Epithelial Branching
Authors: Nakanishi Yasuo , Hieda Yohki , Cardoso Wellington V , Lubkin Sharon R , Daniel Charles W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Embryonic rudiments of most organs are composed of two types of
tissues: epithelium and mesenchyme, separated by a basal lamina. Growing
epithelial tissue changes and acquires a shape unique to each organ during
development.
C
. elegans

Vulval Induction
Authors: Sternberg Paul W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Study of
Caenorhabditis elegans
vulval development has
improved our understanding of inductive signalling and pattern formation at
the single cell level, and has led to the definition of signalling cascades.
Studies of signal transduction during vulval development have led to the
discovery of what is considered a universal signalling pathway from growth
factor receptor to RAS to MAP kinase to the nucleus, and the discovery of the
LIN‐12/Notch family of receptors that mediate lateral signalling.
Drosophila
Eye: Progressive Neural Development
Authors: Moses Kevin 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The compound eye of the fruitfly
Drosophila melanogaster
has geometrically precise development which synergizes with the technological
power of fly genetics and molecular biology to form one of the most powerful
genetic model systems for studying nervous system development. This system has
provided important data for our current understanding of developmental
signalling processes and the development and regulation of neural cell types,
pattern and structure.
Autonomous Cell Specification: Overview
Authors: Byrum Christine A , Wikramanayake Athula H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Autonomous cell specification is a form of specification in
which the developing cell is able to differentiate (express proteins typical
of the mature cell) without receiving external signals. This is possible when
cytoplasmic determinants (the cytoplasmic regulatory factors necessary for
specification) are partitioned into the cell during cleavage.
Chromosomes: Higher Order Organization
Authors: Geyer Pamela K , Parnell Timothy J 
Published: September 2006

AbstractEukaryotic chromosomes are packaged into domains of higher order chromatin structure. Specific sequences such as matrix attachment regions (MARs), locus control regions (LCRs) and insulators are suggested to play an important role in defining these domains. This organization provides a mechanism for compaction of large genomes and aids in regulating gene expression.
Homologous DNA Interactions in Interphase: Spatial Organization of Interphase Nucleus
Authors: Fung Jennifer C , Sedat John W , Marshall Wallace F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Interaction between homologous chromosomes is a key organizing force in the interphase nucleus. Establishment of these interactions requires large‐scale chromosome movement and provides a model system for studying homologue pairing in meiosis.
Immunological Cytotoxicity Studies:in vitro
Authors: Froelich Christopher J , Mektar Sunil 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe immune system has evolved a variety of strategies to protect the host from detrimental effects of pathogens and tumour cells; the most beneficial outcome, however, is induction of an apoptotic death for the offending cell. Immune‐mediated killing occurs through granule secretion and ‘death receptor’ pathways. Cytotoxicity assays have traditionally evaluated membrane permeabilization. With the realization that deathin vivois apoptotic, a host of novel approaches have been devised to evaluate this form of physiological cell death.
DNA Packaging in Sperm
Authors: Hennig Wolfgang 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe chromatin constitution of spermatozoa differs from that of all other cell types. The DNA is mainly associated with basic chromosomal proteins that are different from the otherwise universal histones, allowing packaging of the chromatin in a much smaller volume. Other biological functions in addition to a higher degree of chromatin compaction may be related to the difference in chromatin constitution but their nature is speculative.
Lymphocytes: Intraepithelial
Authors: MacDonald Thomas T 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIntraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) are the small, round mononuclear cells which are found within all external and internal epithelia. They are found in the skin and in the epithelium of the gut, biliary tract, oral cavity, lung, upper respiratory tract and reproductive tract. The largest population lies basolaterally within the epithelium of the small intestine.
Lymphocytes: Recirculation
Authors: Jalkanen Sirpa , Salmi Marko 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Successful immunosurveillance requires endless patrolling of lymphoid tissues by lymphocytes in search of foreign antigens. Bloodborne lymphocytes bind with vessel wall, transmigrate out from the circulatory tree, percolate through the tissues and return via the lymphatic vessels back into the blood in a tightly controlled process called lymphocyte recirculation. Leucocyte–endothelial cell interaction is mediated by adhesive and de‐adhesive interactions between multiple molecules on the two opposing cell types.
Monoclonal Antibodies
Authors: Zola Heddy 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies with a unique specificity, generally made by cloning cells containing a particular antibody gene to produce a population of identical cells derived from a single cell which all produce the same antibody. This should be contrasted with polyclonal antibodies found in the serum of immunized animals, which consist of a very diverse mixture of antibodies against many different molecules.
Innate Immune Mechanisms: Nonself Recognition
Authors: Parish Christopher R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The innate immune system contains a range of cell‐bound and soluble proteins which eliminate pathogens by recognizing unique molecular patterns expressed by microorganisms, but not by host cells. Alternatively, host cells express proteins that protect them from attack by the alternative pathway of complement activation whereas foreign organisms lack these protective proteins and are, therefore, susceptible to complement attack.
Mononuclear Phagocytic System
Authors: Peracchia Maria Teresa , Barratt Gillian , Couvreur Patrick 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The mononuclear phagocyte system is made up of blood monocytes and their precursors, and two differentiated cell populations derived from them: macrophages and dendritic cells. The former are professional phagocytes whose main role is to take up particulate material, while the latter are specialized to process and present antigens to T cells.
Myeloid Cell Differentiation
Authors: Biggs Joseph R , Kraft Andrew S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Myeloid cell differentiation is the process by which stem cells develop into various types of mature blood cell. This is achieved by the sequential activation of sets of genes, which produce the proteins that direct cell development and confer the specific properties of blood cells. Disruption of this process is believed to result in leukaemia.
Natural Killer (
NK
) Cells
Authors: Valiante Nicholas M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are a discrete subset of lymphocytes characterized by a unique array of phenotypic markers (CD3−/CD16+/CD56+). They are rapid mediators of cytotoxicity against infected or transformed cells and potent producers of lymphokines. Through these functions, they act as both effector and regulatory cells at the earliest stages of the immune response.
Histocompatibility Antigens
Authors: Mehra Narinder K 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe histocompatibility antigens are cell surface glycoproteins expressed on nucleated cells whose major function is to bind peptides within the cell and present them at the cell surface for inspection by T cells of the immune system. They are a part of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) that exists in most vertebrate species and whose antigens were originally defined as the most important molecules involved in the rejection of transplanted tissues, exchanged between individuals of the same species.
Cell Locomotion
Authors: Bershadsky Alexander D , Elbaum Michael 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe crawling locomotion of animal cells results from a coordinated cycle of protrusion, attachment and retraction. Protrusions in the direction of motion are normally generated by controlled assembly of actin networks, while adhesion and retraction rely as well on tension generated by actin–myosin interactions. Microtubules control the spatial distribution of these activities, creating a polarized shape in the cell that determines the direction of motion. All these processes are coordinated by small G proteins of the Rho family.
Cell Structure
Authors: Lane Nancy J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cells are living entities made up of a central nuclear region which contains the hereditary material, surrounded on all sides by cytoplasm, which, encompassed by a delimiting membrane, contains all the structures required for biological processes, such as making protein and extracting utilizable energy from food. These events may occur in separate compartments, the organelles, which include the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, the mitochondria, the chloroplasts and the lysosomes; there is also an internal cytoskeleton.
Antibody Engineering
Authors: Paul Sudhir , Planque Stephanie 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Human antigen‐specific antibodies can be obtained by inducing adaptive B‐cell development in transgenic mice or by test‐tube affinity maturation of cloned antibody variable (V) domain repertoires. The V domains are recloned as full‐length antibodies to improve their pharmacokinetic behaviour. Assembly of V domain into multivalent constructs improves the binding strength and linkage to enzymes, toxins or delivery proteins imparts novel functions to the constructs. Emerging engineering strategies include the development of antibodies with catalytic activity and antibodies that can target intracellular antigens.
Immunological Tolerance: Therapeutic Induction
Authors: Christadoss Premkumar 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Protection from the development of autoimmune diseases and acceptance of transplanted organs are due to effective tolerance to self‐antigens and alloantigens, respectively. Various immunological strategies have been developed to induce therapeutic tolerance to control autoimmune disease or prevent graft rejection in antigen specific or non‐specific manner.
Photosynthesis: Dark Reactions
Authors: Heineke Dieter 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Light reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts that provide reducing power in the form of NADPH and energy as ATP. These products are consumed in the so‐called ‘dark reactions’ to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide. The reactions are organized in a cyclic metabolic pathway called the Calvin cycle.
Rubisco
Authors: Portis Archie R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Rubisco, formally known as ribulose‐1,5‐bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxylase/oxygenase, is the chloroplast enzyme that assimilates atmospheric carbon dioxide during photosynthesis by combining it with RuBP to form two molecules of d‐phosphoglycerate. However, Rubisco allows oxygen to react with RuBP in addition to carbon dioxide, producing phosphoglycolate, and thereby also initiates the process known as photorespiration.
Starch and Starch Grains
Authors: Geiger Donald R , Servaites Jerome C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Starch is a granular carbohydrate composed of linear and branched glucose polymers which is synthesized in plastids of leaves and storage organs. This major carbohydrate reserve, which serves for both short‐ and long‐term storage, is used when current carbon assimilation or translocation rates are insufficient.
Photosynthesis
Authors: Ort Donald R , Whitmarsh John 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Photosynthesis is the process by which higher plants, algae, and a broad class of bacteria transform light energy and store it in the form of energy‐rich organic molecules. In plants and algae, as well as some species of bacteria, photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and produces molecular oxygen. In addition there are evolutionarily more primitive bacteria that use light energy to create energy‐rich molecules, but do not split water to produce oxygen.
Chlorophyll: Structure and Function
Authors: Grimm Bernhard 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Chlorophyll is the dominant pigment on Earth and serves as the light‐trapping and energy transferring chromophore in photosynthetic organisms. In recent years research has contributed enormously to a better understanding of the metabolic pathway of chlorophyll synthesis and its biochemical, biophysical and structural properties in close association with the pigment binding proteins of the reaction centre and the antenna complexes of the photosynthetic units.
Acid Rain
Authors: Rennenberg Heinz , Gessler Arthur 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The term ‘acid rain’ describes the process of wet deposition of acidic compounds (e.g. sulfuric acid, nitrous acid and/or organic acids) in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. In particular, acidic deposition has different, adverse, effects on terrestrial vegetation, mainly due to soil acidification and the uptake of substances which disturb the pH levels within plant cells or produce radicals.
Haemoglobin: Cooperativity in Protein–Ligand Interactions
Authors: Ho Chien , Lukin Jonathan A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Haemoglobin is an essential component of the circulatory system of vertebrates. Its chief physiological function is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Haemoglobin binds oxygen cooperatively, i.e. the affinity of the protein for the first oxygen molecule is less than that for subsequent oxygen molecules. Human adult haemoglobin was among the first proteins whose complete three‐dimensional structure was determined by X‐ray crystallography.
Mitosis
Authors: Nigg Erich A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Mitosis is the creation of genetically identical cells from a single parental cell, involving the segregation of chromosomes to daughter cells, via a microtubule‐based structure known as the mitotic spindle. Cells first undergo nuclear division, followed by cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis). Missing or extra chromosomes (aneuploidies) can cause miscarriages, birth defects and malignant tumours.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Authors: Hansford Richard 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Oxidative phosphorylation is the process by which much of the energy released by the oxidation of highly reduced foodstuffs is conserved in the phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate to yield adenosine triphosphate. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotes and in the cell membrane of some prokaryotes: it depends, uniquely, on the creation of a gradient of hydrogen ions across a membrane (chemiosmosis).
Ion Motive ATPases: V‐ and P‐type ATPases
Authors: Sachs George , Keeling David 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMany types of species need to be transported in the working cell. Primary active ion transport across eukaryotic membranes is catalysed mainly by ion‐motive ATPases (ion pumps) of various types. The vacuolar (V‐) ATPases are almost all proton transporters evolutionarily related to the F1F0‐ ATPases; phosphorylated (P‐) ATPases represent an entirely new way of pumping ions.
Photosynthetic Carbon Metabolism
Authors: Portis Archie R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Photosynthetic carbon metabolism encompasses the processes by which plants and other photosynthetic organisms use the energy captured from light in the form of NADPH and ATP to convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. Carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis form the base for the nutrition of all other life as well as serving as the starting materials for fibres, oils and many other natural compounds used by people.
Fatty Acid Biosynthesis
Authors: Rawlings Bernard James 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Fatty acids are produced by most organisms on this planet, mainly for use in membranes or as a long‐term store of energy. While the overall organization and arrangement of the enzyme complexes varies, the underlying chemistry used to assemble fatty acids is virtually identical in every organism; the crucial step being decarboxylative addition of malonate thioesters to elongate the growing acyl chain by two carbons, followed by reduction, dehydration and reduction of the resulting 3‐oxo functionality to 3‐CH
2
, prior to further chain elongation.