bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Comprehensive Detection of Disorders of Purine and Pyrimidine Metabolism by HPLC with Electrospray Ionization Tandem Mass Spectrometry
Authors: Hartmann Susen , Okun Jürgen G , Schmidt Christiane , Langhans Claus-Dieter , Garbade Sven F , Burgard Peter , Haas Dorothea , Sass Jörn Oliver , Nyhan William L , Hoffmann Georg F 
Published: April 2006

AbstractBackground: Clinical presentation and disease severity in disorders of purine and pyrimidine metabolism vary considerably. We present a method that allows comprehensive, sensitive, and specific diagnosis of the entire spectrum of abnormalities in purine and pyrimidine metabolism in 1 analytical run.Methods: We used reversed-phase HPLC electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry to investigate 24 metabolites of purine and pyrimidine metabolism in urine samples from healthy persons and from patients with confirmed diagnoses of inherited metabolic disorders. Urine samples were filtered and diluted to a creatinine concentration of 0.5 mmol/L. Stable-isotope–labeled internal standards were used for quantification. The metabolites were analyzed by multiple-reaction monitoring in positive and negative ionization modes.Results: Total time of analysis was 20 min. Recovery (n = 8) of a compound after addition of a known concentration was 85%–133%. The mean intraday variation (n = 10) was 12%. The interday variation (n = 7) was ≤17%. Age-related reference intervals were established for each compound. Analysis of patient urine samples revealed major differences in tandem mass spectrometry profiles compared with those of control samples. Twelve deficiencies were reliably detected: hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase, xanthine dehydrogenase, purine nucleoside phosphorylase, adenylosuccinate lyase, uridine monophosphate synthase, adenosine deaminase, adenine phosphoribosyl transferase, molybdenum cofactor, thymidine phosphorylase, dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase, dihydropyrimidinase, and β-ureidopropionase.Conclusion: This method enables reliable detection of 13 defects in purine and pyrimidine metabolism in a single analytical run.
Was the Soviet System Reformable?
Authors: Cohen Stephen F. 
Published: April 2006

Stephen F. Cohen presents a critical analysis of the prevailing view that Mikhail Gorbachev's six-year attempt to transform the Soviet Union along democratic and market lines proved that the system was, as most specialists had always believed, unreformable. Ideological, conceptual, and historical assumptions underlying the nonreformability thesis are reexamined and found wanting, as are the ways in which generalizations about “the system” and “reform” are usually formulated. Cohen then asks how each of the system's basic components—the official ideology, the Communist Party and its dictatorship, the nationwide network of Soviets, the monopolistic state economy, and the union of republics—actually responded to Gorbachev's policies. Citing developments from 1985 to 1991, Cohen argues that all of those components, and thus the system itself, turned out to be remarkably reformable. If so, he concludes, most explanations of the end of the Soviet Union, which rely in one way or another on the unreformability thesis, are also open to serious question.Five distinguished scholars respond to Cohen's article.
China Unincorporated: Company Law and Business Enterprise in Twentieth-Century China
Authors: Kirby William C. 
Published: April 2006

On April 22, 1903, the qing court ordered zai-zhen, a Manchu prince; Yuan Shikai, the most powerful Chinese Governor-General of the realm; and Dr. Wu Tingfang, the former Chinese minister to the United States, to compile a commercial code. The edict charging them with this responsibility noted that “of the many government functions, the most important is to facilitate commerce and help industries” (Li 1974a:210). On January 21, 1904, the newly created Ministry of Commerce (Shangbu) issued China's first Company Law (Gongsilü)The Company Law was the first modern law drafted by the Imperial Law Codification Commission, whose work was part of the Qing government's reformist “new policies” in the wake of China's recent humiliations at the hands of Japan and the Western powers. In giving highest priority to enacting a law governing the organization of commercial companies, the Qing government had several interlocking objectives.
The Bolshevik Revolution and Workers' Control in Russian Industry
Authors: Avrich Paul H. 
Published: April 2006

“In essence, the entire question of control amounts to who controls whom, that is, which class is the controller and which the controlled.”—LeninOn the first anniversary of the October Revolution, Lenin admitted to the Sixth Congress of Soviets that a year earlier he had been well aware that workers' control of industry would be “chaotic, shattering, primitive, incomplete.” He had known that the syndicalist flood which burst upon Russia in the spring of 1917 would have to be controlled before it engulfed the revolution itself. Nevertheless, for several weeks after the Bolshevik rise to power, the new regime fostered workers' control in the factories with the aim of consolidating popular support.
Lermontov's Shtoss: Hoax or Literary Credo?
Authors: Mersereau John 
Published: April 2006

In the early months of 1841, when Lermontov was briefly in Petersburg on leave from the Caucasian front, he played a practical joke on his literary friends by solemnly convening them for a reading of a new novel and presenting them instead with a short and unfinished tale of the supernatural. The circumstances surrounding this episode were chronicled by Countess E. P. Rostopchina, herself a popular author of the period:Once he declared that he would read to us a new novel entitled Shtoss, the reading of which he calculated would take at least four hours. He insisted that we gather early in the evening and that the doors be locked against outsiders. All his wishes were fulfilled, and about thirty selected persons assembled.
Economism: A Heresy Exploited
Authors: Frankel Jonathan 
Published: April 2006

At the end of his book of 1902, Chto delat?, Lenin declared laconically that the Russian Marxists would have “to liquidate the third period.” The “third period” here meant the years after 1898 when, according to Lenin, organizational fragmentation and ideological confusion had sabotaged the Russian Social Democratic movement. A voluntary federation of the scattered parts of the movement would, in Lenin's view, merely perpetuate in new form the confusion of the “third period.” Not reform but “liquidation” was thus essential. The Russian Social Democratic Labor Party would have to be reconstructed in Russia around the framework of Iskra's agents, who in turn were to be directed by the editors of Iskra abroad.Here was the justification for the campaign which the leaders of Iskra had already initiated and which they knew among themselves as the “state of siege.“
Recycling
Authors: Boerner Christopher , Chilton Kenneth ,   Updated by Staff
Published: April 2006

AbstractRecycling is the process by which materials that are either not directly usable in their present form (eg, secondary materials or by‐products) or have been separated from waste destined for disposal are remanufactured into usable or marketable materials. The amount of public attention given to recycling has increased noticeably during the last few years; however, the recycling of many industrial and household materials has been a profitable endeavor for decades. This article provides a broad overview of this politically popular issue. Specifically, the article discusses the amount of material collected and processed for recycling, the composition of this material, how collected material is handled, and the economic aspects of recycling.
Silicon
Authors: Runyan W. R. ,   Updated by Staff
Published: April 2006

AbstractElemental silicon, a metal, does not occur in nature, but as the oxide is a constituent of various rocks comprising about 28% of the earth’s crust. There are three naturally occurring stable isotopes and several radioactive ones. Except at very high pressures, silicon has a diamond cubic structure and is a semiconductor.High purity silicon is used primarily for its semiconducting properties and is the primary constituent of silicon diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. Ordinary metallurgical‐grade silicon is made by reducing quartz sand with coke in an electric furnace. That silicon may then be used to produce a silicon compound such as a chlorosilane that is relatively easy to purify. After purification, the compound is reduced to give high purity, semiconductor‐grade silicon, where most of the impurities are in the parts per billion range. Purification methods are discussed and properties of the electronics‐grade silicon given. Health and safety data and new uses are detailed.
Ionizing Radiation, Biological Effects of
Authors: Martin Colin J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractIonizing radiations are x‐rays, γ‐rays, and small atomic particles that have sufficient energy to ionize atoms. The local deposition of energy involved can damage or kill cells. It may also produce subtle changes in a cell genetic make‐up. Much has been learned about effects of radiation from experiments on cell cultures. These experiments have shown that large particle radiations are more damaging than x‐rays for the amount of energy released. They have also shown that when similar doses of x‐rays are delivered at lower dose rates, less damage is produced because the cells are able to effectively repair much of the damage. The effects of radiation on human populations have been assessed through epidemiological studies of groups exposed to very large doses, such as the survivors of the atomic bombs exploded over Japan. Exposure to large doses of radiation above a certain threshold produces tissue reactions in the short term. Longer‐term effects may occur after exposure to low doses of radiation, which are referred to as stochastic effects, as their occurrence is governed by the laws of chance. Stochastic effects are the induction of cancer and of genetic effects. Cancer induced by radiation will not develop until many years after exposure and the risks are greater among those exposed as children. Risks have been estimated from epidemiological studies, by extrapolating dose‐response data down to the low doses received by radiation workers, but debate exists about whether the current extrapolation model may be too conservative.
Hindlimb adaptations in Ourayia and Chipetaia, relatively large‐bodied omomyine primates from the Middle Eocene of Utah
Authors: Dunn Rachel H. , Sybalsky Julia M. , Conroy Glenn C. , Rasmussen D. Tab 
Published: April 2006

AbstractNorth American omomyids represent a tremendous Eocene radiation of primates exhibiting a wide range of body sizes and dietary patterns. Despite this adaptive diversity, relatively little is known of the postcranial specializations of the group. Here we describe hindlimb and foot bones of Ourayia uintensis and Chipetaia lamporea that were recovered from the Uinta B member (early Uintan Land Mammal Age), Uinta Formation, Utah. These specimens provide insights into the evolution of postcranial adaptations across different body sizes and dietary guilds within the Eocene primate radiation. Body mass estimates based on talar measurements indicate that Ourayia uintensis and Chipetaia lamporea weighed about 1,500–2,000 g and 500–700 g, respectively. Skeletal elements recovered for Ourayia include the talus, navicular, entocuneiform, first metatarsal, and proximal tibia; bones of Chipetaia include the talus, navicular, entocuneiform, and proximal femur. Both genera had opposable grasping big toes, as indicated by the saddle‐shaped joint between the entocuneiform and first metatarsal. Both taxa were arboreal leapers, as indicated by a consistent assemblage of characters in all represented bones, most notably the somewhat elongated naviculars, the high and distinct trochlear crests of the talus, the posteriorly oriented tibial plateau (Ourayia), and the cylindrical head of the femur (Chipetaia). The closest resemblances to Ourayia and Chipetaia are found among the Bridger omomyines, Omomys and Hemiacodon. The results of our comparisons suggest that the later, larger, more herbivorous omomyines from Utah retained a skeletal structure characteristic of earlier, smaller North American omomyids. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Orangutan positional behavior and the nature of arboreal locomotion in Hominoidea
Authors: Thorpe Susannah K.S. , Crompton Robin H. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe Asian apes, more than any other, are restricted to an arboreal habitat. They are consequently an important model in the interpretation of the morphological commonalities of the apes, which are locomotor features associated with arboreal living. This paper presents a detailed analysis of orangutan positional behavior for all age‐sex categories and during a complete range of behavioral contexts, following standardized positional mode descriptions proposed by Hunt et al. ([1996] Primates 37:363–387). This paper shows that orangutan positional behavior is highly complex, representing a diverse spectrum of positional modes. Overall, all orthograde and pronograde suspensory postures are exhibited less frequently in the present study than previously reported. Orthograde suspensory locomotion is also exhibited less often, whereas pronograde and orthograde compressive locomotor modes are observed more frequently. Given the complexity of orangutan positional behavior demonstrated by this study, it is likely that differences in positional behavior between studies reflect differences in the interplay between the complex array of variables, which were shown to influence orangutan positional behavior (Thorpe and Crompton 2005 Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 127:58–78). With the exception of pronograde suspensory posture and locomotion, orangutan positional behavior is similar to that of the African apes, and in particular, lowland gorillas. This study suggests that it is orthogrady in general, rather than forelimb suspend specifically, that characterizes the positional behavior of hominoids. Am J Phys Anthropol 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Quantitative analysis of human mandibular shape using three‐dimensional geometric morphometrics
Authors: Nicholson Elisabeth , Harvati Katerina 
Published: April 2006

AbstractHuman mandibular morphology is often thought to reflect mainly function, and to be of lesser value in studies of population history. Previous descriptions of human mandibles showed variation in ramal height and breadth to be the strongest difference among recent human groups. Several mandibular traits that differentiate Neanderthals from modern humans include greater robusticity, a receding symphysis, a large retromolar space, a rounder gonial area, an asymmetric mandibular notch, and a posteriorly positioned mental foramen in Neanderthals. Nevertheless, the degree to which these differences are part of modern human variation and/or are related to size and function remains unclear. The aim of this study was to document geographic and functional patterning in the mandibular shape of recent humans, to assess the effects of allometry on mandibular form, and to quantitatively evaluate proposed “Neanderthal” mandibular traits through comparison with samples of geographically diverse recent humans. Data were collected in the form of three‐dimensional coordinates of 28 landmarks. Unlike previous studies, this analysis found that modern human mandibular shape exhibits considerable geographic patterning, with some aspects of mandibular morphology reflecting a climatic gradient, and others, a functional specialization. Population history is also reflected in mandibular form, albeit relatively weakly. Proposed “Neanderthal” traits were found to separate Neanderthal from modern human mandibles successfully in the statistical analysis. Of these, the retromolar gap was found to be related to increased mandibular size in modern humans. The status of this trait as a Neanderthal autapomorphy should therefore be treated with caution. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Test of the Lamendin aging method on two historic skeletal samples
Authors: Megyesi Mary S. , Ubelaker Douglas H. , Sauer Norman J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe Lamendin aging method involves the quantification of root translucency and the attachment position of the periodontal membrane. It was developed using recent medical‐examiner specimens, and was tested on modern skeletal samples such as the Terry Collection (Lamendin et al. [1992] J. Forensic Sci. 37:1373–1379; Prince and Ubelaker [2002] J. Forensic Sci. 47:107–116). The method may be one of the most useful for estimating age after the mid‐30s. The current study is an evaluation of the Lamendin criteria on two historic skeletal samples from Britain. Both the Christ's Church Spitalfields and St. Bride's Church collections represent documented skeletal samples that were interred in the 18th and 19th centuries. In total, 1,188 teeth from 220 adult individuals were examined from these two collections. The Lamendin method requires measuring total root length (cementoenamel junction to apex), gingival regression (cementoenamel junction to periodontal ligament attachment), and root translucency (root apex to maximum level of root translucency) on the labial surface of single‐rooted teeth. Our results indicate that postmortem factors affect the applicability of the Lamendin technique to archaeological and historical samples. In particular, root translucency disappears with time, or is obscured by unknown postmortem taphonomic effects related to the length of interment or postmortem environment. Thirty‐five percent of our sample showed no root translucency, indicating that caution is required when applying this method to archaeological or historical remains. The mean error of age estimates for Spitalfields and St. Bride's was higher than in the original study of Lamendin et al. ([1992] J. Forensic Sci. 37: 1373–1379), and higher than in the test by Prince and Ubelaker ([2002] J. Forensic Sci. 47:107–116) of the Lamendin method on the Terry Collection. Am J Phys Anthropol 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
New gasoline and gas barrier from plasticized carbon black reinforced butyl rubber/high‐density polyethylene blends
Authors: El‐Tantawy Farid , Abdel Aal Nadia 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe effects of the high‐density polyethylene volume fraction on the curing characteristics and network structure of rubber blends have been studied in terms of the torque, scorch time, optimum curing time, Mooney viscosity, number of elastically effective chains, viscosity, interfacial tension, glass‐transition temperature, scanning electron microscopy, internal friction, sound velocity, acoustic attenuation, polymer–solvent interaction parameter, swelling index, and gel fraction. The applicability of the blends for gasoline barriers has been examined through the changes in the electrical resistance and volumetric swelling in gasoline versus time at room temperature. The transport mechanism of the solvent through the crosslinked butyl rubber/high‐density polyethylene blends is governed by Fickian diffusion law. The transport coefficients, namely, the diffusion coefficient, intrinsic diffusion, and permeation coefficient, have been computed. The experimental data for the permeation coefficient are in good agreement with the values calculated by Maxwell's model and far from those of Robeson's model. In addition, some thermodynamics parameters, namely, the standard entropy, standard enthalpy, and standard Gibbs free energy, have been estimated as functions of the high‐density polyethylene concentration of the butyl rubber blends. Furthermore, the applicability of butyl rubber/high‐density polyethylene composites for Freon gas barriers and antistatic charge dissipation has been examined. Finally, the mechanical properties, such as the tensile strength, hardness, stiffness, and elongation at break, of butyl rubber composites with different high‐density polyethylene concentrations have been evaluated. The increase in the mechanical properties is due to the increase in the crosslinking density and the interfacial adhesion of the blend. This proves that these new blends have important technological applications as gasoline and Freon barriers and for antistatic charge dissipation with good mechanical properties. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 1237–1247, 2006
Anatomical instruction and training for professionalism from the 19th to the 21st centuries
Authors: Warner John Harley , Rizzolo Lawrence J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractFor most of the 19th century, anatomists in the United States saw the affective, emotional aspects of human dissection as salient ingredients in professional formation. Professionalism (or “character”) signified medical integrity and guaranteed correct professional conduct. As gross anatomy came under siege in the late‐19th and early‐20th centuries, crowded out of medical curricula by the new experimental sciences, medical educators rethought what it was that dissecting a human body stood to give medical students. As they embraced a new understanding of professionalism premised on an allegiance to science, anatomists celebrated the habits of mind and sensibility to scientific investigation that could be acquired at the dissecting table. One consequence was a deliberate distancing of gross anatomy from the “art of medicine,” and with it a de facto suppression of attention to the affective components of human dissection. During this period in the opening decades of the 20th century, the norm of silence about the emotional dimensions of dissection was set in place. The confluence of various movements by the 1960s and 1970s both revived attention to the emotional experience of dissection and sparked a renewed discussion about the relationship between the affective components of learning anatomy and the professional formation of future healers. There is a need to balance the tension between the “affective” and “scientific” aspects of anatomy, and by extension the tension between the “art” and “science” of medical practice. One method is to use small‐group “learning societies” as a means to cultivate and meld both dimensions of the professional ethic. Clin. Anat. 19:403–414, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Armored military training and endangered species restrictions at Fort Hood, Texas
Authors: Pekins Charles E. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractDepartment of Defense (DOD) land managers face a daunting challenge with respect to military land use and wildlife management. The challenge is espe‐cially problematic when endangered species are involved. Like other federal land stewards, DOD managers are morally and legally obligated to maintain natural ecosystem functions within their jurisdiction. However, unlike other federal land stewards, DOD managers must strike a balance between sustain‐ing a highly destructive use and sustaining natural landscapes unique to a ge‐ographic area. With careful research and planning, these seemingly contrary uses are manageable and compatible up to certain thresholds. In this article, I summarize how the Fort Hood Natural Resources Management Branch was able to successfully integrate endangered songbird management with high‐impact, mechanized armored training. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.