bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Radiation Dosimetry, Three‐Dimensional
Authors: Ibbott Geoffrey S. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractAccurate delivery of radiation therapy is essential for the treatment to have the greatest probability of success. Determining the dose delivered by radiation beams and radioactive sources requires complex dosimetry procedures and sophisticated computerized treatment planning software. Validating the software to assure its accuracy is an essential component of the quality assurance program in a radiation therapy department.In recent years, radiation therapy has evolved to take advantage of new treatment delivery capabilities and ever‐more complex treatment planning techniques. These techniques allow the dose distribution to be tailored to closely match the shape of the target volume and avoid nearby sensitive tissues. Consequently, dosimetric validation devices must also allow the accurate measurement of dose in three dimensions.Conventional dosimetry systems measure the dose at a point or in a plane, and mapping a 3D dose distribution is difficult at best. As a result, there is a need for a reliable 3D radiation dosimetry system, with the capability of integrating the dose from a complex, and possibly dynamic treatment, so that the delivered dose can be mapped and compared with computer simulations. Today, the only true 3D dosimeters are radiosensitive gels and plastics that can be constructed to fill volumes and conform to complex surfaces. The science behind these dosimeters is developing rapidly, and their routine use in the clinic is believed to be imminent.
Radiology Information Systems
Authors: Honeyman‐Buck Janice C. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractRadiology information systems (RIS) are evolving from being stand‐along radiology order entry, study management, film tracking, charge capture, and billing systems to being an integral part of a series of highly integrated systems that essentially manage and report patient healthcare information. There is a national initiative to provide every person with the ability to request or access their health history, whenever and wherever needed, while maintaining the privacy and security of the records. To that end, the Electronic medical record (EMR) is being adopted by more healthcare institutions. The use of established standards will be crucial for assuring that these EMRs will be able to interface and that a person’s information will be not only accessible, but usable at another location. It is expected that the RIS of the future will expedite the exchange of information of all radiology data with the EMR and will support new devices for viewing and disseminating images and reports.
Radiosurgery, Stereotactic
Authors: Wagner Thomas H. , Meeks Sanford L. , Bova Frank J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe idea of using radiation as a neurosurgical tool was conceived in the 1950s, and became reality in the 1960s. In the decades since, technological advances in computing power and medical imaging have combined to allow very precise and conformal radiation treatments for intracranial and extracranial anatomical sites on a routine basis in many medical centers. This article provides a brief overview of major concepts in stereotactic radiosurgery, and also surveys major recent developments and advances in the field.
Radiotherapy, Intraoperative
Authors: Biggs Peter J. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractIntraoperative radiotherapy (IORT) is a technique involving surgery and radiation therapy whereby a patient undergoes surgery for partial or complete removal of a tumor or for exposure of the malignant tissue or organ and, before closing the incision, the site of the tumor is irradiated with either X‐rays or electrons. The rationale for this treatment modality is that the dose that can be safely delivered to a tumor in the body by external radiation is limited by normal tissue tolerance of intervening tissues. By removing normal tissue and organs from the field, the area of disease can be treated to a higher dose with the intent of increasing the local control of the disease. The technique of IORT has been applied to many sites in the body including rectum, pancreas, retroperitoneal sarcoma, bladder, breast, and head and neck. Intraoperative radiotherapy is a specialized technique that requires a well‐trained team of surgeons, oncologists, medical physicists, therapists and nurses, as well as specialized equipment for a successful program.IORT has been performed sporadically since the earliest days of radiotherapy, when kilovoltage X‐rays were the only radiation modality available, but it was not until the 1960s and the advent of linear accelerators with electron beams that IORT became a widely used modality. Interest continued to be strong until the 1990s, but then began to wane slightly due to the high cost of equipment, the time and number of staff to perform the treatments, and reimbursement issues. However, since the late 1990s, mobile linear accelerators have become available and this has increased interest in IORT, particularly in the field of breast cancer treatment. Currently, ∼ 26 of these mobile units have been installed in the United States and Europe by three manufacturers. Alternative techniques using photons have also found increasing use in IORT, particularly brachytherapy techniques using192Ir radioactive sources and, to a lesser extent, low energy photons.This article will review the history of IORT, the equipment that is needed for the procedure, the dosimetry and radiation safety aspects, clinical results, and future directions.
Spinal Implants
Authors: Marcolongo Michele , Joshi Abhijeet 
Published: April 2006

AbstractSpinal implants constitute the fastest growing segment of the orthopaedic medical device industry. The area has until the last five to ten years been vastly under‐studied for the proportion of patients who are afflicted with diseases and injuries to the spine. Consequently, new spine medical devices and medical device companies are emerging every day with new and better treatment strategies for prevalent spine disorders. This chapter will explore the physiological conditions and disease states that require treatment and then demonstrate some treatment strategies that are being used today. The devices in this text are not comprehensive but do allow an understanding of the state‐of‐the art in medical treatment of spinal disorders.
Human Spine, Biomechanics of
Authors: Goel Vijay K. , Biyani Ashok , Ferrara Lisa , Rengachary Setti S. , McGowan Dennis 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
The basic anatomy of the human spine is described to highlight the interaction among spinal components that provides the desired function in a normal person. The factors that lead to instability–abnormal motion are described. Abnormal motion may be due to external environmental factors to which the spine is subjected to during activities of daily living (e.g., impact, repetitive loading, lifting) degeneration, infectious diseases, injury or trauma, disorders, and/or surgery. The biomechanics encompasses the mechanical aspects of conservative treatments, surgical procedures and spinal stabilization techniques. These issues are narrated in this article. However, the field of spinal biomechanics is very broad and it is not practical to cover all aspects in one article. For example, this article does not deal with whiplash mechanisms, impact loads, injury biomechnaics due to falls, and in sports to name a few.
Sleep Laboratory
Authors: Bogan Richard K. , Youngstedt Shawn D. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe sleep laboratory consists of diagnostic bedrooms, accompanied by a central technical area for collection of data, observation of patients and data processing. The standard polysomnographical (PSG) recording includes placement of electroencephalographic (EEG) electrodes at specific scalp sites; electroculographic (EOG) electrodes aroundthe eyes (for detection of rapid eye movement sleep); electromyographic (EMG) electrodes on the chin; measurement of respiration and airflow for detection of sleep disordered breathing; and leg EMG electrodes for detection of limb movements during sleep. Scoring is typically conducted in 30 s epochs, in which accepted criteria are used to define the epoch awake or the specific stage of sleep, arousals, respiratory events, and so on. Specific criteria are also used to diagnose various sleep disorders and treatment response. Recent trends have involved more emphasis on digitial versus analog data collection, allowing for better automation and collation of the data. Potentially, this trend will also allow for more reliable and detailed assessment of sleep.
Teleradiology
Authors: Huang H.K. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Teleradiology is neither a single medical device nor an instrument, instead, it is a system integration of various imaging devices using communication technology and system software connecting multiple imaging centers and expert centers together. Teleradiology is closely related to PACS (Picture Archiving and Communication System) in terms of technologies used as well as operation. Teleradiology components include image capture, data formatting, image storage, display workstation, communication networks, user friendliness software, image compression, and image security. Teleradiology have several operation models, from the simplest off‐hour reading, application service provider (ASP), Web‐based, to more complex models like PACS and teleradiology combined and enterprise level using grid computing technology. Several important issues to be considered in teleradiology are the trade off between teleradiology technologies and operation, image data security, and medical–legal concern.
CO2Electrodes
Authors: Severinghaus John W. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe CO2electrode is a membrane covered glass pH electrode with an internal electrolyte film containing NaCl and NaHCO3. The electrical output is a log function ofpCO2(partial pressure) exposed to the sensor face. At 37°C, output is 60 mV for a 10‐fold change inpCO2. The CO2electrode was invented by Richard Stow, Ph.D. at Ohio State University Hospital in 1954 to help with management of paralyzed polio victims who were being artificially ventilated. His original device failed because his internal electrolyte was distilled water. Severinghaus added bicarbonate and salt to stabilize it. Manufacture of the device began in 1959.Transcutaneous (tc) CO2electrodes were introduced in the mid‐1970s when transcutaneous O2electrodes were found to adequately reflect arterial blood oxygen pressure (paO2), especially in premature infants whose immature lungs required extra oxygen, but where too much oxygen caused blindness. The tcpCO2electrodes are combined with tcpO2electrodes in a single small sensor that is attached with adhesive to skin surfaces. These devices are internally heated to increase local skin blood flow. At 43–45°C, skin surfacepO2resembles (arterial)paO2, but skin surface tcpCO2is ∼ 1.4 times higher thanpaCO2. The instrument is calibrated to correct this difference.Transcutaneous oxygen and carbon dioxide electrodes have found many uses in addition to their use for newborn infants. However, their usefulness fell after pulse oximetry became common in 1985. The electrodes need careful maintenance with membrane changes and limitation of time on a skin location, to avoid burns.
Cellular Imaging
Authors: Periasamy Ammasi 
Published: April 2006

AbstractMicroscopy becomes an essential tool for cellular imaging. The development of new fluorescent markers, such as green fluorescent proteins, generated great interest to measure cellular signals qualitatively and quantitatively using advanced fluorescence microscope techniques including wide‐field, confocal, multiphoton, lifetime, Förster resonance energy‐transfer (FRET), and correlation spectroscopy. The application dictates the selection of microscope methodology to investigate the cellular dynamics. In this article, we explore selected applications such as localization of protein molecules using FRET microscopy and drug cellular uptake using multiphoton and lifetime imaging microscopy. Nonfluorescent techniques, such as Raman and coherent antistokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS), are also described for lipid imaging.
Boron Neutron Capture Therapy
Authors: Barth Rolf F. , Coderre Jeffrey A. , Vicente M. G. H. , Blue Thomas E 
Published: April 2006

AbstractBoron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) is based on the nuclear reaction that occurs when boron‐10, is irradiated with low energy‐thermal neutrons to yield high linear energy transfer alpha particles and recoiling lithium‐7 nuclei. Clinical interest in BNCT has focused primarily on the treatment of high grade gliomas, and either cutaneous primaries or cerebral metastases of melanoma, and more recently head and neck and liver cancer. Neutron sources for BNCT currently are limited to nuclear reactors and these are available in the United States, Japan, several European countries, and Argentina. Accelerators also can be used to produce epithermal neutrons and these are being developed in a number of countries, but none are currently being used for BNCT.Two boron drugs have been used clinically, sodium borocaptate or “BSH” (Na2B12H11SH), and a dihydroxyboryl derivative of phenylalanine, referred to as boronophenylalanine or “BPA”. The major challenge in the development of boron delivery agents has been the requirement for selective tumor‐targeting in order to achieve boron concentrations (∼ 20 μg·g−1tumor) sufficient to deliver therapeutic doses of radiation to the tumor with minimal normal tissue toxicity. Over the past 20 years, other classes of boron‐containing compounds have been designed and synthesized that include boron‐containing amino acids, biochemical precursors of nucleic acids, DNA binding molecules, and porphyrins derivatives. High molecular weight delivery agents include MoAbs and their fragments, which can recognize a tumor‐associated epitope, (e.g., EGF) and liposomes. However, it is unlikely that any single agent will target all or even most of the tumor cells, and most likelycombinationsof agents will be required and their delivery will have to be optimized.Current or recently completed clinical trials have been carried out in Japan, Europe, and the United States. The vast majority of patients have had high grade gliomas. Treatment has consisted first of “debulking” surgery to remove as much of the tumor as possible followed by BNCT at varying times after surgery. Both BSH and BPA have been used as the boron delivery agents, administered intravenously. The best survival data from these studies are at least comparable to those obtained by current standard therapy for glioblastomas (GBM), and the safety of the procedure has been established.Critical issues that must be addressed include the need for more selective and effective boron delivery agents, the development of methods to provide semiquantitative estimates of tumor boron contentpriorto treatment, improvements in clinical implementation of BNCT, and finally, a need for randomized clinical trials with an unequivocal demonstration of therapeutic efficacy. If these issues are adequately addressed, then BNCT could move forward as a treatment modality.
Adhesion of Bacteria
Authors: Mitik-Dineva Natasa , Stoddart Paul R. , Crawford Russell , Ivanova Elena P. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
The adhesion of bacteria to biological and nonbiological surfaces is of fundamental importance in regulating their interactions with the environment. A range of different strategies that are employed by bacteria for attachment are reviewed. This article describes the general principles that apply to mechanisms of adhesion, the current status of knowledge in understanding the drivers of bacterial adhesion, and the impact of surface characteristics on bacterial metabolic activity and biofilm formation.
Allogeneic Cells and Tissues
Authors: Knight Richard , Ingham Eileen 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe advent of regenerative medicine and tissue engineering has led to a new generation of biomedical engineers engaged in research in this exciting arena. The biomedical engineer is faced with many new concepts, many of which entail a detailed understanding of complex biological systems. The aims of this chapter are to convey essential information regarding the nature and uses of allogeneic cells and tissues in regenerative medicine. A brief introduction to cells and tissues and their development is followed by a description of histocompatibility genes and proteins. The basics of how the immune system functions, with particular emphasis on transplantation immunology and the mechanisms of rejection of allogeneic cells and tissues are then explained. Current techniques used for tissue typing and immunosuppression are covered as well as their implications. The chapter then focuses on the potential use of allogeneic cells and tissues in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering applications. Current technologies that make use of allogeneic tissues are then discussed, followed by future developments that aim to overcome rejection of allogeneic cells.
American College of Clinical Engineering
Authors: Gieras Izabella A. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
The American College of Clinical Engineering (ACCE) was established with a special focus on promoting the profession of clinical engineering in the United States and in the international arena. With members across the globe, the ACCE is the only professional society for clinical engineers with international recognition. Clinical engineers are health‐care professionals who work in hospitals, medical device industry, research and development, academic institutions, consulting, regulatory agencies, and other medical technology‐based institutions. Their main focus is to apply engineering and management background to enhance patient care. With this focus in mind, clinical engineers work very closely with biomedical engineering technologists, physicians, clinicians, information technologists, risk managers, system engineers, construction engineers, procurement, and other health‐care professionals. The ACCE's multidisciplinary activities engage ACCE members in national and international conferences, educational workshops, teleconferences, professional partnerships, and medical device industry initiatives, thus further fostering the profession of clinical engineering.
American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering
Authors: Lee Jen-Shih 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
The American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering (AIMBE) was established in 1991 to unify the medical and biological engineering community to address public policy issues important to the people and the nation. AIMBE has four constituents: College of Fellows, Council of Societies, Academic Council, and Industry Council. The 19 member societies of the Council of Societies represent some 50,000 engineers, scientists, and scholars. A total of 85 academic departments or education programs are members of the Academic Council. AIMBE organizes an Annual Meeting in Washington, D.C. in the springtime to showcase the scientific and technological progresses in medical and biological engineering and to provide a forum for the deliberation of public policy and its implementation strategies. The advocacy role of AIMBE has contributed to the successful passage of the Biomaterials Availability Act in 1998 and the timely establishment of the National Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering as the 19th Institute of the National Institutes of Health to support the development and to accelerate the application of biomedical technologies to improve human health. AIMBE is an organization of volunteers. A capital campaign was kicked off in 2003 for expanding the operation and support of AIMBE. With this new resource, AIMBE is to embark onto its ongoing challenge to activate and energize the unused potential of the membership of its constituents to achieve AIMBE's missions of benefiting our society and nation by influencing public policy in medical and biological engineering.
Analog to Digital Conversion
Authors: Paarmann Larry D. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
The process of converting an analog, or continuous time, signal into a digital signal is known as analog‐to‐digital conversion (ADC). Many signals are inherently analog. Examples of analog signals obtained from a transducer abound. Other analog signals are inherently electrical, such as those obtained from biomedical electromyography or electroencephalography electrodes. In many cases, it is deemed desirable to process a signal by a microprocessor or computer to extract information, or to store the signal in some digital storage medium such as a hard drive, a floppy disk, or a CD ROM. If the original signal is in analog format, in such cases, it is necessary to convert the analog signal into an equivalent digital signal.
This article describes the process of ADC. It introduces the topic and describes the operation of two of the most common methods of accomplishing ADC: the successive approximation ADC and the flash ADC. The sampling theorem is stated and proved, aliasing is described, and quantization noise is discussed. Oversampling is described, and the resultant improvements in ADC performance are documented.
Then delta‐sigma ADCs are introduced and described. Conventional first‐order and second‐order delta‐sigma ADCs are described and evaluated. Performance comparisons among simple oversampling, first‐order delta‐sigma, and second‐order delta‐sigma ADCs are documented. The article concludes with an example of a higher order delta‐sigma ADC performance evaluation.
Anesthesia Machines
Authors: Roca-Dorda Joaquin , Álvarez-Gômez José , Roca-González Joaquín , Jiménez-Martínez Jacinto , Gil-Sánchez Francisco J. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract

Since the introduction of general anesthesia in 1846, surgical procedures may be carried out while the patient remains insensitive to pain and other external stimuli. As with many other manufactured products, the machines used for anesthesia have changed as technology developed within the industrial and military fields. In this sense, it is easy to understand that modern anesthesia machines include accurate electronic sensors, complex embedded computers, and high‐precision mechanic elements in order to ease the operative procedures to the anesthesiologists and, at the same time, grant the security of the patient. Although anesthesia has been generally described as the part of the medical profession that ensures that the patient remains insensitive to pain and other stimuli during surgical operations, the currently accepted role for the anesthesiologist includes all of the procedures that have to be performed to offer a completely balanced anesthesia. For this purpose, the anesthetic equipment used in many operating rooms includes the machines required for the delivery of vaporized and intravenous agents in order to allow the proper sedation method for each patient and surgical procedure. This chapter will try to provide an operationally centered review of the different elements such as the gas supply system, the gas mixing subsystem, the vaporizer for inhaled agents, the mechanical ventilator, the breathing circuit of the patient, the absorber of CO
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removal, the infusion pumps required for intravenous anesthesia, and the monitoring subsystem for patient and equipment supervision.