bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reforming Early Retirement in Europe, Japan and the USA
Authors: Ebbinghaus Bernhard 
Published: September 2006

AbstractSince the 1970s, early exit from work has become a major challenge in modern welfare states. Governments, employers, and unions alike once thought of early retirement as a peaceful solution to the economic problems of mass unemployment and industrial restructuring. Today, governments and international organizations advocate the postponement of retirement and an increase in activity among older workers. Comparing eight European countries, the USA, and Japan, this book demonstrates significant cross-national differences in early retirement across countries and over time. The study evaluates the impact of major variations in welfare regimes, production systems, and labor relations. It stresses the importance of the ‘pull factor’ of extensive welfare state provisions, particularly in Continental Europe; the ‘push factor’ of labor shedding strategies by firms, particularly in Anglo-American market economies; and the role of employers and worker representatives in negotiating retirement policies, particularly in coordinated market economies. Over the last three decades, early retirement has become a popular social policy and employment practice in the workplace, adding to the fiscal crises and employment problems of today’s welfare states. Attempts to reverse early retirement policies have led to major reform debates. Unilateral government policies to cut back on social benefits have not had the expected employment results due to resistance from employers, workers, and their organizations. Successful reforms require the cooperation of both sides. This study provides comprehensive empirical analyses and a balanced approach to both the pull and the push factors needed to understand the development of early retirement regimes.
Chapter 4 Ever Earlier Retirement: Comparing Employment Trajectories
Authors: Ebbinghaus Bernhard 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe chapter analyzes the main trends and cross-national variations in early exit from work for eight European countries, Japan, and the USA. Participation levels and employment rates of older workers between age 55 and 64 have declined. Cohort-adjusted early exit rates for both men and women show not only a rise in early retirement over the 1970s and early 1980s, but also substantial cross-national differences. Early exit from work is widespread in Continental Europe, less so in Scandinavia, Anglophone market economies, and in Japan.
Chapter 6 The Production‐Push Factors: The Political Economy of Labor Shedding
Authors: Ebbinghaus Bernhard 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter analyzes the economic ‘push’ factors that lead to early exit from work. Some firms co-sponsor early retirement via occupational pensions in order to facilitate restructuring. Deindustrialization, mass unemployment, and privatization have increased structural push, with early exit spreading widely across sectors. Two varieties of capitalism can be observed: early exit is used by firms to adapt to regulated labor markets in Continental coordinated market economies, it is more cyclical and infrequent in Anglophone flexible labor markets, while Japan and Sweden are exceptional cases that integrate older workers.
Putnam's Model‐Theoretic Arguments
Authors: Taylor Barry 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter sets out the relevant core of Putnam’s case. Section 3.1 extracts three arguments from Putnam’s writings: the Arguments from Cardinality, Completeness, and Permutation. Of these, section 3.2 argues that only the second is of direct relevance. Section 3.3 examines attempts to frame constraints based on causal and psycho-behavioural reductions of reference. Section 3.4 investigates the Translational Reference Constraint (TRC), a constraint on reference which does not rely on a reduction of reference but makes essential use of translation (from object language to metalanguage) to sort out the models which get reference right. The claims made in this section, however, require foundation in a theory of translation, sufficient to sustain the assumptions it makes about that controversial and opaque notion. This foundation is supplied in section 3.5, whose general tenor is Davidsonian, its key notion being that of a ‘hermeneutic theory’, i.e., a Davidsonian theory of interpretation cast into model-theoretic terms. With Translational Truth Constraint (TTC) now identified as the most fundamental constraint on intendedness, it remains to see if it will suffice to rule out as unintended all the models of ideal theory whose existence the Completeness Theorem guarantees. The issue is examined in section 3.6.
Formal Theories of Truth and Putnam's ‘Common‐sense Realism’
Authors: Taylor Barry 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter discusses formal theories of truth: the redundancy theory and its ilk, distinguished by the attempt to characterize truth in terms of its structural properties, in the context of the position adopted by Putnam in his John Dewey Lectures, here styled ‘Common-sense Realism’. This position is described, combining two principles called the Thesis of the Internality (according to which the elements of a representational system are internally related to their content) and the Thesis of World-Embeddedness (which holds that content is dependent on the world in a more than causal way), with a formal account of truth. It is argued that Common-sense Realism, along with all theories comprising a formal account of truth, should be committed to the flames, because they are cut off from exploiting the Fregean model of meaning, based on a recursion on truth.
Becoming a Subject
Authors: Cavell Marcia 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This book revolves around the theme that psychological space demands physical space; that the inner world is embedded in, and fabricated from, interactions between world and mind. The following themes in moral philosophy are considered: the nature of the ‘subject’, agency, free will, and self-knowledge. The first three chapters of the book focus on memory, anxiety, and time. The next three chapters are explicitly about the subject, and about first-person, propositional thought. The final chapters articulate the idea that one cannot hive off the subjective aspects of a person from those that are objective.
The Anxious Animal
Authors: Cavell Marcia 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the philosophical and psychoanalytic accounts of anxiety. The changes in Freud’s thinking about anxiety are summarized, followed by a fuller discussion of signal anxiety. In his early work, Freud understood anxiety in terms of his energic model of the mind: anxiety is what happens to libido when it is repressed: first repression, then anxiety as the transformation of libido under repression. He announces a fundamental change in his paper, Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety: that repression does not cause anxiety; rather, anxiety causes repression. Actual anxiety is an automatic, inborn response to an external danger, like a battle or a train accident in my earlier examples; signal anxiety is a response that anticipates danger on the basis of past experience; it is learned.
Keeping Time: Remembering, Repeating, and Working Through
Authors: Cavell Marcia 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter discusses Freud’s thoughts about memory and the inter-related concepts of remembering, repeating, and working through. Freud believes that the present mind contains the past, though often in unrecognizable form. Remembering — unlike its avoidance, repetition — allows for working through: clarifying, and integrating into the fabric of the mind, something previously warded off. The concepts of repression, remembering, repetition, working through, transference, and mourning together draw a conceptual map that Freud continually refined.
Triangulation: The Social Character of Thought
Authors: Cavell Marcia 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the intersubjectivist position: the view that a creature develops the capacity for thinking in a specifically human way only in community. It introduces the concepts of normativity and the necessity of a real, shared world in which a triangulating relationship can take place, to give an idea of the space in which thought arises. It then considers triangulation in psychological studies of infant-child engagements.
II Experience and causation
Authors: Gaskin Richard 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMcDowell’s appeal to causation is problematic. In order to make sense of causal relations linking world and experience (or judgement), he has to identify a species of causation that is in the space of reasons — causation that not only brings about, but also rationalizes its effects. But he does not elucidate this notion. In effect, he simply asserts that there is such a species and that there is a place for second nature (nature structured by relations of normativity) in a world otherwise permeated by first nature (nature structured by nomological relations). Mere assertion is not a substitute for an account of what space-of-reasons causation (second nature) is and how it is possible. We need to know how space-of-reasons causation (second nature) relates to and emerged from realm-of-law causation (first nature).
IV The mental lives of infants and animals
Authors: Gaskin Richard 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMcDowell’s individualism and intellectualism about the ‘order of justification’ commits him to taking an unattractive line on infant and animal consciousness: he has to deny that infants and non-human animals have contentful experience. He allows that they have perceptual sensitivity to their environments, arguing that this sensitivity — though in the same genus as our experience — is of a different species. However, he does nothing to justify the ‘same genus’ thesis, and a number of his concomitant claims makes that thesis problematic for him. It is argued that infants and animals can benefit from our conceptual capacities in order to enjoy contentful experiences. We should ascribe to infants and animals fully conscious experience of things of certain sorts, transcendentally constituted by our powers of designation and classification.
Clement of Alexandria and the Beginnings of Christian Apophaticism
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Apophatic theology claims that God is unknowable, and this book investigates the earliest stages of Christian apophaticism. It focuses on the writings of Clement of Alexandria (around AD 200): his view of language and esotericism, various aspects of his concept of God, his Logos-theology as well as his epistemology in relation to God. Clement holds that God is unknowable. God’s unknowability, however, concerns only his essence, not his energies, or powers. The traditional view today is that the distinction between essence and energies is first developed by the Cappadocian Fathers in the late 4th century. It is the author’s claim, however, that an apophatic view of God as well as the distinction between essence and energies can already be found in Clement. In order to understand better Clement’s theological priorities and emphases, his social, religious, and philosophical milieu in ancient Alexandria is also taken into consideration. In addition, Clement’s thinking is seen against the background of Middle Platonism and its concept of God.
2 Clement: Christian Writer in Second‐Century Alexandria
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The first part of this chapter deals with the social, cultural, and religious aspects of the city of Alexandria around 200 AD. The second part discusses the origins of the Christian Church in Alexandria, including the catechetical school. The third part traces what is known of Clement’s life, works, and audience.
5 Clement's Concept of God (I): The Apophatic Essence of the Father
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
It is central to Clement’s concept of God that God cannot be expressed by man since he is above both human speech and human thought, is ineffable, and transcendent. Clement applies different solutions to this dilemma: one is his use of alpha privatives, another his use of paradox and indirect language.
6 Clement's Concept of God (II): The Son as Logos
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Clement’s Logos-theology concerns the function, status, and role of the Son in relation to the Father. On the one hand, it emphasizes the Son’s peculiar or paradoxical position as being distinct from the One as the knowable One-Many; and united with the One, on the other. Questions related to his pre-existence, generation, and divinity are also discussed.
8 Apophaticism and the Distinction between Essence and Power
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Clement’s model for a distinction between God’s essence and his powers or energies is presented. Clement’s emphasis is on unknowability versus knowability — God as essence is unknowable, God as the Son, or as his power, is knowable. It is argued that the distinction is structurally equivalent with, and anticipates, the dogma of the distinction between God’s essence and energies that became so important in later Orthodox theology.
9 Concluding Remarks
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Clement’s solution to the problem of the relationship between the knowable and the unknowable aspects of God is seen in a wider perspective. How and why, for centuries, Clement was seen as doctrinally suspect is discussed. It is also claimed that his importance in the development of theology lies in his coupling of apophaticism with a distinction between essence and energies, anticipating the later dogma of the Orthodox Church.
Stability with Growth
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This book discusses the current debates on macroeconomics, capital market liberalization, and development, and develops a new framework within which one can assess alternative policies. The authors share the belief that the Washington consensus has advocated for narrow goals for development (with a focus on price stability), prescribed too few policy instruments (emphasizing monetary and fiscal policies), and places unwarranted faith in the role of markets. The new framework focuses on real stability and long-term sustainable and equitable growth, offers a variety of non-standard ways to stabilize the economy and promote growth, and accepts that market imperfections necessitate government interventions. Economists have traditionally divided their field into macroeconomics and microeconomics, with macroeconomics further divided into stabilization policy and growth. Since most policy discussions and much of the assignment of institutional responsibilities have followed these divisions, policy-makers have pursued stabilization goals with little concern for growth consequences, while trying to increase growth through structural reforms focused on improving economic efficiency. Moreover, structural policies, such as capital market liberalization, have had major consequences for economic stability. This book challenges these divisions by arguing that stabilization policy has important consequences for long-term growth and has often been implemented with adverse consequences. The first part of the book introduces the key questions and looks at the objectives of economic policy from different perspectives. The second part examines the central issues of macroeconomics, presenting an analysis of economic models and policy perspectives on stabilization from conservative, Keynesian, and heterodox perspectives. The third part presents a similar analysis for capital market liberalization (CML).
Introducing the Key Questions
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter introduces the book and lays out the key questions of macroeconomic policy. Economists differ greatly in their views and policy prescriptions. All economic policies, though, have trade-offs. Policy choices come with risks, and the risks involve different beneficiaries and victims. Political processes play a key role in macroeconomic policy just as they do in most arenas of economic decision-making. If there were no alternative policies, or if one approach were best for everyone, then we could leave the design of economic policy to domestic and international technocrats and bureaucrats. But there are always alternatives and trade-offs so choices are political in nature and cannot be left to technocrats.
Three Perspectives on Policy
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak 
Published: September 2006

AbstractDespite progress in economic science, important disagreements remain about the conduct of macroeconomic policy. This chapter identifies three broad policy positions (‘conservative’ or ‘neoclassical’, ‘standard Keynesian’, and ‘heterodox’) and looks at the theory and evidence behind each. The approaches differ not only on what they focus, but also in their assumptions concerning the structure and behavior of the economy and the behavior of government. The conservative approach focuses on inflation and deficits, which it attempts to address through tight monetary and restrictive fiscal policy. The standard Keynesian approach is more concerned with unemployment and stagnation, which it attempts to address through expansionary monetary and fiscal policy. The heterodox approach looks for non-standard ways (including the use of microeconomic interventions) to stabilize the economy, stimulate growth and employment, and contain inflation.
Is Macroeconomics Different in Developing Countries?
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThough macroeconomics was developed for developed countries, developing countries often use this corpus of knowledge — with its competing schools of thought — without any significant modification. It is by no means clear that applying these theories to developing countries is either justified or appropriate. This chapter examines the differences in macroeconomic policy between developing and developed countries. The basic macroeconomic aggregates: output, employment, and inflation are, of course, the same for both developed and developing economies. So too are the basic identities and equilibrium conditions: savings must still equal investment, output must equal income, and aggregate demand is the sum of consumption, investment, government expenditures, and net exports. However, systematic differences between the economies of developed and developing countries and between developing countries themselves, such as the relative effectiveness of macroeconomic tools, give rise to large variation in economic outcomes and policy choices.
Policy Instruments from Three Perspectives: Fiscal and Monetary Policy
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the use of fiscal and monetary policies (including an analysis of the macroeconomic dimensions of prudential regulations) for a closed economy by contrasting Keynesian, heterodox, and conservative perspectives on the effectiveness of various instruments and their ancillary effects. While conservatives believe that fiscal policy is ineffective due to offsetting actions, standard Keynesians believe that government expenditures have a multiplier effect, and heterodox economists believe there may also be a financial accelerator if firms are cash or credit constrained. Similarly, while conservative economists believe that deficit spending maybe be counterproductive and can lead to crowding out and a loss of investor confidence, heterodox and Keynesians believe that there may be crowding in and that a strong economy builds investor confidence. The disagreements extend to views of monetary policy as well where conservatives believe that monetary policy is largely ineffective, Keynesians believe that monetary policy is an important tool in macroeconomic management, and heterodox economists emphasize that credit, and not the money supply, matters for the level of economic activity. Finally, heterodox economists have also designed ways to use prudential regulations as a tool for macroeconomic policy.
Exchange Rate Management and Micro Tools for Macro-Management
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter looks at exchange rate management and other policy options for an open economy. It begins with an introductory discussion of overall macroeconomic management for open economies, including the issues of internal and external balance and inflation targeting. It then examines how countries can attempt to manage the exchange rate. Topics covered in this section include the benefits of maintaining an undervalued exchange rate in some developing countries, government interventions to smooth out exchange rate fluctuations, and the trade-off between stability and flexibility when choosing an exchange rate regime. The chapter concludes with an analysis of other policy options in open economies, including heterodox microeconomic interventions, public sector liability management, and debt restructuring.
Policy Frameworks
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThis chapter discusses three issues — accounting frameworks, risk and uncertainty, and the political economy — that have been largely overlooked by the mainstream ‘conservative’ and ‘Keynesian’ perspectives. The first section examines accounting frameworks; this is the lens used to ascertain whether an economy is likely to overheat or slip into recession. We find that widely used accounting frameworks, such as accounting for GDP, often provide misleading information and bear some responsibility for poor economic advice and performance. The chapter next considers how the issues of risk, uncertainty, and information imperfections are at the center of macroeconomic analysis. Risk is always prevalent in an economy, and policies often have unintended consequences. As a result, economists and policy-makers must subject policy decisions to a risk assessment, and should also be responsive to new information. The final section of this chapter looks at the political economy and institutional frameworks within which policy decisions are made.
A Formal Approach: Capital Market Failures
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak 
Published: September 2006

AbstractUnderlying the failure of CML was an overly simple model that assumed efficient and complete markets. There are, however, problems with externalities and weak or absent insurance markets, especially in developing countries, that these models did not consider. This chapter focuses on major categories of ‘market failures’. It examines the direct externalities associated with capital flows, and looks at how capital market liberalization can exacerbate the problems posed by coordination failures and broader macroeconomic failures. It also looks at the effect of imperfect information on investor behavior and the market failures associated with capital markets. It concludes with a discussion of the major objectives of government intervention.