bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
DNA Mechanics and Statistical Mechanics
Authors: Strick Terence , Allemand Jean‐François , Bensimon David , Croquette Vincent 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The elastic properties of DNA are essential for its biological function. They control its bending and twisting as well as the induction of structural modifications in the molecule. These can affect its interaction with the cell machinery. The response of a single DNA molecule to a mechanical stress can be precisely determined in single‐molecule experiments that give access to accurate measurements of the elastic parameters of DNA.
Fatty Acid Oxidation Disorders
Authors: Tyni Tiina , Turnbull Douglass M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation is a major energy‐providing pathway during fasting and prolonged exercise in man and a number of inherited disorders affecting this metabolic pathway are known. Defects of mitochondrial β‐oxidation typically cause severe crises associated with low blood glucose (hypoglycaemia) during infancy and childhood and are also a relatively frequent cause of muscle diseases and cardiac muscle disease. It is essential to recognize this group of disorders because of therapeutic and prenatal diagnostic opportunities.
Neuroimmunology
Authors: Antel Jack P , Owens Trevor 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Neuroimmunology is the study of the interaction between the immune system and the nervous system. Entry and function of immune mediators into the central nervous system are dependent on specific molecule‐mediated communication between the two systems occurring at the level of the blood–brain barrier and within the brain parenchyma. Immune surveillance does occur within the central nervous system, protecting the host from infectious agents. An activated immune response within the central nervous system can have the dual roles of effecting tissue injury or contributing to neural protection and recovery from injury.
X‐ray Diffraction at Synchrotron Light Sources
Authors: Helliwell John R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The elucidation of biological structure and function for macromolecules and their complexes is undertaken extensively using X‐ray diffraction. Synchrotron X‐radiation is widely used, due to its exceptional X‐ray brilliance and tunability properties, in protein crystallography, fibre diffraction and solution scattering.
Mass Spectrometry: Peptide Sequencing
Authors: Watson J Throck 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Electrospray and MALDI (matrix‐assisted laser desorption ionization) are two versions of desorption/ionization that allow modern mass spectrometry to be applied to the analysis of peptides and proteins. In addition to a direct indication of the molecular weight, the sequence of amino acids in a peptide can be deduced from the fragmentation pattern (the mass spectrum itself).
RNA
Structural Motifs
Authors: Tung Chang‐Shung 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Chemically, ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a close cousin of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). RNA is, however, involved in a wide range of cellular activities (e.g. translating genetic information, serving as a structural scaffold, catalysing biological reactions) that often require the molecule to fold into a very specific structure for the purpose of performing its targeted function. Structurally and functionally, it is therefore more closely related to proteins.
Hammerhead Ribozymes
Authors: Rossi John R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The hammerhead ribozyme is an RNA‐cleaving, RNA enzyme, derived from single‐stranded RNA viroids, and virusoids, which infect flowering plants. Engineering of hammerhead ribozymes allows these RNA catalysts to be utilized for cleaving virtually any RNA target of choice, thus making them useful tools for both genetic and therapeutic applications.
Deep Ocean Ecosystems
Authors: Canganella Francesco , Kato Chiaki 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The term ‘deep ocean’ typically describes any marine ecosystem located at depths greater than 500 metres. This environment is characterized by an elevated hydrostatic pressure, an average temperature of 2–4°C, the absence of sunlight, and the scarce availability of organic food. Specific organisms are associated with the deepest areas, and pressure‐adapted animals as well as microorganisms inhabit these peculiar ecosystems.
Shallow Seas Ecosystems
Authors: Bianconi Giovanna 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Shallow seas are defined as marginal or inland extensions of ocean with average depths of about 200 m. They are also called coastal or neritic waters, and described as those lying landward of 200 m depth. Their contour is known as the continental shelf, and their seaward margin is known as the continental edge, which separates shallow waters from the deep ocean. The area of shallow seas accounts for 7.5% of the oceans, 18% of the land above the sea level, and 3% of the Earth's surface.
Global Change – The Future and the Greenhouse Effect
Authors: Doney Scott C , Schimel David 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Human activities are causing a significant build‐up of greenhouse gases (e.g. carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide) and aerosols in the atmosphere, which is modulated in part by the land biosphere and ocean. Model projections for the next century suggest that these changes in atmospheric composition will result in substantial global warming and strengthening of the hydrological cycle, with possibly profound impacts on terrestrial and marine ecosystems.
Human Disease: Effects of Economic Development
Authors: Powles John , McMichael Anthony 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Economic and technical development since palaeolithic times has had both favourable and unfavourable effects on the burden of disease and injury in human populations. Pre‐modern agrarian populations with universal early marriage probably experienced the least favourable survival patterns and health levels. Over the last couple of centuries, the favourable effects of economic development on health have dramatically outweighed the unfavourable. However, some important unfavourable effects remain to be solved.
Alpine Ecosystems
Authors: Körner Christian 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Of all land area of the globe (about 151 million km
2
), the alpine life zone covers around 3% or 4.5 million km
2
, which is one‐third less than the area of the vegetated arctic life zone of North America and Eurasia (largely tundra). The alpine life zone (just as the arctic life zone) is treeless, hence its lower boundary is the climatic, high elevation treeline. Its upper boundary is the upper limit of plant life. Both these boundaries are fragmented and represent gradual transition zones. The alpine zone covers a suite of ecosystems (e.g. grass and shrub heathlands), microhabitats (e.g. rock crevices and springs) and isolated outposts of life.
History of Hookworm
Authors: Power Helen J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The history of hookworm is concerned with early incidence of the disease; discovery of hookworms and their role in disease; realization of public health implications; the mode of transmission and life cycle; differentiation of the two species of intestinal nematodes,
Ancylostoma duodenale
and
Necator americanus
; and the Rockefeller campaign against the disease.
Philosophy of Ecology
Authors: Taylor Peter J , Haila Yrjö 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A key challenge in conceptualizing ecological complexity is to allow simultaneously for particularity, contingency and structure – structure, moreover, that changes, is internally differentiated, and has problematic boundaries. Given that all organisms live in dynamic ecological contexts, philosophy of ecology raises more general questions about conceptualizing the positionality of humans and other organisms in their intersecting worlds.
Brugada Syndrome
Authors: Brugada Pedro , Brugada Ramon , Brugada Josep 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The
Brugada syndrome
is a hereditary disease causing sudden cardiac death in apparently healthy individuals with a structurally normal heart. The disease is caused by mutations in the cardiac sodium channel gene
SCN5A
, which result in abnormal electrocardiographic findings. When left untreated, or treated with presently available antiarrhythmic drugs, patients with Brugada syndrome have a high mortality rate (approximately 10% per year). At present, the only effective treatment to prevent sudden death is the implantable defibrillator.
Digestive System of Invertebrates
Authors: Fankboner Peter V 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Digestion by invertebrates is nominally in two phases: extracellular breakdown of food followed by intracellular digestion; protist invertebrates digest foodstuffs by intracellular means. Invertebrate digestion differs from that of vertebrates in that the former lacks digestive glands opening into the hindgut.
Parent–Offspring and Sibling Conflict
Authors: Kilner Rebecca M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Parent–offspring conflict arises when the optimal level of parental care that offspring would choose to receive exceeds the optimal level of parental care that a parent would prefer to provide. For example, when a parent is identically related to the members of its brood, it may prefer to divide resources equally among its young. By contrast, the individual offspring value their own well being more highly than their siblings and so should try to take a disproportionate share of food. By taking resources from their siblings, individual offspring can additionally cause sibling conflict.
Poales (Grasses)
Authors: Jacobs Surrey WL , Wilson Karen L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Poales include the well‐known and economically important grass family (Gramineae), the well‐known sedge family (Cyperaceae), the colourful bromeliads (Bromeliaceae) and several less well‐known families of plants. All belong to the group of flowering plants known as the monocotyledons.
Gentianales (Coffees, Dogbanes, Gentians and Milkweeds)
Authors: Struwe Lena 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The angiosperm order Gentianales includes the Apocynaceae (dogbanes and milkweeds), Gelsemiaceae, Gentianaceae (gentians), Loganiaceae (strychnine plants) and Rubiaceae (coffee and madder plants). They are found worldwide in most climates, but are most abundant in the tropics.
Dipsacales (Honeysuckle)
Authors: Backlund Anders 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The plant order Dipsacales comprises about 2000 species belonging to the eight core families Adoxaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Collumelliaceae, Diervillaceae, Dipsacaceae, Linnaeceae, Morinaceae and Valerianaceae. It includes many ornamental plants such as honeysuckle and weigela.
Transformation of Competent Bacterial Cells: Electroporation
Authors: Anthony R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Electroporation has become a valuable technique for the transfer of DNA into eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. It is currently the most efficient means of transferring DNA, with efficiencies 20 times higher than obtained with maximally competent cells prepared with calcium chloride (CaCl
2
). Chemical transformation using CaCl
2
is generally used for routine transformation when the DNA sample is not limiting. Electroporation is particularly useful in applications where high transformation efficiencies are specifically required. In essence, fast growing cells are centrifuged and washed in ice‐cold water. They are placed in a cuvette with the DNA and a high‐voltage pulse is applied. Cells are then plated out and selected for on agar.
Long‐range PCR
Authors: Wilton S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been used extensively in the amplification of DNA fragments where there is a general size preference for products less than 1000 bp. Larger products may be synthesized at low or inefficient levels and then normally after considerable effort in reaction optimization. While
Taq
DNA polymerase has remained the thermostable polymerase of choice for most PCRs, this enzyme is not efficient in the amplification of large DNA fragments. This limitation is thought to be due to the error‐prone nature of the
Taq
polymerase, whereby those transcripts that end in an error (a misincorporated base) are not efficiently reinitiated and extended. The combination of two thermostable DNA polymerases such as
Taq
and another enzyme with superior editing (proof‐reading) ability minimizes misincorporation and facilitates the amplification of long (reportedly over 40 kb) PCR products.
Separation of RNA and DNA in Methylmercuric Hydroxide Denaturing Agarose Gels
Authors: Southern Edwin M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
RNA molecules tend to aggregate in solution and adopt a range of conformations that can affect the mobility of molecules. In addition, nuclease nicks are often not revealed by nondenaturing electrophoresis. For this reason, it is often preferable to separate nucleic acids as denatured molecules. The use of gels containing millimolar amounts of methylmercuric (II) hydroxide as the denaturing agent is described. Heating and other operations must be carried out in an efficient fume hood because methylmercury (II) hydroxide is extremely poisonous, and it should be used and disposed of in accordance with the supplier's instructions.
Genetic Screening and Testing
Authors: Rowley Peter T , Saller Devereux N , Shapiro Robert E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Genetic screening is the systematic search in a population for individuals with a particular genetic disease or genotypes. The usual purpose is to detect persons who themselves are at risk or whose offspring are at risk for a genetic disease or a genetically determined susceptibility to an environmental agent. Genetic testing is performed to determine the genotype of an individual suspected of having a mutation because of suggestive clinical features or a genetic relationship to a person known to have the genetic abnormality in question.
Prostate Cancer
Authors: Evans Christopher P , Busby J Erik 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The prostate is a walnut‐sized gland located between the bladder and external urinary sphincter through which the urethra passes. The primary function of the prostate is to produce the fluid that accompanies the ejaculate; hence, it is important in reproduction. Adenocarcinoma of the prostate is the fourth most commonly diagnosed cancer in men worldwide.
Ageing Genes: Gerontogenes
Authors: Rattan Suresh IS 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The idea of gerontogenes is in line with the evolutionary explanation of the ageing process as being caused by the absence of maintenance and repair, rather than an active, evolutionarily selected process. The term ‘gerontogenes’, therefore, refers to an altered state of those genes that influence ageing and longevity.
Ribosomal Proteins in Eukaryotes
Authors: Bommer Ulrich‐Axel , Stahl Joachim 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
About 80 different ribosomal proteins are involved in the biogenesis and functioning of eukaryotic ribosomes. Genome sequencing efforts have contributed to our knowledge on their evolution, and recent progress in the structural analysis of the ribosome has considerably improved our understanding of the localization and function of individual ribosomal proteins, some of which are also involved in extraribosomal functions.
Glycolysis Regulation
Authors: Lopaschuk Gary D , Dyck Jason RB 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Glycolysis provides an important source of energy for most cells as well as a source of substrate for a number of other metabolic pathways. Its regulation is complex, involving allosteric control, phosphorylation control and transcriptional control of glycolytic enzymes. Modulation of fructose 2,6‐bisphosphate has emerged as one of the key sites at which glycolysis is controlled.
Iron Cofactors: Nonhaem
Authors: Fox Brian G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Proteins and enzymes with nonhaem iron centres display many functions: metal centres with primarily sulfur ligation are involved in electron transfer, electrophilic activation of hydroxyl groups, regulation of gene expression and fixation of N
2
; mononuclear and diiron centres with oxygen and nitrogen ligation have roles in various reactions with O
2
and in hydrolysis. The principles of their mechanisms of action are beginning to emerge from the considerable experimental data obtained on these proteins. Future research will attempt to extend this mechanistic understanding and to manipulate the enzymes to extend their already substantial catalytic capabilities.
Termination of Replication in Bacteria
Authors: Duggin Iain G , Wilce Jackie A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

In the case of a circular bacterial chromosome, termination of DNA replication occurs when the two replication forks, progressing in opposite directions, meet and fuse in a specific region of the chromosome, which is generally diametrically opposed to the site of initiation of DNA replication. Most research has focused on the systems utilized by the rod‐shaped Gram‐negative
Escherichia coli
and Gram‐positive
Bacillus subtilis
.
Uric Acid Metabolism
Authors: Skinner Kelly A , Parks Dale A , Khoo Nicholas H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Nitrogenous compounds are continuously derived from digestion of proteins in ingested food, degradation of nucleic acids, purine salvage pathways,
de novo
purine biosynthesis, and purine nucleotide interconversion. Nitrogenous waste products are highly toxic; therefore, efficient mechanisms of elimination have evolved, that are optimally suited for the particular class of organism. All animals excrete three main nitrogenous products – ammonia, urea and uric acid – as well as minor nitrogen excretory products.
RecA Protein
Authors: Bianco Piero R , Kowalczykowski Stephen C 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe RecA protein ofEscherichia coliis the prototypic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) strand exchange protein. It assembles on single‐stranded DNA to form a helical nucleoprotein filament that is the active species for all RecA protein‐dependent functions. This protein–DNA complex is responsible for three mutually exclusive functions: DNA recombination, induction of the DNA‐damage SOS response and SOS‐induced mutagenesis.
Gluconeogenesis
Authors: Wallace John C , Barritt Greg J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The gluconeogenic pathway, which is found in the liver and kidney, involves the synthesis of glucose from three‐carbon precursors such as lactate, alanine and glycerol. The main function of gluconeogenesis is to supply glucose to tissues, such as the brain and red blood cells, that depend on glucose as their main or sole energy source.
Eukaryotic Ribosomes: Assembly
Authors: Raué Hendrik A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Eukaryotic ribosomes contain one copy of each of four different RNA species and about 80 different proteins. These components are assembled into ribosomal subunits in an ordered manner as the precursor ribosomal RNA is processed into the mature form. Pre‐rRNA processing and assembly takes place largely in the nucleolus with later stages occurring in the nucleoplasm and finally the cytoplasm. It requires numerous accessory factors, including a large number of small nucleolar ribonucleoprotein particles (snoRNPs).
Apoptosis: Morphological Criteria and Other Assays
Authors: Gobé Glenda , Harmon Brian 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Apoptosis is a morphologically and biochemically distinct mode of cell death that uses the cell's own genetic control for death to occur. It is central to many normal physiological processes such as morphogenesis, homeostasis and differentiation and, in disease, ‘apoptosis’ is responsible for loss of functioning tissue as well as the control of proliferation in disorders such as neoplasias and cancers.
Antibody Classes
Authors: Wingren Christer , Alkner Ulf , Hansson Ulla‐Britt 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin family. The immunoglobulins have a common four‐chain structure (two identical light chains and two identical heavy chains) and they can be divided into different classes (and subclasses) according to the isotype of the heavy chain. The heavy chain isotype will confer different structural and functional properties on each antibody class, so that each isotype will occupy a specific site in the body and have a specific role to play in the immune system.
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
Authors: Penn Dustin J , Ilmonen Petteri 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) contains the most diverse genes known in vertebrates, the class I and II loci. These highly polymorphic genes encode cell surface receptors that play a central role in controlling immunological self/nonself recognition, and subsequently, tissue rejection, autoimmunity and immune responses to infectious diseases. The polymorphisms of MHC genes have been maintained by natural selection over long periods of evolutionary time.
Immunological Synapse
Authors: Valitutti Salvatore , Espagnolle Nicolas 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The immunological synapse is a specialized signalling domain formed at the contact site between cells of the immune system characterized by large‐scale clustering and segregation of surface molecules and intracellular signalling components. The molecular dynamics taking place at the immunological synapse is the manifestation of a sustained and elaborate cell–cell information transfer.
T Lymphocytes: Regulatory
Authors: Fehervari Zoltan , Sakaguchi Shimon 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Regulatory T cells play a central role in the immune system by potently controlling the responses of other immunocytes. Their activity appears to be essential not only for the maintenance of immunological tolerance but also in the control of all physiological immune responses whether against normal self proteins, microbes or cancerous cells.
Plasma Cells
Authors: Minges Wols Heather A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Plasma cells are terminally differentiated B lymphocytes that provide protective immunity through the continuous secretion of antibodies. Antibody‐secreting cells develop in secondary lymphoid tissue following antigen stimulation and may enter a short‐lived plasma cell population that reside primarily in the nonlymphoid area of the spleen or lymph nodes, or instead may migrate to the bone marrow where the majority enter a long‐lived population of plasma cells.
Bird Song: Steroid Hormones and Plasticity
Authors: Wade Juli 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In many species of birds, males sing to court females and to defend territories or nest sites, whereas females sing little, if at all. This behavioural sex difference is paralleled by sexual dimorphisms in neural and peripheral structures involved in song production. In adulthood, singing is generally activated by gonadal steroids, such as testosterone, but the role that these hormones play in the natural development of the structural and functional sex differences is at present an intriguing mystery.
Nervous and Immune System Interactions
Authors: Dunn Adrian J 
Published: September 2006

AbstractSeveral mechanisms by which the nervous and immune systems might interact have now been recognized. The nervous system may affect immune function via direct innervation of immune organs and by secretion of hormones from the pituitary and other endocrine organs. Conversely, cells of the immune system may influence nervous system function by secretion of a variety of chemical messengers, among which cytokines are the best recognized. Also, although classically the brain was considered ‘immunologically privileged’, it is now recognized that cells of the immune system may be active in the brain, and that this may be an important factor in many central nervous system (CNS) diseases.