bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
What Happens to the Fatigue Limit of Bearing Steel Without Nonmetallic Inclusions? : Fatigue Strength of Electron Beam Remelted Super Clean Bearing Steel
Authors: Murakami Y , Toriyama T , Tsubota K , Furumura K 
Published: March 2009

This paper has two objectives. The first is to propose a new inclusion rating method based on statistics of extreme. The new inclusion rating method is applied to the evaluation of inclusions contained in two super clean bearing steels with a total oxygen level of 5ppm and 8ppm.
The second objective is to investigate the critical lower bound of inclusion size which influences the fatigue limit. For this purpose, a special steel with extremely low inclusion content, the electron beam remelted super clean bearing steel(EB-CHR), was prepared. It is shown that by decreasing the size of inclusions, the detrimental effect of inhomogeneities larger in size than inclusions, becomes more important. The small inhomogeneity is thought to be a local imperfectly heat- treated structure, bainite.
Aapplication of Continuous Casting Steel 100CR6 (SAE 52 100) for Bearing Balls
Authors: Stahl F , Hirsch T , Mayr P 
Published: March 2009

The objective of the investigation was to study the feasi-bility of applying continuous casting steel 100Cr6 (SAE 52100) for bearing balls. It was found that two of three continuous casted steel batches have longer or at least similar rolling contact fatigue lifetimes comparec to one ingot casted batch. For one of the continuous casted batches, the rolling contact fatigue lifetime was 30% less.
The micro- and macrostructure and the residual stresses below the surface of the balls were comparable. There is also no obvious difference between the four batches in the metallurgical parameters like contents of oxygen, titanium and sulphur as well as in the distribution of carbides and their network.
The reason for the shorter lifetime of one batch finally was found to be due not to the continuous casting process itself. There was a difference in the cross section of the different casting moulds, and by this in the speed of solidification. As a consequence an increased segregation of alloying elements was observed. So the primary carbides of this batch were of bigger size and higher amounts have been detected within a larger cross section of the bloom. Finally the inferior distribution and size of carbides in the layers of maximum equivalent stress below the surface were found to be crack initiation points. The reduced lifetime of one batch therefore could be correlated to these metallurgical differences.
It has been demonstrated that bearing balls made from continuous casted steel 100Cr6 (SAE 52100) have similar or better rolling contact fatigue lifetime than bearing balls made from ingot casted material. However, it is necessary to have minimal amounts of micro- and macro-inclusions as well as a homogeneous distribution of carbides, particularly in the main segregation areas. For that reason, the steel quality of every type of continuous casting machine has to be evaluated separately.
Case-hardening Medium Carbon Steel for Tough and Long Life Bearing under Severe Lubrication Conditions
Authors: Furumura K , Murakami Y , Abe T 
Published: March 2009

It is known these days that case-hardening bearings have a longer life than through-hardening ones under severe lubrication conditions (i.e. mixing-in of foreign particles in the lubrication oil). To explain this fact, we first presented the mechanism of stress relaxation at the debris dent edge [1]. According to test results, it was found that both retained austenite and hardness are the most important factors for a longer life material.
Such material has a longer life even under boundary lubrication conditions. Since a sufficient EHL oil film does not form under boundary lubrication conditions, metal contact occurs. The resulting damage is called “peeling” and it decreases the bearing life.
To realize ideal case hardening material for bearings, a new carbo-nitride heat treatment has been developed. Normally, it is extremely difficult to obtain a sufficient case depth using a traditional carbo-nitride heat treatment process. As an alternate, medium carbon steel was studied. The application of newly developed medium carbon steel has not only proved to make the creation of a sufficient case depth easier, but also provided economic benefits. Based on results from testing both the dimensional stability and fracture toughness, newly developed medium carbon steel can be used for case-hardening bearings.
Development of CSS-421™, A High Performance Carburizing Stainless Steel for High Temperature Aerospace Applications
Authors: Burrier HI , Tomasello CM , Balliett SA , Maloney JL , Milam DL , Ogden WP 
Published: March 2009

Today's aerospace engineering challenges demand materials which can operate under conditions of temperature extremes, high loads and harsh, corrosive environments. This paper presents a technical overview of the on-going development of CSS-42L™ (US Patent #5,424,028) [1]. This alloy is a case — carburizable, stainless steel alloy suitable for use in applications up to 427°C (800°F), particularly suited to high performance rolling element bearings, gears, shafts and fasteners.
The nominal chemistry of CSS-42L™ includes: (by weight) 0.12% carbon, 14.0% chromium, 0.60% vanadium, 2.0% nickel, 4.75% molybdenum and 12.5% cobalt. Careful balancing of these components combined with VIM-VAR melting produces an alloy that can be carburized and heat treated to achieve a high surface hardness (&gt; 58 HRC at 1mm (0.040 in) depth) with excellent corrosion resistance. The hot hardness of the carburized case is equal to or better than all competitive grades, exceeding 60 HRC at 427°C (800°F). The fracture toughness and impact resistance of the heat treated core material have likewise been evaluated in detail and found to be better than M50-NiL steel. The corrosion resistance has been shown to be equivalent to that of 440C steel in tests performed to date.
Metallurgical and Tribological Evaluation of 32CrMoV13 Deep Nitrided Steel and XD15N™ High Nitrogen Martensitic Steel for Aerospace Applications
Authors: Pichard I , Girodin D , Dudragne G , Moraux J-Y 
Published: March 2009

Aerospace bearing applications are increasingly required to operate under very severe operational conditions in terms of speed, load, temperature and environment. Reliability is also required for safety concerns.
Therefore, each bearing application is carefully designed and the bearing steel selected to withstand these conditions.
To meet these requirements, deep nitriding of 32CrMoV13 steel and a new nitrogen martensitic steel have been developed.
The material properties of these steels in relation with manufacturing processes are presented and compared with usual steels.
The new steels provide in their respective coverage, better rolling contact fatigue life, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.
Further characterizations are still in progress.
Laser Glazed Bearings
Authors: Hetzner DW 
Published: March 2009

In the past decade high power, reliable, carbon dioxide lasers have become commercially available. Laser glazing is a process in which a focused laser beam is used to melt a very small portion of a component. As the beam moves away from the melted region, the underlying mass of the component causes the liquid pool to rapidly solidify. A major advantage of laser glazing is that the refined structure is only created in areas where high load carrying capacity is required
Initially rods manufactured from BG 42 and M 50 steels were laser glazed. Laser glazing transformed the normal, fine grain, martensitic steel matrix into a very fine dendritic microstructure. The carbides in the laser glazed material were greatly reduced in size due to very rapid solidification. Using a standard ball / rod rolling contact fatigue tester, enhanced rolling contact fatigue life was realized from the laser glazing process.
LM 12749 tapered roller bearing cones were fabricated from M 50 high speed steel and laser glazed. At 200% catalog load, the L15.9% life of the laser glazed M 50 bearings was 370% greater than the wrought cones. Similarly, when tested at 300% catalog load, the laser glazed bearings had L15.9% life 580% greater than the wrought cones.
Laser processing has been applied to 440 C stainless steel. In this alloy similar reduction in the size and distribution of large chromium carbides was achieved. The glazed 440 C was approximately 20 Knoop hardness points higher than the wrought alloy. Examples and properties of glazed microstructures in ball bearings and other alloy systems are discussed.
Evaluation of the Genotoxicity of Bioaccumulatable Contaminants in Sediments Using Co-Solvent Mobilization
Authors: Means JC , McMillin DJ 
Published: March 2009

Sediment toxicity assessments must address bioaccumulation potential of bound contaminants. This potential has been associated with the desorption of chemicals including many mutagens and carcinogens from sediment into interstitial waters. Environmental impacts and health hazards of sediment-bound normal, alkylated and heterocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are functions of their entry into food webs, the activation of promutagens, and bioaccumulation processes. Activation phenomena occurring in benthic organisms may generate genotoxic agents not extractable with non-polar solvents used for chemical analysis.
Co-solvent theory was applied to prepare aqueous-based extracts from petroleum contaminated sediments from Pass Fourchon, LA. Co-solvent solubilization of contaminants is thermodynamically related to partition coefficients which govern bioavailability to benthic organisms. Sediments were extracted into acetic acid co-solvent mixtures (0, 10, 20, and 50 %, in seawater) and mutagens mobilized into the extracts were detected by the Salmonella typhimurium mutagenicity assay with and without activation. Direct-acting mutagens were mobilized at all co-solvent concentrations, causing reversions in strain TA102, but not in TA97a, TA98, or TA100. Promutagens were detectable in all extracts after activation with Arochlor-induced rat liver S9. Increasing co-solvent strength seemed to suppress the extraction of water soluble mutagens but enhanced the extraction of lipophilic mutagens. Differing sensitivities were noted among the tester strains, with TA102 being most sensitive and TA98 showing no response to the mutagens. Mutagenicity varied among co-solvent concentrations, perhaps reflecting the mobilization of different arrays of compounds. Chemical analysis of co-solvent extracts by GC/MS yielded identifications of possible mutagenic constituents.
Development of Suitable Test Methods for Evaluating the Toxicity of Contaminated Soils to a Battery of Plant Species Relevant to Soil Environments in Canada
Authors: Stephenson GL , Solomon KR , Hale B , Greenberg BM , Scroggins RP 
Published: March 2009

Environment Canada and the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) have embarked on a five year program to develop, standardize, and validate a battery of soil toxicity tests which can be used to assess the relative toxicity of contaminants in soils to terrestrial organisms. These tests must be applicable to soil conditions typically found in Canadian environments and the test species must be representative of the species of soil invertebrates or plants inhabiting soil ecosystems in Canada. Two of the tests being considered for development are a seed germination test and a seedling growth test using whole soils. The battery of plant species that is being considered for testing includes thirteen species representing six dicotyledonous families and 17 species representing two monocotyledonous families. The species of plants with one exception (Arabidopsis sp.) are representative of both above- and below-ground crop plants grown in agricultural lands across Canada, as well as non-crop plants that are also widely distributed in Canada. One of the objectives of the project is to screen 30 plant species and select ten species that are suitable for toxicity assessment of contaminated soils.
In addition to selection of the most appropriate test species, research has focused on test method development. Comparison of toxicity test endpoints from reference tests permitted the assessment of the variation associated with each endpoint (root length, stem length, wet and dry mass of stem and root) for each species tested to date. The tests were performed using boric acid as the reference toxicant and an artificial soil and a fieldcollected reference soil as control soils. The methods and results from toxicity tests have been summarized and presented with recommendations regarding test species, methods, endpoints, and conditions.
A Wall and Edge Guarded Hot Box for Thermal Transmittance Measurements
Authors: Gatland SD , Goss WP , Baumgardner RL , Williams RG , Miller RG 
Published: March 2009

A unique guarded hot box designed for thermal testing of fenestration products incorporates several new design concepts from guarded hot plates, namely wall and edge guards, is described in detail. The wall and edge guarded hot box was built to meet the test methodologies specified in the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standard Test Methods C 236-89 [1], “Standard Test Method for Measuring the Steady-State Thermal Performance of Building Assemblies by Means of a Guarded Hot Box”, C 976-90 [2], “Standard Test Method for Measuring the Steady-State Thermal Performance of Building Assemblies by Means of a Calibrated Hot Box” and C 1199-91 [3], “Standard Test Method for Measuring the Steady-State Thermal Transmittance of Fenestration Systems Using Hot Box Methods”.
Calibration test results for the box wall and specimen frame flanking are presented. Results from calibration transfer standard tests are compared with theoretical calculations and discussed.
Thermal Conductivity Dependence of Mgo Thermal Insulation on Porosity in Temperature Range 500 – 2000 K
Authors: Litovsky E , Litovsky T , Shapiro M , Shavit A 
Published: March 2009

Thermal conductivity of MgO (magnesia) foam thermal insulation with porosity 0.49–0.81 have been measured by the non-steady plane flow method in the temperature range of 500–2000 K at atmospheric pressure. We have demonstrated a significant influence of porosity on the apparent thermal conductivity of MgO insulating materials in the temperature range 500–1500 K. Materials with porosities exceeding 0.75, have relatively low radiation attenuation coefficients. This results in a relatively large contribution to the radiative component of the apparent thermal conductivity. For such materials this property measured at temperatures above 1700 K weakly depends on porosity.
The measured apparent thermal conductivities are analyzed on the basis of a theoretical model, accounting for total material porosity and particle size distribution. We discuss the suitability of the data on particle and pore size distributions, measurable by various experimental methods, for calculation of the apparent thermal conductivity.
Pesticide Formulations and Application Systems: Fourteenth Volume
Authors: Hall FR , Berger PD , Collins HM 
Published: March 2009

Description
The latest edition featuring up to date information on pesticide applications, formulation techniques, innovations in the agrochemical field and related current government agricultural regulations.
In addition to a comprehensive twenty-year historical review of the ASTM Committee E-35 on Pesticides, this publication features twenty-eight peer-reviewed papers divided into the following three categories:
Pesticide Application Technology and Off-Target Effects-- Ten papers focus on different aspects of pesticide application technology, including spray cloud characteristics,electrostatics and a practical tank mixing evaluation procedure, as well as the impact of drift and evaporation of pesticide sprays, pesticide container regulations and recycling.
Formulation Technology-- Polymers, varying surfactants, water soluble and water dispersible granules are explored in seven papers.
Formulation Modifications and Biological Effects-- Eleven papers deal with the biological impact of formulation changes such as stability and pH effects, adhesion, and numerous controlled release technologies.
Vision—An Essential Factor for Safety in Skiing: Visual Acuity, Stereoscopic Depth Perception, Effect of Colored Lenses
Authors: Jendrusch G , Senner V , Schaff P , Heck H 
Published: March 2009

Surveys undertaken at the evaluation center for skiing accidents run by a German sports insurance company show that approximately 80% of all skiing accidents are due to observation errors, perception errors or inattentiveness in conjunction with skiing errors. Therefore, the efficiency of the eyes plays a vital role in skiing. Between 1995 and 1996 the following investigations were carried out into aspects of visual and perceptive acuity on the ski slopes: • Registration of the eyesight of leisure-time skiers. • Tests on the influence of visual acuity on the ability to recognize potential danger spots on the slope. • Tests on the influence of different color filters on eyesight (laboratory tests) and perceptive acuity on the ski runs (field tests).
Results: In 28.8% of the skiers tested optical correction of visual acuity was needed. The skiers were tested under those conditions in which they are skiing. In stereoscopic depth perception, which is also of great importance, for example, in assessing distances, deficits were present in 19.7% of the skiers tested. Approximately 39.7% of the tested skiers wear either glasses or contact lenses in daily life. However, only about 65.5% of them wear these on the slopes, too. Visual acuity and depth perception have a crucial influence on the ability to recognize potential danger spots on a ski slope. With a reduction in visual acuity, recognition was found to undergo a clear-cut decrease, with potential danger spots being recognized less efficiently and at a later time. An improvement in visual power through filters of various colors was recorded only in unfavorable light conditions and poor visibility (dim light, shade, fog, etc.). On average, more danger spots were distinctly recognized with yellow goggles than with colorless filters.
Warm-Up Efficacy in Alpine Conditions
Authors: Whelan K , Gass E , Moran C 
Published: March 2009

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a warm-up program designed for downhill skiing, performed on the snow, did in fact “warm-up” the body.
Eight recreational skiers were randomly allocated and participated in both the experimental (warm-up followed by skiing for 90 min) and control conditions (skiing for 90 min). Measures of rectal (Tre) and skin temperature (Tsk), heart rate (HR), and flexibility were taken. The main analyses used were planned contrasts on repeated measures ANOVA.
Participation in the warm-up program resulted in significant increases in: Tre (df = 1,6; F = 8.196; p = 0.0076); HR (df = 1,7; F = 32.972; p = 0.0001); and flexibility (df = 1,6; F = 10.145; p = 0.0034) when compared to the control condition. These findings demonstrate that the program was effective in warming up the body.
ACL Injury Mechanism in Alpine Skiing: Analysis of an Accidental ACL Rupture
Authors: Barone M , Senner V , Schaff P 
Published: March 2009

Knee injuries in alpine skiing, especially the rupture of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), are still the leading indication for surgical treatment. The boot-induced anterior drawer (BIAD) caused by the backward fall is one of the possible injury mechanisms.
We investigated the landing of approximately 250 jumps to collect data for a computer model of the BIAD. During our experiments one test subject suffered an ACL rupture of his right knee. This accidental event was recorded on video for later 2D motion analysis. Furthermore, the muscle activity of four muscles (vastus medialis and lateralis, biceps femoris and semitendinosus) was registered for both lower extremities during this event. Seven more subjects were analyzed under identical experimental conditions, thus representing an adequate reference group.
The results of the 2D motion analysis will be presented and compared to the results of the reference group. Further, the registered EMG signal of the injured subject will be illustrated and discussed in relation to a reference subject.
Our observations allow the conclusion that during landing situations different kinematics besides those described for the BIAD, in combination with certain muscular conditions, may lead to an ACL rupture.
A Review and Update of Advancements in Clean Cast Steel Technology
Authors: Blair M , Monroe RW , Griffin JA 
Published: March 2009

The Steel Founders' Society of America Quality Assurance Task Force identified oxide macroinclusions as a universal problem experienced by users of steel castings. SFSA along with the Department of Commerce and the Department of Energy have sponsored research directed at reducing the occurrence of macroinclusions in steel castings. The Clean Cast Steel Technology program has investigated melting practice, pouring practice, gating practice, ladle treatment, and special devices such as filtration and analog simulation of mold pouring and filling.
In-plant trials have demonstrated a dramatic improvement in casting quality with submerged pouring of steel castings. Research is currently underway in optimizing foundry melting practice to reduce macroinclusions. A 30–50% reduction in macroinclusion occurrence has been observed in production castings at the foundries participating in the trials. Analog simulation and in-plant trials of pouring practices have demonstrated that poor gating practice can increase air entrainment and oxide inclusions. Ladle treatments such as calcium wire injection has been demonstrated in plant trials to significantly reduce oxide defects in steel castings. Experiments have been conducted at participating foundries to examine the benefits of filtration on casting quality. Filtration has been shown to reduce rework and scrap by 70% in some cases.
Cyclic Cabinet Corrosion Testing
Authors: Haynes GS 
Published: March 2009

Description
Provides essential information on corrosion mechanisms in accelerated tests and service environments, and guidance on determining acceleration factors with the appropriate corrosion mechanisms. The unifying theme throughout is the use of cyclic cabinet corrosion tests for determining the comparative corrosion resistance of various materials.
Ten peer-reviewed papers cover:
• Mechanisms of corrosion in cyclic cabinet tests
• Fundamental testing principles related to these mechanisms
• An AISI and SAE study for ranking the cosmetic corrosion resistance of automotive steel sheet products
• Detailed statistical analysis of the results for ten different materials in cyclic cabinet tests, ground tests, outdoor exposure, and on-vehicle exposure
• Performance of coated and uncoated aluminum alloys for heat exchanger applications.
• Also clearly documents the failure of the widely-used salt spray test to predict actual service in a number of environments. Alternative test procedures are described and correlated with service performance.