bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Echocardiography and Doppler Echocardiography
Authors: Rahko Peter S. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Echocardiography is a diagnostic technique that uses ultrasound (high frequency sound) to produce an image of the heart in real time. The comprehensive echocardiographic exam uses multiple imaging formats to evaluate the heart. These include direct imaging of the heart with M‐mode, two‐dimensional, and three‐dimensional formats and direct interrogation of blood flow through cardiac chambers and across valves with pulsed Doppler, continuous wave Doppler, and color flow Doppler.
Echocardiographic transducers may be placed in multiple locations on the chest wall to obtain different views of the heart and also, using specialized devices, inside the esophagus and stomach and inside the heart mounted on special catheters that allow interrogation using a miniaturized transducer.
To achieve usable information the reflected ultrasound signal is intensively processed after it is detected in the transducer. Modern transducers have upward of 256 transmit and receive elements that process the ultrasound signal. The reflected ultrasound signal is manipulated in multiple selective ways to best display the wide range of cardiac anatomy and motion encountered in the exam. Similarly, several different techniques of processing are used to display and quantify Doppler analysis of blood flow.
Data from the echocardiographic exam is used to quantify anatomic size and shape of cardiac chambers, diagnose changes in cardiac structure characteristics of different kinds of cardiac disease, evaluate functional performance of the heart as a pump, characterize normal and abnormal anatomy, motion, and blood flow characteristics of heart valves, and determine the presence of various other abnormalities in and around the heart such as collections of fluid, blood clots, tumors, or areas of calcification.
Echocardiography is a powerful diagnostic tool that safely and noninvasively evaluates the heart.
Electroanalgesia, Systemic
Authors: Limoge Aime , Stanley Ted 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Electroanalgesia, electroanesthesia, neurostimulation, neuromodulation, and other physical methods of producing analgesia, anesthesia, and/or decreased sensitivity to painful stimuli are old concepts that are beginning to be revitalized in the recent past. For > 40 years, there has been a revival of electrotherapy in the treatment of pain. Analgesia by electrical current is now based on transcutaneous or percutaneous nerve stimulation, deep stimulation, posterior spinal cords stimulation, and transcutaneous cranial electrical stimulation. One reason for this has been the increased awareness of spinal and supraspinal opioid analgesic mechanisms, including the precise pathways, receptors, and neurotransmitters involved in pain perception, recognition, modulation, and blockade. Another reason is the renewed belief that nonpharmacological manipulation of these receptors and transmitters should be possible with electricity since numerous progress have been made in the development of electric current waveforms that result in significant potentiation of the analgesic and hypnotics action of many intravenous and inhaled anesthetics without producing significant side effects. Finally, recent successes of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) in the treatment of pain and transcutaneous cranial electrical stimulation (TCES) as a supplement during anesthesia to obtain postoperative analgesia by potentiating the anesthetic agents used during the intra‐ and postoperative phases. The popularity of electroacupuncture in a variety of pain and pain related areas have focused the attention of investigators and the public on electricity as a beneficial medical therapy. In this article, some of the most recent developments in nerve and brain stimulatory techniques using electrical stimulation to produce analgesia are addressed.
Electroconvulsive Therapy
Authors: Foust Milton J. , George Mark S. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractElectroconvulsive therapy (ECT) was introduced for the first time as a technique for treating psychiatric disorders in 1938. It is an effective treatment for mood disorders and can be used for a number of other conditions including schizoaffective disorder and schizophrenia, especially when these conditions are accompanied by prominent disturbances in mood. The modern technique of ECT consists of brief‐pulse square‐wave alternating current cranial stimulation under general anesthesia with muscle relaxation, oxygenation, and continuous cardiac, blood pressure, oxygen, electromyographic, and electroencephalographic monitoring. The rate of successful acute treatment is high, and serious side effects are uncommon. Areas for further research include combined treatment with ECT and medication as well as new forms of electromagnetic brain stimulation such as repeated transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), magnetic seizure therapy (MST), and vagus nerve stimulation (VNS).
Electrogastrogram
Authors: Chen DZ , Lin Zhiyue 
Published: April 2006

AbstractElectrogastrogram (EGG), the cutaneous recording of the myoelectrical activity of the stomach using surface electrodes, is attractive due to its noninvasive nature and its correlation with gastric motility. After a slow evolution since its first measurement in 1921, EGG has received more and more attention among investigators and clinicians in the past two decades. Electrogastrogram has become an attractive tool to study the electrophysiology of the stomach and pathophysiology of gastric motility disorders. Numerous studies have reported normal EGG patterns in healthy subjects. A higher prevalence of abnormal EGG patterns, such as gastric dysrhythmias, has been reported in patients with gastrointestinal motility disorders, such as gastroparesis and symptoms of nausea and vomiting. The clinical use of EGG as a diagnostic tool for the assessment of gastrointestinal motility disorders is being explored. Now EGG techniques are becoming increasingly standardized with commercially available hardware–software package. This article covers the following topics: a brief historic review of EGG, basics of gastric myoelectrical activity, measurement and analysis of EGG including multichannel EGG, interpretation of EGG, parameters, clinical applications of EGG, and future development of EGG.
Electromyography
Authors: De Luca Carlo 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
This article provides a rational basis for understanding and using the Electromyographic signal (EMG), the electrical signal that emanates from a contracting muscle. It begins with a brief historical account. It then progresses to a description of the origin and the construct of the EMG signal. A model for the motor unit action potential, the most fundamental electrical unit of the EMG signal, is synthesized and used to derive mathematical expressions for the EMG signal. Applications of the EMG signal for measuring the performance of the muscle are presented. The numerous biochemical, anatomical, geometrical, and physiological factors that influence the characteristics of the EMG signal are described. This influence must be understood and considered when interpreting the EMG signal for a specific use. This is followed by a discussion on the various electrodes (sensors) that can be used to detect the EMG signal, and the relative advantages and disadvantages of each. Characteristics of the electronic equipment for amplifying the signal are provided. Finally, there is a discussion on the common parameters that can be used to extract useful information from the EMG signal.
Electrosurgical Unit (ESU)
Authors: Pearce John 
Published: April 2006

Abstract“Electrosurgery” means the application of radio frequency (RF) current at frequencies between about 300 kHz and 5 MHz to achieve a desired surgical result; typically, the fusion of tissues or surgical cutting in which the tissue structure is disrupted. The effect is achieved by heating tissues with RF current by resistive dissipation. Controlled application of heat to precisely defined tissue volumes is attained by careful design of the electrodes. Heating and resulting irreversible thermal alterations in tissues may be studied in numerical models as well as experimentally. As with any energy source, there are hazards of use which must be managed by careful technique.
Exercise Stress Testing
Authors: Chen Henry , Froehlicher Victor 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Exercise can be considered the most practical test of cardiac perfusion and function. Exercise testing is a noninvasive tool to evaluate the cardiovascular system’s response to exercise under carefully controlled conditions. Its main uses center around the diagnosis of coronary artery disease and the estimation of prognosis in a wide range of conditions. While there are important technological considerations and the need to be very knowledgable of the guidelines to insure its proper application, exercise testing remains one of the most widely used and valuable noninvasive tools to assess cardiovascular status.
Eye Movement, Measurement Techniques for
Authors: Borah Joshua 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe terms eye movement measurement, eye tracking, and oculogragphy refer to measurement of the orientation and motion of the eye, either with respect to the head, or with respect to the visual environment. This may include not only rotations of the eye that cause changes in gaze direction, but also rotations of the eyeball about the line of sight, called ocular torsion.Eye movement measurement devices have long been used for research in reading, various aspects of visual perception and cognition, neurology, human factors, and marketing. In recent years, practical uses have expanded to include as computer usability research, communication devices for the disabled, sports and gait research, Lasik surgery instrumentation, and research requiring simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging (f MRI) measurement.The eye movement measurement techniques currently in most frequent use fall into the major categories of magnetic search coil, a technique that measures magnetically induced current in a tiny wire coil fastened to the eye; electro oculography, which uses surface electrodes to measure the direction of an electrical potential between the cornea and retina; and optical techniques that rely on optical sensors to detect the position or motion of features on the eye. The optical technique category includes many subtypes, and has the largest variety of different systems in current use.Background theory and system descriptions are presented for eye movement measurement devices in all of the above categories.
Flame Atomic Emission Spectrometry and Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
Authors: Lyon Andrew W. , Lyon Martha E. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Observation in the 1700s that candlelight changed color when different materials were introduced into a flame prompted studies that revealed that elements emit characteristic colors of light that consist of line spectra. Kirchhoff’s laws of Spectroscopy were established in the late 1800s and describe both emission and absorption of light. The observation that atoms of each element can emit and absorb light at specific wavelengths is a fundamental property of matter that rapidly became an analytical tool and contributed to development of structural models of the atom. The theoretical basis and instrument components used for flame emission spectrometry (also called flame photometry) and flame and flameless atomic absorption spectroscopy are described with general comments on sensitivity and susceptibility to chemical, spectral, ionization and matrix interferences. Modern instruments that use flame, electrothermal (or flameless) or inductively coupled plasma designs are flexible, reliable and sensitive and are used in reference laboratories to assess the concentration of trace elements and heavy metals in biological fluids to support medical diagnosis and treatment.
Functional Electrical Stimulation
Authors: Venkatasubramanian Ganapriya , Jung Ranu , Sweeney James D. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractFunctional electrical stimulation (FES) is a rehabilitative technique where low level electrical voltages and currents are applied to an individual in order to improve or restore function lost to injury or disease. In its broadest definition, FES includes electrical stimulation technologies that, for example, are aimed at restoration of a sense of hearing for the deaf, vision for the blind, or suppression of seizures in epilepsy or tremors for people with Parkinson's disease. Most FES devices and systems are known then as “neuroprostheses” because through electrical stimulation they artificially modulate the excitability of neural tissue in order to restore function. While sometimes used synonymously with FES, the term functional neuromuscular stimulation (FNS) is most commonly used to describe only those FES technologies that are applied to the neuromuscular system in order to improve quality of life for people disabled by stroke, spinal cord injury, or other neurological conditions that result in impaired motor function (e.g., the abilities to move or breathe). Another technology closely related to FES is that of therapeutic electrical stimulation (TES), wherein electrical stimulation is applied to provide healing or recovery of tissues (e.g., muscle conditioning and strengthening, wound healing). As will be seen, some FES and FNS technologies concurrently provide or rely upon such therapeutic effects in order to successfully restore lost function. For illustrative purposes, much of this article is centered on FNS and related TES devices and technologies.
Gas and Vacuum Systems, Centrally Piped Medical
Authors: Klein Burton 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
This article is intended to give readers a brief look at how and why centrally piped medical gas and vacuum systems were developed, how they operate, what hazards they pose, what standards have been developed to mitigate hazards as well as to standardize operation, and why maintenance of these systems is very important. In a sense, medical gas and vacuum systems are a reflection, in part, of how the practice of medicine has changed over the past 60–70 years: Both systems have become more complex and sophisticated in order to meet and treat more serious illnesses.
Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage
Authors: Britt R.C. , Britt L.D. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Gastrointestinal (GI) hemorrhage is a common medical problem, with significant associated morbidity and mortality. Management of GI hemorrhage involves a multidisciplinary approach, including gastroenterologists, surgeons, radiologists, intensivists, and primary care physicians. The three major categories of GI hemorrhage include variceal hemorrhage, nonvariceal upper GI hemorrhage, and lower GI hemorrhage. Initial management includes placement of large‐bore intravenous access for aggressive resuscitation with isotonic fluid, as well as a comprehensive history and physical exam to elicit the source of the bleeding. If the bleeding is felt to be from an upper GI source, early endoscopy is beneficial for both diagnosis and management of the bleeding source. Modalities useful in the management of upper GI bleeding include endoscopic thermal and injection therapy, angiography, pharmacologic therapy, and surgery for recalcitrant bleeding. Diagnostic modalities for lower GI bleeding include nuclear medicine scanning, angiography, and endoscopy. Therapeutic options include endoscopy, angiography, and surgery.
Glucose Sensors
Authors: Rahaghi Farbod N. , Gough David A. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Glucose monitoring is essential for the effective treatment of diabetes. Present monitoring approaches based on sample collection are the foundation of self‐care, but require user initiative and are typically not repeated frequently enough to follow blood glucose dynamics. Continuous glucose sensors that are convenient and acceptable to users would make possible several new approaches to treatment of the disease. Development of continuous glucose sensors has proven to be a substantial challenge, but there are now promising candidate sensors nearing clinical introduction.
Heart–Lung Machines
Authors: D’Alessandro David , Michler Robert 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe heart‐lung machine is perhaps the most important contribution to the advancement of surgery in the last century. This apparatus was designed to perform the functions of both the human heart and the lungs allowing surgeons to suspend normal circulation to repair defects in the heart. The development of a clinically safe and useful machine was the rate‐limiting step to the development of modern cardiac surgery. Since its inception, the heart‐lung machine has enabled the surgical treatment of congenital heart defects, coronary heart disease, valvular heart disease, and end‐stage heart disease with heart transplantation and mechanical assist devices or artificial hearts.The heart‐lung machine consists of several components that together make up a circuit that diverts blood away from the heart and lungs and returns oxygenated blood to the body. Commercial investment and production of these components has resulted in wide variability in the design of each, but the overall concept is preserved. During an operation, a medical specialist known as a perfusionist operates the heart‐lung machine. The role of the perfusionist is to maintain the circuit, adjust the flow as necessary, prevent air and particulate emboli from entering the circulation, and maintain the various components of the blood within physiologic parameters.
Heat and Cold, Therapeutic
Authors: Dyson Mary 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Bone cement has been widely used in orthopedic surgeries since Sir John Charnley first introduced the self‐curing bone cement for the fixation of artificial joints in 1958. Several important aspects of material characteristics of bone cement, including its material compositions, short‐ and long‐term mechanical properties are discussed in this article. This article aims to provide comprehensive information for the orthopedic community on cement applications.
The rationale underlying the use of therapeutic heat (thermotherapy) and cold (cryotherapy) is based on their physiological effects. Heating the tissues by a few degrees centigrade increases tissue metabolism, relieves pain, and accelerates the healing process. Other effects of therapeutic heat include increased joint mobility, vasodiltation, and increased muscle tone. Cooling the tissues by a few degrees centigrade limits secondary damage to soft tissues, nerves, and the brain after trauma. Other effects of therapeutic cold, which should ideally be applied as soon as possible after trauma, include relief of pain, reduction of acute inflammation, decreased joint mobility, and decreased muscle tone. The application of cold, to reduce the extent of damage, may be followed by the application of heat, to accelerate healing.
There are many methods of applying therapeutic heat and cold. Selection of the most appropriate depends on several factors, including the location of the injury, the depth of penetration of the modality, the dimensions of the area to be treated, the ease of application, the duration of application, cost, and convenience. The choice of modality is frequently limited by contraindications.

To use thermotherapy and cryotherapy effectively, the clinician should know:

The physiological effects of heat and cold

What devices are available to produce temperature changes

How they work

When and when not to use them

Their advantages and disadvantages

This article provides this information following a brief description of the history of these therapies.
Hemodynamics
Authors: Segers Patrick , Verdonck Pascal 
Published: April 2006

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to provide the reader with an overview of both established and newer methods and techniques for the analysis of cardiac and arterial function, and heart‐arterial coupling. The focus of the cardiac function analysis is on pressure‐volume loop based methodologies, but some attention is paid to daily in‐hospital practices where volume measurements are commonly unavailable. The major characteristics of the coronary circulation are described. Arterial function analysis includes impedance analysis, and touches both the conceptual ‘lumped parameter’ view of the arterial system, as well as the analysis of pressure and flow waves in terms of forward and backward waves. Indices such as the augmentation index or pulse wave velocity, now commonly referred to as ‘pulse wave analysis’ are also dealt with. The chapter also includes the wave intensity analysis, a more recent time‐domain method to study arterial pressure and flow waves. Heart‐arterial coupling, finally, includes a description of the E
a
−E
max
(arterial elastance‐ventricular elastance) framework, as well as a more model‐based approach of heart‐arterial interaction.
Home Health Care Devices
Authors: Tamura Toshiyo 
Published: April 2006

AbstractVarious monitoring devices for home healthcare and telecare have been proposed and developed, and some of them are commercially available. For home healthcare, there are many opportunities for applying exiting sensor technologies that are also simple to operate. In addition, some of them do not require the sensor to be attached to the body and some offer fully automatic monitoring. This article focuses on recent developments in home healthcare devices.
Human Factors in Medical Devices
Authors: Repperger Daniel W. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractIn this article, we initially discuss human factors as defined by the FDA followed by three classic case studies. The ramifications of legal issues are then presented. Concurrent good human factors methods are then described, followed by some key topic areas including alarms, labeling, automation, and reporting. Future issues regarding human factors and medical devices are subsequently offered with conclusions and future directions of this field depicted.First, it is instructive to review the present state of affairs on how the FDA defines human factors engineering within the context of when humans interact with medical devices. The term human factors engineering is a persuasive term in the literature describing present FDA standards.
Hyperbaric Medicine
Authors: Persons Barbara L. , Collins Beth , Lineaweaver William C. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractHyperbaric medicine involves using monoplace or multiplace hyperbaric chambers to deliver systemic oxygen under pressure to treat a number of medical conditions. The Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society approves the use of hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) for the following medical conditions: acute decompression illness, gas embolism, carbon monoxide poisioning, cyanide poisioning, clostridial gas gangrene and necrotizing soft tissue infections, compromised skin grafts and skin flaps, crush injury compartment syndrome and other acute traumatic ischemias, radiation tissue damage, refractory osteomyelitis, and selected problem wounds, acute exceptional blood loss anemia, acute thermal burns, and intracranial abscess. HBO use in treating these conditions is supported by controlled medical trials published in major peer‐reviewed journals and, as such, is evidence‐based. Numerous other experimental uses exist for HBO, such as for cardiac ischemia and for stroke, but these other uses have not yet been sufficiently proven to be beneficial. The effect of HBO is a result of the manifold increase in solubolized oxygen under pressure and its complex physiologic effects and, as such, is completely different from administering 100% oxygen at 1 Atmosphere. These affects include improving immune cell functioning and angiogenesis. More specific details of the history, physics, physiology, and function of HBO will be discussed as well as details of hyperbaric chamber facility design and safety.