bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Imaging, Picturing, and Scaling
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractResemblance comes in, not when we are answering the question — What is representation? — but rather when we address How does this or that representation represent, and how does it succeed? The various modes of representation here distinguished include imaging, picturing, and scaling. Imaging is representation that is effected through resemblance; picturing is imaging that carries the hallmarks of perspectivity. Mathematical representation of nature includes much imagery, and has so far always involved some features that, in retrospect, with hindsight, were seen as necessary failures in resemblance. Such representations can fall short through idealization, but can also achieve their success through systematic distortion.
Measurement as Representation: 2. Information
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThere is more to measurement than its physical correlate. A broad concept of measurement must accommodate both the constraints on its physical correlate and its function of information gathering, which requires that the measurement outcome is an event that has meaning. Measurement is itself a specific form of self-location, in a logical space. Topics discussed include measurement and number-assigning, scale as logical space, data models, and surface models. As long as we consider what happens in measurement purely from the theoretical point of view, the only criteria are theory-internal. The criteria of adequacy cannot go beyond coherence. That is why the theoretical point of view remains empty unless the problem of coordination is also faced and taken into account. To understand how theoretical parameters become coordinated, the historical process in which measurement procedures and theory evolve together have to be looked into, in a thoroughly entangled way. Nor can this evolution start in anything but prior meaningful discourse relating to what eventually will be delineated as the theory's domain.
6 A Longer‐Run View of the Earnings Distribution: The Great Compression and the Golden Age
Authors: Atkinson A. B. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter examines the long run earnings data of five OECD countries: Canada, France, Germany, the United States, and the United Kingdom. It shows that the Anglo-Saxon countries have all seen large rises and falls in the deciles. Generalizations about the time path of change do not necessarily hold universally, but there appear to be three distinct phases in the pre-1980 period, which exhibit common features in several — but not all — of the five countries studied: compression of the earnings distribution in the 1930s and 1940s; rise in the top decile of the earnings distribution during the Golden Age from 1950 to the mid-1960s (with the exception of Germany), accompanied in some cases by falls in the bottom decile or lower quartile, and a ‘tilt’ at the very top; and narrowing of the distribution in the late 1960s and 1970s (stability of top decile in United States and Germany).
8 A Behavioural Model of Change in Differentials: The ‘Fanning Out’ at the Top of the Earnings Distribution
Authors: Atkinson A. B. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter considers a behavioural model of changes in differentials, directed particularly at explaining the fanning out of the upper part of the earnings distribution. It suggests that changes may be observed in the extent to which earnings are governed by pay norms — changes corresponding to a switch from a redistributive norm to one where people are paid on their individual productivity, or vice versa. An external shock causes an abrupt reversal of direction and convergence to a new equilibrium. This could be caused by a change in the political climate, shifting the degree of conformity with the social norm, which is then magnified as more people change their behaviour. It could be caused by a change in the capital market, as where firms become more short term in their outlook, and less willing to invest in establishing a reputation.
9 Superstars and Pyramids: Two Complementary Explanations for Changes in Top Earnings
Authors: Atkinson A. B. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter considers the explanation of top earnings that has received much recent attention: the superstar theory. Here, trade and technology have a clear role in expanding the reach of the most talented, and make the earnings gradient steeper. It argues that the superstar explanation should be complemented by a model of salaries in hierarchical organizations. Such a theory, where earnings depend on position in a pyramidal organization, cannot be enough on its own either.
Note 3 Superstars and Pyramids
Authors: Atkinson A. B. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This note describes the model of top earnings presented in Chapter 9. The model is a combination of superstar and hierarchical explanations. In the case of the superstar theory, there is no direct link to a functional form for the resulting distribution. At the same time, the ‘winner take all’ nature of the model suggests that it can be regarded as an extreme value process. The distribution of earnings in this case is given by the maximum values generated by the results of many separate ‘competitions’. If attention is limited to those values exceeding some specified threshold, then for a sufficiently high threshold the distribution function takes on the generalized Pareto form which has a Pareto upper tail.
H Germany
Authors: Atkinson A. B. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter presents tables of data on Germany and an account of its increased earnings distribution. It shows that there has been a widening of earnings dispersion and a fanning out at the top. The existence for Germany of data for the late 1920s and 1930s allows an insight into a period, and a political experience (the rise of the Nazi dictatorship), whose distributional consequences have been little studied.
I Hungary
Authors: Atkinson A. B. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter presents tables of data on Hungary and an account of its increased earnings distribution. It shows that the degree of earnings dispersion went through several cycles, with a widening of differentials registered during the economic reform period. The changes were, however, moderate compared with those after 1989 when there was a significant fall in the bottom decile relative to the median, and a large rise in the top decile, which formed part of a fanning out of the upper part of the distribution.
P Portugal
Authors: Atkinson A. B. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter presents tables of data on Portugal and an account of its increased earnings distribution. The top earnings shares show no sign of a compression from 1936 to 1950, but there was a very definite fall in the decade following 1968. Over the period from 1982 to 2002, the bottom decile rose and then fell, but the top percentiles rose steadily. The decile ratio rose by more than a third, and there was an evident fanning-out in the upper part of the distribution.
S United Kingdom
Authors: Atkinson A. B. 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter presents tables of data on the United Kingdom and an account of its increased earnings distribution. It shows that there is evidence of widening dispersion from the mid 1950s to the mid-1960s. There was narrowing of the deciles from the late-1960s to 1977, with a large rise in the bottom decile. The bottom decile fell from 1977 to the end of the 1980s, after which it has stabilized, along with the rest of the bottom half of the distribution. The top decile has continued to rise, with a fanning out of the upper half of the earnings distribution.
T United States
Authors: Atkinson A. B. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
This chapter presents tables of data on the United States and an account of its increased earnings distribution. It shows that the 1940s were a period of wage compression; the 1950s saw a large reversal of this compression, continuing at the top into the early 1960s. The mid-1960s and 1970s were a period of hiatus. The bottom decile fell in the 1980s, but then recovered some of the lost ground in the 1990s. The top decile rose in the 1980s, paused, and then continued its upward path, so that by 2005 it was above the equivalent of its 1939 value. There has been a distinct ‘fanning out’ of the upper part of the US earnings distribution.
Introduction
Authors: Schroeder Mark 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter introduces metaethical expressivism, explains its main sources of interest over earlier noncognitivist theories, and illustrates how it has been applied to many topics across all different areas of philosophy. The progress which proponents such as Allan Gibbard and Simon Blackburn have made in developing expressivist theories is contrasted sharply with five major problems which remain unsolved, starting with an adequate account of what ‘express’ means. The concept of an argument from ‘license for optimism’ is introduced, and contrasted with the project of actually constructing an expressivist semantic theory. Finally, the chapter announces the main conclusions of the book and lays out its organization.
Its Solution
Authors: Schroeder Mark 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter employs the Basic Expressivist Maneuver to show how the negation problem can be solved, by appeal only to A-type inconsistency. To do so, expressivists must give up the idea that normative predicates semantically correspond to primitive attitudes, and allow that all normative sentences express a single attitude, to which different predicates contribute different contents. This attitude is called ‘being for’. Four explanations are offered of the elegance and attractiveness of the resulting account, and it is argued that it is the only way to solve the negation problem by appeal to expressivist-respectable assumptions. A possible objection is addressed.
Biforcated Attitude Semantics
Authors: Schroeder Mark 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter sets out the principles of biforcated attitude semantics and proves that, like the semantics of Chapters 5 and 6, it yields a language with the correct logical properties. Biforcated attitude semantics modifies the semantics of Chapter 6 by treating sentences as expressing pairs of states of being for. It is noted that this move creates at least two major complications in our treatment of the logical properties of the language, but proven, up to a lemma, that in this language the theorems of classical logic are all and only the sentences that it is inconsistent to reject under any interpretation. This yields a way of accounting for the logical properties of the language. A new problem — the new negation problem — is raised, and the lemma in the proof is discharged in an appendix to the chapter.
Assigning Truth‐Conditions
Authors: Schroeder Mark 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter shows that the new negation problem generalizes, and that biforcated attitude semantics does not, in general, assign complex descriptive sentences to mental states that are commitment-equivalent to beliefs in the corresponding complex descriptive contents, creating a problem for how to assign truth condition to complex descriptive sentences. Nevertheless, it is argued that given certain possibly defensible assumptions, every complex descriptive sentence will express a mental state that commits to the belief in the corresponding complex descriptive content, and hence that truth-conditions can be assigned to complex descriptive sentences in this way. This is proven in an appendix to the chapter.
An Alternative Approach
Authors: Schroeder Mark 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter offers an alternative approach to assigning truth conditions to complex descriptive sentences. Truth conditions are first motivated as a kind of composite of the assertability conditions on sentences and mistake conditions on mental states. It is then suggested that given biforcated attitude semantics, plausible assumptions about what mistake conditions will involve can be used to assign the right truth conditions to complex descriptive sentences — a result which is proven in an appendix to the chapter. It is further suggested that given an appropriate semantics for ‘believes that’, the expressivist can go on to maintain that the states expressed by complex descriptive sentences really are beliefs, after all.
Nondescriptivist Semantics
Authors: Schroeder Mark 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter explores how biforcated attitude semantics might be exploited in order to develop nondescriptivist treatments in other philosophical domains. A strategy for applying biforcated attitude semantics to an arbitrary domain is developed, as well as a toy expressivist theory of indicative conditionals. A more sophisticated account of truth is developed, which predicts that ‘P’ and ‘it is true that P’ are equivalent but have different semantic contents, and on which ‘true’ is nondescriptive, corresponding to no property. It is shown, further, how such an account can be exploited to solve expressivist problems about disagreement and validity.
The Structure of Objects
Authors: Koslicki Kathrin 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThe main purpose of this book is to give an analysis of ordinary material objects, those material objects to which we take ourselves to be committed in ordinary, scientifically informed discourse. Particular focus is placed on the question of how the parts of such objects are related to the wholes which they compose. Many philosophers today find themselves in the grip of an exceedingly deflationary conception of what it means to be an object, according to which any plurality of objects, no matter how disparate or gerry-mandered, itself composes an object, even if the objects in question fail to exhibit interesting similarities, internal unity, cohesion, or causal interaction amongst each other. This commitment to initially counterintuitive objects follows from the belief that no principled set of criteria is available by means of which to distinguish intuitively gerry-mandered objects from common-sensical ones. The project of this book is to persuade the reader that systematic principles by means of which composition can be restricted can be found, and hence, that we need not embrace this deflationary approach to the question of what it means to be an object. To this end, a more full-blooded neo-Aristotelian account of parthood and composition is developed according to which objects are structured wholes: it is integral to the existence and identity of an object, on this conception, that its parts exhibit a certain manner of arrangement. This structure-based conception of parthood and composition is explored in detail, along with some of its historical precursors as well as some of its contemporary competitors.
Ordinary Objects as Mereological Sums
Authors: Koslicki Kathrin 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThe thesis that ordinary material objects are mereological sums in the standard sense has been remarkably popular among three-dimensionalists and four-dimensionalists alike. This chapter considers two prominent representatives: Judith Jarvis Thomson, for the three-dimensionalist camp; and David Lewis, for the four-dimensionalist camp. The question of why Thomson's temporalized and modalized version of standard mereology still does not adequately capture the characteristics of ordinary material objects is postponed until Chapter 4. The remainder of the chapter considers Lewis' argument in favor of Unrestricted Composition, in particular in the recently expanded version offered in Theodore Sider's, Four-Dimensionalism: An Ontology of Persistence and Time; as well as Lewis' defence of the Composition-as-Identity Thesis in his Parts of Classes. It is argued that the three-dimensionalist need not be swayed by either component of Lewis' view, since they are ultimately founded on question-begging reasoning.
A Different Kind of Whole
Authors: Koslicki Kathrin 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter returns to the question, postponed in Chapter 2: why, from a three-dimensionalist perspective, the properties of ordinary material objects are not already adequately accounted for by Thomson's modified and weakened version of standard mereology. To this end, the work of Kit Fine is examined, who, in a series of papers, has provided powerful reasons for abandoning the standard conception of composition. In its stead, Fine proposes an alternative, neo-Aristotelian model, which is in some respects close to the positive framework advocated later in this book. The chapter begins by examining Fine's reasons for parting ways with the standard conception; these reasons are found to be utterly persuasive and fatal to the standard conception. The later sections of the chapter provide a detailed discussion of Fine's own positive proposal and indicate in what respects it might be found to be unsatisfactory.
Objects as Structured Wholes
Authors: Koslicki Kathrin 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter demonstrates that a structure-based neo-Aristotelian mereology for ordinary material objects can be defended utilizing a single relation of parthood with relatively straightforward formal properties. A substantive restriction on composition can be derived from a comparatively minimal and metaphysically neutral independently motivated ontology of kinds. The thoroughly mereological conception of composition defended here recommends itself based on Leibniz's Law and the Weak Supplementation Principle. Among its benefits are the following: it yields the Uniqueness of Composition as a derived principle; it contributes to the Problem of Constitution and, possibly, the Grounding Problem; and it clarifies the relation between a whole and both its material and its structural components. Finally, it is demonstrated how, on the approach defended here, wholes can be thought of as both ontologically committing and genuinely unified, despite the apparent Aristotelian regress caused by a never-ending demand for further principles of unity.
In Defense of Kinds
Authors: Koslicki Kathrin 
Published: September 2008

AbstractThis chapter defends a commitment to an ontology of kinds for the special case of natural kinds; such a commitment plays an important role in motivating and underwriting the structure-based and restricted conception of parthood and composition outlined in the previous chapter. The special case of natural kinds is intended as an illustration of how a commitment to a certain class of kinds in general, or to specific kinds among them, may be generated on the basis of extra-mereological considerations. The belief in the existence of natural kinds, for example, may be supported by an appeal to their role in prediction and explanation; particularly noteworthy in this respect is the weight borne by scientific natural kinds (e.g., physical, chemical and biological kinds) in (i) inductive arguments, (ii) the laws of nature, and (iii) causal explanations.
System estimation from metabolic time-series data
Authors: Goel Gautam , Chou I-Chun , Voit Eberhard O. 
Published: September 2008

Abstract
Motivation: At the center of computational systems biology are mathematical models that capture the dynamics of biological systems and offer novel insights. The bottleneck in the construction of these models is presently the identification of model parameters that make the model consistent with observed data. Dynamic flux estimation (DFE) is a novel methodological framework for estimating parameters for models of metabolic systems from time-series data. DFE consists of two distinct phases, an entirely model-free and assumption-free data analysis and a model-based mathematical characterization of process representations. The model-free phase reveals inconsistencies within the data, and between data and the alleged system topology, while the model-based phase allows quantitative diagnostics of whether—or to what degree—the assumed mathematical formulations are appropriate or in need of improvement. Hallmarks of DFE are the facility to: diagnose data and model consistency; circumvent undue compensation of errors; determine functional representations of fluxes uncontaminated by errors in other fluxes and pinpoint sources of remaining errors. Our results suggest that the proposed approach is more effective and robust than presently available methods for deriving metabolic models from time-series data. Its avoidance of error compensation among process descriptions promises significantly improved extrapolability toward new data or experimental conditions.
Contact: eberhard.voit@bme.gatech.edu
Supplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Orientational disorder and phase transitions in crystals of (NH4)2NbOF5
Authors: Udovenko Anatoly A. , Laptash Natalia M. 
Published: September 2008

Ammonium oxopentafluoroniobate, (NH4)2NbOF5, was synthesized in a single-crystal form and the structures of its different phases were determined by X-ray diffraction at three temperatures: phase (I) at 297 K, phase (II) at 233 K and phase (III) at 198 K. The distorted [NbOF5]2− octahedra are of similar geometry in all three structures, with the central atom shifted towards the O atom. The structure of (I) is disordered, with three spatial orientations of the [NbOF5]2− octahedron related by a jump rotation around the pseudo-threefold local axis such that the disorder observed is of a dynamic nature. As the temperature decreases, the compound undergoes two phase transitions. The first is accompanied by full anionic ordering and partial ordering of the ammonium groups (phase II). The structure of (III) is completely ordered. The F and O atoms in the structures investigated were identified via the Nb—X (X = O and F) distances. The crystals of all three phases are twinned.
Trade and health: how World Trade Organization (WTO) law affects alcohol and public health
Authors: Baumberg Ben , Anderson Peter 
Published: September 2008

ABSTRACTAims The alcohol field is becoming more aware of the consequences of world trade law for alcohol policies. However, there is a need for greater clarity about the different effects of trade on alcohol‐related harm.Methods A comprehensive review of all literature on alcohol and world trade [including World Trade Organization (WTO) disputes on alcohol], supported by a more selective review of other relevant cases, academic reports and the grey literature on trade and health.Results The burden of WTO law on alcohol policies depends upon the type of policy in question. Purely protectionist policies are likely to be struck down, which may lead to increases in alcohol‐related harm. Partly protectionist and partly health‐motivated policies are also at risk of being struck down. However, purely health‐motivated policies are likely to be defended by the WTO—and to the extent that policy makers misunderstand this, they are needlessly avoiding effective ways of reducing alcohol‐related harm.Conclusions WTO agreements contain genuine and substantial risks to alcohol policies, and various ways of minimizing future risks are suggested. However, the ‘chilling effect’ of mistakenly overestimating these constraints should be avoided. Health policy makers should decide on which policies to pursue based primarily on considerations of effectiveness, ethics and politics rather than legality. As long as any effect of these policies on trade is minimized, they are overwhelmingly likely to win any challenges at the WTO.