bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
PROBABLY
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna 
Published: September 2007

AbstractEnglish has a much larger repertoire of epistemic (sentential) adverbs than other European languages, possibly indeed without parallel in other languages of the world. The set of these adverbs includes the following: probably, possibly, clearly, obviously, presumably, evidently, apparently, supposedly, conceivably, undoubtedly, allegedly, reportedly, arguably, unquestionably, seemingly, certainly, and in American English likely. As this chapter discusses in some detail, this rich repertoire of epistemic adverbs developed in English gradually. Undoubtedly, the rise of this semantico-grammatical category in English was related to the rise of verbal epistemic phrases, such as I presume, I assume, I gather, I understand, I suppose, and so on. The cultural concerns reflected in the two categories are essentially the same, and in both cases they can be linked with the post-Lockean emphasis on the limitations of human knowledge, on the need to distinguish knowledge from judgment, on differentiating between different “degrees of assent.” But to compare the class of “epistemic adverbs” in different languages one must first identify this class in each language, and for this one needs some explicit semantic criteria. In the absence of a detailed semantic analysis of the individual words it is impossible to rigorously delimit the class in question; and without delimiting it, it is impossible to compare its size across language boundaries. This chapter shows that the use of the NSM methodology makes it possible to carry out such detailed semantic analysis, and to establish that the proliferation of epistemic adverbs is indeed a distinctive feature of English. The legal scholar Larry Solan (1999) has observed that British “17th century thinkers, influenced heavily by John Locke, developed an epistemology that differentiated among various kinds of evidence.” It is shown that in the English-speaking world, this epistemology differentiating among various kinds and degrees of certainty has had an impact on ordinary ways of speaking, and on the English language itself, and this impact continues to this day.
1Playing with Poetry
Authors: McGill Scott 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter provides an overview of how authors created the Virgilian centos and explores topics in the texts' reception, with an emphasis on the issues they raise related to allusion. The examination for the most part uses the 4th-century CE Ausonius' poetics of the cento as its basis. Subjects include how the poems serve as language games; the role of mnemotechnics in their composition; and the different ways audience members can read the works allusively, i.e., against their Virgilian subtexts.
Animals
Authors: Olson Eric T. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines animalism, the view that we are biological organisms. It is based on the claim that human organisms think just as we do. This implies that if I am not an organism, I am one of at least two thinkers of my thoughts, making it hard to see how I could know that I am the nonanimal thinker: the thinking-animal problem. Some proposed solutions are critically examined, notably Shoemaker's claim that human organisms cannot think and Noonan's account of how we might know that we are not the animals thinking our thoughts. Familiar objections to animalism are then reviewed, such as its implication that personal identity does not consist in psychological continuity. It is argued that these objections are weak and that more serious worries lie elsewhere.
8 Nihilism
Authors: Olson Eric T. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter examines the view that we do not exist because there are no human thinkers: nihilism. Nihilism is defended against the charge that it is an absurd denial of the obvious, or that it is self‐refuting. Attempts by Kant and others, such as Russell, Unger, and Wittgenstein, to defeat nihilism by showing that thought requires a thinker are examined and found wanting. Attention then turns to attempts to paraphrase statements apparently about people into terms compatible with nihilism. Although this is difficult because nihilists will want to deny the existence of any composite objects, no conclusive objections to the project are found. It is then argued that nihilism, like solipsism, is depressing, and that someone who accepted it consistently would appear to deprive herself of any reasons for action.
What Now?
Authors: Olson Eric T. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter proposes that animalism, the temporal‐parts view, and nihilism are the best accounts of what we are. It then takes up metaphysical objections to animalism hinted at earlier. It is proposed that animalists answer them by endorsing a sparse ontology of material objects. It is then argued that we can work out what we are by discovering when composition occurs: if composition is universal, we are temporal parts of animals; if there is no composition, we do not exist; and intermediate theories of composition lead almost inevitably to animalism. Finally, the view that there is no theory of composition‐‐that composition is brute‐‐is claimed to rule out any good account of what we are.
Creating Language Crimes
Authors: Shuy Roger W. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This book describes and illustrates eleven powerful conversational strategies used by undercover police officers and cooperating witnesses who secretly tape-record targets in criminal investigations. Twelve actual criminal case studies are used as examples. These strategies creating illusion of guilt include the apparently deliberate use of semantic ambiguity, blocking the targets’ words (by creating static on the tape, interrupting them, speaking on their behalf, and manipulating the off/on switch); rapidly changing the subject before targets can respond (the “hit and run” strategy); contaminating the tape with irrelevant information that can make targets appear to be guilty; camouflaging illegality by making actions appear to be legal; isolating targets from important information that they need in order to make informed choices; inaccurately restating things the target has said; withholding crucial information from targets; lying to targets about critical information; and scripting targets in what to say on tape. These conversational strategies gain power from the fact that the targets do not know that they are being recorded, and often let things go right by them during the discourse. Nor do they know that the real audience of the conversations consists of later jury listeners, who do not know the full context of these conversations. Unlike everyday, unrecorded conversation, the most critical listening takes place at a future time and under very different circumstances. It is shown that undercover officers and their cooperating witnesses make use of essentially the same conversational strategies.
INTRODUCTION
Authors: Devine A. M. , Stephens Laurence D. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis introductory chapter discusses the importance of word order in the elicitation of textual meaning and methodologies for studying word order. It surveys theoretical concepts used in the book, including thematic roles, pragmatic (informational) structure, tripartite structures, semantics of focus, typetheoretical notation, discourse configurationality, and prosodic structure.
HYPERBATON
Authors: Devine A. M. , Stephens Laurence D. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter analyzes the syntax, semantics, and pragmatics of various types of phrasal discontinuity: genitive hyperbaton, pre- and postmodifier hyperbaton, hyperbaton with noun, adjective and prepositional heads, attribute complement hyperbaton, and minor hyperbata like clitic, interrogative, and conjunct hyperbaton. A reanalysis theory based on category shifting is proposed and integrated into data on variation across styles.
Rx: Volunteer: A Prescription for Healthy Aging
Authors: Hirschfelder Adam S. , Reilly Sabrina L. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter outlines one potentially useful yet, to date, virtually unexamined practical public health application of the research on the health benefits of volunteerism — the involvement of primary care physicians as volunteerism advocates. There are several reasons that physicians may be effective volunteerism advocates. First, volunteering tends to drop off after age sixty-five, at the precise time when its health benefits have been shown to be the most pronounced and when doctor visits are frequent. Second, studies have shown that older adults in particular are receptive to health advice from their physicians. Last, physicians have been effective advocates for increased physical activity in older adults, and involvement in volunteering may actually be easier to achieve, given the resistance of much of this population to exercise programs.
Volunteerism, Religiousness, Spirituality, and the Health Outcomes of Older Adults
Authors: Omoto Allen M. , Schlehofer Michèle M. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter explores the interrelationships among volunteerism, religiousness, and health among older adults. It attempts to provide evidence for possible connections between religiousness, spirituality, and volunteerism, as well as for their association with health among older adults. Religiousness and spirituality were significantly correlated with an array of mental health indicators, most consistently life satisfaction and (freedom from) depression. These associations are consistent with other research that has demonstrated the positive effects of religiousness and spirituality on mental health. The study also finds evidence for the beneficial effects of volunteering on physical health.
Introduction to theCompendium of Training
Authors: Mrozik Susanne 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter begins with an explanation of the purpose of the book, which is to offer a new approach to the study of Buddhist ethics by asking what we can learn about Buddhist ethics if we make the body the focus of ethical inquiry. It then discusses the two main goals of the study, methodological and theoretical perspectives, literary genre of the text, and the historical origins of the Compendium of Training. An overview of the succeeding chapters is presented.
What Are the Genetic Differences That Made Us Human?
Authors: Johnson Norman A. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractHumans differ from chimpanzees and other apes with respect to our large brains and our abilities to use language, among other differences. This chapter discusses several candidate genes involved in brain size and linguistic ability (e.g., FOXP2) upon which natural selection appears to have acted in the human lineage. The complete genome sequences of humans, chimpanzees, and mouse (an outgroup) allow evolutionary geneticists to determine what genetic changes have occurred along the lineage that led to us. The McDonald-Kreitman tests and other tests to detect positive selection (Chapter 4) allow for the determination of which changes have been involved in adaptive evolution.
The Politics of Orthodox‐Greek Catholic Relations
Authors: Stan Lavinia , Turcescu Lucian 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
In 1989 the Romanian state was called to return Roman and Greek Catholic property confiscated by communist authorities and transferred to the Orthodox Church. The Orthodox Church's refusal to return disputed churches hampered the Orthodox‐Catholic dialogue, both locally and internationally. The property restitution case study illustrates the dilemma of a state torn between its need to maintain popularity with the Orthodox electorate and its desire to meet standards of religious freedom required for accession to the European Union. We analyze the different arguments proposed by the Orthodox, the Greek Catholics, and the Romanian state for and against restitution.
2 Defining Grammatical Complexity
Authors: McWhorter John 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter presents a definition of grammatical complexity, based on three ideas. First, languages differ in the degree to which they overtly and obligatorily mark semantic distinctions; this difference is termed as one of overspecification. Second, a particular aspect of one grammar may differ from that aspect in another's in terms of the number of rules (in phonology and syntax) or foundational elements (in terms of phonemic inventory) required to generate surface forms. Third, grammars differ in the degree to which they are festooned with irregularity and suppletion. Inflection and complexity, and whether one grammar can be more complex than another are discussed.
5 Mandarin Chinese
Authors: McWhorter John 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter shows that while Altaic languages had a decisive effect upon Mandarin, transfer was a relatively minor factor, while reduction due to non-native competence was comprehensively transformative. The evidence also suggests that the crucial locus of transformation was not the occupations by Genghis Khan (13th through 14th centuries) or the Manchus (1644-1911), but the widespread resettlement of conquered and dispossessed peoples amid Han Chinese on the northern Chinese frontier from the 600s through the 800s under the Tang dynasty. A comparison of Mandarin with its sister languages in nine aspects of grammar is presented.
9 A New Typology of Language Contact
Authors: McWhorter John 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter reiterates the qualitative differences in overall structural complexity between the five languages considered in the book and their sister languages, and states that these differences were caused by incomplete acquisition of a moderate degree in contact situations. However, a problem remains: that there is no clear place for the phenomenon identified in conventional models of language contact. Instead, the reduction in question — where perceived at all — has tended to elicit surmises that the languages are, or were once, pidgins or creoles. But these claims fail to compel, because neither synchrony, diachrony, nor sociohistorical data support classing these languages with Saramaccan, Haitian Creole, Papiamentu, and Tok Pisin.
11 Audi on Nondoxastic Faith
Authors: William P. Alston 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter argues that Audi's account of nondoxastic propositional faith is inadequate, and that the specifications given by Audi are either in tension with each other or insufficient to specify a distinct propositional attitude. It goes on to offer an account of an attitude what is called ‘acceptance’, whose voluntary character serves to distinguish it from belief. It then argues that acceptance can serve as the “cognitive core” of religious and non‐religious faith, and, more specifically, that acceptance without belief is adequate for Christianity. Thus, according to this chapter, acceptance can successfully play the role Audi wishes his nondoxastic faith to play.
Shared We-Attitudes
Authors: Tuomela Raimo 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter focuses on I-mode we-attitudes and develops several varieties of them. Basically, e.g. a we-goal is a goal that an agent has because the others in the group have it, under conditions of mutual social awareness. There is also a discussion of a circularity problem that arises in some contexts involving coordination of attitudes and actions when communication is not possible.
Joint Intention and We-Intention
Authors: Tuomela Raimo 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThe creation and conceptual nature of full-blown we-mode we-intentions and joint intentions is discussed in this chapter. Intending jointly as a group (= in the we-mode) is taken to entail the individual participants' shared we-intentions in the we-mode. A detailed account of we-intentions is given, and an alleged circularity problem concerning the circularity of accounting for joint intentions in terms of we-intentions is dissolved. It is also argued that we-mode joint intentions—and we-mode attitudes and actions in general—are irreducible to their I-mode counterparts. This is largely because of the group-reason requirement that the we-mode involves.
Maintenance and Implementation of Task Rules
Authors: Sakai Katsuyuki 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter shows that part of the anterior frontal cortex, the frontopolar cortex (FPC), is involved in the preparation of behaviors that require active manipulation of external information. During task preparation, the FPC interacts with different posterior prefrontal regions, depending on the task at hand. Further, the prefrontal activity that reflects behavioral rules (i.e., the task set) also predicts subsequent performance of cognitive tasks, as well as the level of activity of posterior areas during task performance. Based on these findings, this chapter argues that the interactions between the FPC and posterior frontal regions reflect not only the maintenance of the rule of the task to be performed, but also the process of implementing the rule for subsequent behavior.
Time Course of Executive Processes: Data from the Event‐Related Optical Signal
Authors: Gratton Gabriele , Low Kathy A. , Fabiani Monica 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter discusses a series of experiments in which a pre‐cue signals which of several dimensions of an upcoming stimulus is relevant on a particular trial. The event‐related optical signal is used to follow the time course of activity in different cortical areas after the pre‐cue. The data show two types of preparatory brain activities: (1) a domain‐general set, involving first the left middle frontal gyrus and then the lateral parietal cortex; and (2) a domain‐specific set, involving secondary sensory and motor areas of the brain. These data suggest that task preparation involves the operation of a hierarchical, top‐down system.
Moral Understandings
Authors: Walker Margaret Urban 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis book defends an expressive-collaborative model of morality that challenges common assumptions in philosophical ethics. Morality is best revealed in practices of responsibility that express shared understandings about who we are, what we value, and to whom we are accountable for what we do. Morality is collaborative as we reproduce or shift our moral understandings together in many daily interactions of social life. For this reason, moral practices cannot be separated from other social practices, nor moral identities from social roles and institutions in particular ways of life; morality is not socially modular. But not everyone has the same power to set or change moral terms, and differently valued social-moral identities with different responsibilities and privileges are the rule in human societies. This book argues for empirically informed and politically critical ethics that aims for transparency about the moral significance of social differences including, but not only, gender differences. The book responds to the work of major philosophers of the 20th century, such as Bernard Williams, John Rawls, Robert Goodin, Charles Taylor, and Alasdair MacIntyre, while putting the tools of feminist epistemology and ethics to use. It also challenges uncritical assumptions in academic ethics about what we are in a position to know and for whom we are in a position to speak. This text is the second edition and contains an updated view of the state of moral philosophy, a new chapter on the moral and epistemological significance of public projects of truth-telling, and a concluding response to some common questions about the book.
8 Unnecessary Identities
Authors: Urban Walker Margaret 
Published: September 2007

AbstractRepresentational practices affect moral perception and moral recognition, and so are proper studies for moral philosophy. Using Wittgenstein's idea that a human body pictures a soul, this chapter examines three patterns of representation of human bodies that impair or bias moral perception and proper recognition of human beings. Stereo-graphy fuses representation of the bodies of one kind of human being to a particular kind of comportment. Porno-graphy repetitively pictures certain bodies in sexualized ways. Necro-graphy produces representations of bodies that picture living human beings as already dead or beyond hope, or inscribe dead human bodies with an insult to their humanity. Moral graphics — the study of morally significant patterns of representation — aids in understanding the construction of identities, the nature and impact of stereotypes, and the fact that some kinds of prejudice are not easily accessible by conscious reflection.
Reduction and Supervenience
Authors: Horst Steven 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter outlines the contemporary conversation in philosophy of mind. Reductionists claim the mind can or must be reducible to natural phenomena. Eliminativists claim the mind cannot be so reduced and that this implies that our mentalistic categories should be eliminated in favor of a more naturalistic vocabulary. Dualists point to an explanatory gap between mind and nature and argue that this implies the mind is not reducible to something else, and that this entails either substance or property dualism. Mysterians agree that the mind is irreducible but trace this to a limitation of our ability to understand mind‐body relations. Nonreductive materialists also reject reduction but hold that the mind is nothing over and above a set of natural phenomena. All of these views share the assumption that intertheoretic reduction is the norm in the natural sciences, and this assumption motivates both reductionism and the idea that the explanatory gap poses a unique and disturbing problem.
Melancholic Freedom
Authors: Kim David Kyuman 
Published: September 2007

AbstractWhy does agency — the capacity to make choices and to act in the world — matter to us? Why is it meaningful that our intentions have effects in the world, that they reflect our sense of identity, that they embody what we value? What kinds of motivations are available for political agency and judgment in an age that lacks the enthusiasm associated with the great emancipatory movements for civil rights and gender equality? What are the conditions for the possibility of being an effective agent when the meaning of democracy has become less transparent? This book addresses these crucial questions by uncovering the political, moral, philosophical, and religious dimensions of human agency. The book treats agency as a form of religious experience that reflects implicit and explicit notions of the good. Of particular concern are the moral, political, and religious motivations that underpin an understanding of agency as meaningful action. Through a critical engagement with the work of theorists such as Judith Butler, Charles Taylor, and Stanley Cavell, this book argues that late modern and postmodern agency is found most effectively at work in “projects of regenerating agency” or critical and strategic responses to loss. Agency as melancholic freedom begins and endures, this text maintains, through the moral and psychic losses associated with a broad range of experiences, including the moral identities shaped by secularized modernity and the multi-fold forms of alienation experienced by those who suffer the indignities of racial, gender, class, and sexuality discrimination and oppression. This book calls for renewing the sense of urgency in our political and moral engagements by seeing agency as a vocation, where the aspiration for self-transformation and the human need for hope are fundamental concerns.
Love of the Good among the Ruins
Authors: Kim David Kyuman 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis chapter discusses the philosophical and historical account that Charles Taylor developed on agency, identity, and the good, in particular in his collected essays and in Sources of the Self. The chapter begins with a discussion of Taylor's theories of agency and language and the philosophical anthropology that he develops. Taylor's retrieval and critique of the ethos of Romantic expressivism and his turn to modernism as a resource for responding to this are examined.