bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ultracentrifugation
Authors: Völkl Alfred 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
High‐speed (ultra)centrifugation for fractionation of organelles and molecular components of tissues permits the elucidation of fundamental cellular processes such as oxidative phosphorylation, intracellular digestion, protein synthesis, bulk transport or biogenesis of organelles. Preparative centrifugation allows isolation of specific particles such as subcellular organelles, and analytical centrifugation differentiates the properties of particles and allows study of interactions between macromolecules.
Phosphorimager
Authors: Robertson Daniel J , Freeman Willard M , Vrana Kent E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Phosphorimaging is a form of solid state liquid scintillation where radioactive material can be both localized and quantified. Though similar to traditional autoradiographic techniques (in that it relies on high‐energy particle decay) phosphorimaging is more sensitive and has a greater dynamic range than X‐ray film which has made it an increasingly popular choice for several applications in molecular biology.
Hydrophobic Effect
Authors: Herzfeld Judith , Olbris Donald J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The hydrophobic effect refers to the relatively poor solubility of nonpolar substances in water. The effect is seen in the organization of biomolecules such that nonpolar portions are largely sequestered from the aqueous environment. The origin of the effect lies in the response of the three‐dimensional hydrogen bonding network of water to different types of solutes.
X‐ray Absorption Spectroscopy
Authors: Penner‐Hahn James E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
An absorption ‘edge’ is the abrupt increase in absorbance that occurs when the energy of the incident light (typically light in the X‐ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum) exceeds the binding energy of a core electron. X‐ray absorption spectroscopy uses the structured absorption on the high‐energy side of an absorption edge to determine the local structure of the X‐ray‐absorbing atom.
Mass Measurements by Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy
Authors: Parry David AD 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The image of an unstained specimen observed by scanning transmission electron microscopy is a two‐dimensional representation of the distribution of the mass of the specimen projected onto a plane, since elastic scattering of the electrons depends on the electron density, which, in turn, is related directly to the mass density of the object being viewed. If the contribution of the sample support is subtracted and comparison is made with an appropriate mass standard, mass or mass density determinations can be derived.
Transmission Electron Microscopy: Preparation of Specimens
Authors: Slayter Henry S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Manipulation of objects so as to reveal resolvable detail remains a challenge. There are in general four requirements of any technique: (1) avoidance of collapse of structures in dehydrated specimens; (2) production of a sample sufficiently thin to avoid multiple scattering; (3) minimization of damage by the electron beam; (4) maximization of contrast. The relative importance of each constraint varies with the type of specimen and with the level of resolution sought.
Protein Denaturation and the Denatured State
Authors: Hammarström Per , Jonsson Bengt‐Harald 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Protein denaturation experiments are routinely used to determine protein stability and to elucidate structural and dynamic effects of mutations, cofactors and ligands. Denatured states of proteins have gained wide interest in recent years owing to their fundamental importance in a wide variety of phenomena such as deciphering the protein folding problem and the molecular understanding of many diseases.
Amino Acid Side‐chain Hydrophobicity
Authors: Chan Hue Sun 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Hydrophobicity is the unfavourable energetics of dissolving nonpolar compounds in water. The hydrophobicities of the 20 amino acid side‐chains are currently described by hydrophobicity scales derived primarily from solubility studies; these scales have provided semiquantitative rationalizations of some properties of native (folded) proteins.
Calorimetry
Authors: Murphy Kenneth P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In isothermal titration calorimetry, the heat produced or absorbed when a ligand binds to a biological macromolecule is measured and is used to characterize the energetics of the interaction. All of the thermodynamic quantities that characterize the binding reaction can be determined, and additional information on changes in protonation, and thus pH dependence, can also be studied.
Protein Structure: Unusual Covalent Bonds
Authors: Scott Nancy L , Lecomte Juliette T J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Amendments to a protein's covalent structure occur frequently
in vivo
. These modifications may be spontaneous or enzymatic and are consequential to cellular function and the integrity of the organism. Here we present a broad array of such modifications from a physicochemical perspective, along with their biological relevance.
Peptidylproline
cis
–
trans
‐Isomerases
Authors: Fischer Gunter , Schmid Franz‐Xaver 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Peptidylproline
cis
–
trans
‐isomerases are ubiquitous enzymes that bind to Xaa‐Pro peptide bonds in proteins and catalyse their isomerization. In addition to their role as folding helpers they are involved in multiple functions including cellular regulation.
Protein Disulfide Isomerases
Authors: Schwaller Melissa D , Gilbert Hiram F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Protein disulfide isomerase is a multifunctional protein that facilitates the formation of disulfide crosslinks between cysteine residues during the early stages of protein folding and secretion. It is a member of a large family of oxidoreductases that catalyse exchange reactions between thiols and disulfides.
Protein Sequence Databases
Authors: Barker Winona C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The comprehensive, annotated and curated protein sequence databases – the PIR‐International Protein Sequence Database and SWISS‐PROT – support genome annotation, protein functional and structural analysis, proteomics, and phylogenetic studies. The databases are widely available, either free or by subscription, and are augmented by a variety of useful tools and related databases.
Time‐resolved X‐ray Crystallography
Authors: Stoddard Barry L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Time‐resolved crystallography is a collection of methods whereby biological reactions proceed in crystals of a macromolecular catalyst, and structures of intermediates formed on the reaction pathway are determined using X‐ray crystallography. Such experiments allow investigators to visualize directly the mechanism of enzyme‐catalysed reactions or other biological processes.
Molecular Dynamics
Authors: Meller Jaro⋅aw 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMolecular dynamics is a technique for computer simulation of complex systems, modelled at the atomic level. The equations of motion are solved numerically to follow the time evolution of the system, allowing the derivation of kinetic and thermodynamic properties of interest by means of ‘computer experiments’. Biologically important macromolecules and their environments are routinely studied using molecular dynamics simulations.
Ageing Genes: Gerontogenes
Authors: Rattan Suresh IS 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The term ‘gerontogenes’ refers to an altered state of those genes that influence ageing and longevity, the vitagenes. The idea of gerontogenes is in line with the evolutionary explanation of the ageing process as being caused by the absence of maintenance and repair, rather than an active, evolutionarily selected process.
Luciferases and Light‐emitting Accessory Proteins: Structural Biology
Authors: Hastings J Woodland , Krause Kurt L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Luciferases are enzymes that catalyse reactions in living organisms that result in light emission. There are many different luciferases, different in the sense that the genes and proteins involved are unrelated in evolution, and evidently originated and evolved independently.
History of Parasitology
Authors: Power Helen J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Traditionally parasitology has been concerned with the harmful effects of organisms living and feeding inside or on another living organism. Although parasites may belong to any of the following groups – bacteria, yeast, fungi, algae, viruses, protozoa, helminths and arthropods – in effect parasitologists have focused on the internal zooparasites. Bacteria, viruses and fungi of plant origin are the provenance of microbiologists. Before the discovery of unicellular parasites c. 1880s onwards, worms or helminths were the major focus of attention.
History of Immunology
Authors: Silverstein Arthur M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Immunity to disease has long been recognized, but only during the late nineteenth century, thanks to Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, Elie Metchnikoff and Paul Ehrlich, did immunology become a true science able to explain mechanisms and to develop preventive vaccines. Originally medically oriented (1880–1910), the field passed through a stage of chemical domination (1910–1960) and then became biologically and, once again, medically oriented.
History of Developmental Biology
Authors: Horder Tim 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Embryology – now known as developmental biology – is a somewhat ill‐defined subject discipline but its history is remarkable for the long list of distinguished scientists and philosophers who have contributed to it from antiquity up to the current era. Recent molecular techniques have prompted a resurgence in its popularity as a research field and may provide the long hoped‐for definitive account of embryogenesis.
History of Palaeontology
Authors: Donovan Stephen K 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Although shells in ancient deposits were accepted as preserved remnants of ancient organisms by Greek philosophers, this fundamental idea was essentially lost until the seventeenth century, and the science of palaeontology was not truly established until the nineteenth century. The progression of life demonstrated in the fossil record led to many advances in geology, most notably in biostratigraphy and delineation of the geological column. However, the contribution that palaeontology makes to the understanding of biological evolution by natural selection continues to be refined.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy: Structural Analysis of Proteins and Nucleic Acids
Authors: Werner Milton H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) enables the determination of the three‐dimensional structure of proteins and nucleic acids in solution. A set of NMR experiments identifies the residues in the molecule and determines the order of residues that comprises the primary structure. Distance and angular relationships are subsequently measured and utilized as input to the structure calculation.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (
NMR
) Spectroscopy of Proteins
Authors: Wüthrich Kurt 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy enables the determination of three‐dimensional protein structures at atomic resolution under near‐physiological conditions in solution. In structural biology, NMR complements X‐ray crystallography, which provides similar information on proteins in single crystals.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (
NMR
): Solid State
Authors: Opella Stanley J , Marassi Francesca M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Solid‐state NMR spectroscopy can determine the structures of membrane proteins in lipid bilayers and other supramolecular assemblies. High‐resolution spectra can be obtained from stationary, oriented samples and from unoriented samples with magic‐angle sample spinning.
Fourier Transform
IR
Authors: Orphal Johannes 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is an experimental technique used primarily for qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic compounds, providing specific information on molecular structure, chemical bonding and molecular environment. For many years, FTIR has been successfully employed for studying a wide variety of proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, lipids and glycolipids, and photobiological systems.
Water: Structure and Properties
Authors: Sharp Kim A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Water is a major component of all living things. It is anomalous in many of its physical and chemical properties. Some are essential for life while others have profound effects on the size and shape of living organisms, how they work, and the constraints within which they must operate. Many of water's basic physical properties can now be explained, at least semiquantitatively, in molecular and structural terms, although in spite of intense study it remains incompletely understood.
Nucleic Acid Structure: Peptide Nucleic Acids and Other Backbone Variations
Authors: Nielsen Peter E 
Published: September 2006

AbstractSynthetic analogues and mimics of the natural genetic material deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) are potential gene therapeutic (antisense or antigene) drugs. Some of these mimics, peptide nucleic acids (PNAs), are chemically closer to peptides and proteins than to DNA, but nonetheless have retained many of the structural properties of DNA.
Base Pairing in RNA: Unusual Patterns
Authors: Hou Ya‐Ming 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Ribonucleic acids (RNAs) consist of linear arrays of bases, some of which have the hydrogen‐bonding capacity to interact with others to form base pairs. In addition to the standard Watson–Crick base pairings, RNAs have unusual base pairings that give rise to the many tertiary structures that are now known to be important for a variety of biological functions.
Proteins: Affinity Tags
Authors: Chong Shaorong 
Published: September 2006

AbstractSpecific interaction between a protein (or a protein domain) and a ligand allows the protein (or domain) to be linked to a recombinant protein as a fusion partner (affinity tag). This enables the recombinant protein to be purified by affinity chromatography even if it does not naturally have a specific ligand suitable for this process.
Hot Deserts
Authors: Ezcurra Exequiel , Mellink Eric 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIn spite of their apparent barrenness, the hot deserts of the world harbour unique and rare biotas with impressive biological adaptations. As a result of evolution in isolation from each other, the world's deserts have high levels of endemism and harbour rare and unique life forms, a fact that makes them ecologically fragile and highly vulnerable to biological extinction.
Ecological Consequences of Body Size
Authors: Calder William A 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMore of the intraclass evolution of animals has been linked to body size than to any other characteristic. Adult body size exerts a quantitative dominance over how an animal lives and for how long and on its rate of living and extraction of resources from its environment, and consequently on how many of its kind can live simultaneously on a unit of habitat. Size thus determines how the species fits into its ecological community. Continuity is revealed by similar exponents on body mass for functions ranging from metabolism and its physiological support to ecology and conservation. These size‐dependent relationships give us a marvellous basis for understanding ecology and predicting conservation outcomes.
Ecology of Invertebrate Nutrition
Authors: Chapman RF 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAll animals require a number of chemicals for the formation of body structures and for life processes. These nutrient chemicals are similar throughout the animal kingdom because of the basic chemical similarity of all animal life. Most invertebrates acquire the necessary nutrients from their food, but microorganisms sometimes provide nutrients that are lacking in the food and, especially in marine environments, direct uptake of nutrients from the water may be important.
Ecology of Vertebrate Nutrition
Authors: McWilliams Scott R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Vertebrate nutritional ecology is the study of the interrelationships between food resources in the environment and the consumptive use of these food resources by vertebrate animals. Consumptive use includes how vertebrate animals procure, digest, absorb and metabolize available foods in the environment to satisfy their requirements for health, growth and reproduction.
Urban Ecology: Patterns of Population Growth and Ecological Effects
Authors: Zipperer Wayne C , Pickett Steward TA 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAlthough cities have existed for over 6000 yr, scientists are just beginning to understand how the physical, ecological and social components of an urban ecosystem interact and how they are affected by the burgeoning growth of cities and their suburbs. Only through this understanding can we begin to develop sustainable cities that ensure a quality of life for both urban and rural residents and maintain natural habitats for native plants and animals.
Multivariate Techniques
Authors: Reyment Richard A 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMultivariate statistical analysis is concerned with the simultaneous examination of two or more variables (in the case of full space) or parts (in the case of simplex space) by means of standard methods of linear algebra and differential geometry. The methods are universally applicable. In the life sciences, multivariate analysis is of wide use in animal and plant taxonomy, quantitative genetics, environmetrics, ecology and aspects of evolutionary biology.
Paediatric Congenital Heart Disease
Authors: Anderson Robert H , Redington Andrew N 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The understanding, diagnosis and treatment of congenital malformations of the heart has been revolutionized over the past few decades, reflecting not only a greater appreciation of the morphological variability to be found within the malformed hearts, but also huge advances in the design and construction of machines available for diagnosis, treatment and life support. Nowadays, despite the anatomical complexity, accurate diagnosis is to be expected in all cases, with the greater majority of patients expected to survive treatment, which is being undertaken progressively earlier in life.
Sperm–Egg Interactions: Sperm–Egg Binding in Mammals
Authors: Evans Janice P , Hardy Daniel M , Storey Bayard T 
Published: September 2006

AbstractFertilization of the mammalian egg occurs through an ordered sequence of reactions in which the sperm adheres to, then penetrates, the zona pellucida. It then binds to and interacts with the egg's plasma membrane, such that the gametes fuse and the egg is activated to form the zygote. These reactions involve specific molecules on sperm and egg that mediate the interactions; malfunction may cause infertility.
Transcription Activation in Eukaryotic Cells
Authors: Barberis Alcide , Petrascheck Michael 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Transcription activation is the first step in eukaryotic gene
expression. Gene regulation, which is about turning on and off expression of
specific protein‐coding genes in response to environmental changes, during
development and in differentiated cells, widely occurs at the level of
transcription activation. This is mostly achieved by DNA‐binding proteins that
can control the specificity of the RNA polymerase II enzyme.
Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos
Authors: Kendall Bruce E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Nonlinear dynamics deals with more‐or‐less regular fluctuations in system variables caused by feedback intrinsic to the system (as opposed to external forces). Chaos is the most exotic form of nonlinear dynamics, in which deterministic interactions produce apparently irregular fluctuations, and small changes in the initial state of the system are magnified through time.7
Cognitive Neuroscience
Authors: Platt Michael L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cognition refers to the process of coming to know the world and our place within it. Cognitive neuroscience is the field of inquiry devoted to understanding how the brain enables cognition. Work in this field focuses on defining the neural processes that permit us to perceive and attend to events, determine their meaning and relevance, and respond appropriately. A key discovery in this field was that the higher mental functions, such as attention, memory, emotion, decision‐making and language arise through the activation of dedicated neural circuits localized in discrete areas of the brain. Notably, cognitive neuroscience actively probes subjective states such as emotion, imagery and awareness, which were considered inappropriate for scientific study by behaviourist psychologists of the early and middle twentieth century.
Integrins: Signalling and Disease
Authors: Krissansen Geoffrey Wayne 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Integrins, the superfamily of cell surface adhesion molecules, do not act as a passive glue, but rather are dynamic molecules that mediate the transfer of information across the membrane in both directions, influencing cell growth, the cell cycle, differentiation, programmed death, survival and motility. They contribute to the pathogenesis of a diverse array of acquired and hereditary diseases, and hence are major targets for therapeutic intervention.
History of Fatty Acids
Authors: Kritchevsky David 
Published: September 2006

AbstractIn the early years of the 20th century the major causes of death were infectious disease, however with introduction of better sanitation, cleaner food preparation and antibacterial drugs the major killers have become degenerative diseases such as heart disease and cancer. Investigating the metabolic role of fat (from synthesis to utilization) may be central to our understanding of the two major causes of death in the developed world, namely, heart disease and cancer.
Oxidative Stress‐induced Cellular Senescence
Authors: Toussaint Olivier , Remacle José , Dumont Patrick , Dierick Jean‐François , Pascal Thierry , Frippiat Christophe , Magalhaes Joao Pedro , Chainiaux Florence 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Replicative senescence is a process in which normal proliferative cells lose replicative potential and acquire biomarkers of cellular senescence as a result of serial passages in culture instead of chronological time. Oxidative stress‐induced premature senescence is the long‐term appearance of the biomarkers of replicative senescence after exposure of human diploid cells to sublethal stress. Cytokine‐induced premature senescence is the long‐term appearance of biomarkers of replicative senescence after repeated exposure of human diploid fibroblasts to proinflammatory cytokines.
Homology and Homoplasy: A Philosophical Perspective
Authors: Amundson Ron 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Homology refers to the underlying sameness of distinct body parts or other organic features. The concept became crucial to the understanding of relationships among organisms during the early nineteenth century, and it remains important today. Definitions of homology have changed with the progress of biology, and even today different versions are associated with different research agendas. The differences illustrate philosophical issues about the workings of definition and explanation in science.
Shortt, Henry Edward
Authors: Power Helen J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
1887

–

1987

British

protozoologist and entomologist

who

elucidated the role of sandflies in the transmission of visceral leishmaniasis or kala azar

and who with P. C. C. Garnham

discovered the exoerythrocytic schizonts or tissue stage of mammalian malaria parasites

.