bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Diffuse Parenchymal Lung Disease
Authors: Ranasinha CD , Bois RM du 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Diffuse parenchymal lung diseases predominately affect the acinar regions of the lung. Some types of the disease are relatively common, while others are extremely rare, but taken together they affect roughly 1 in 3–4000 of the UK population and in many cases there is irreversible scarring.
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Authors: Schur Peter H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus is a chronic inflammatory disease of unknown cause which can affect the skin, joints, kidneys, lungs, nervous system, serous membranes and other organs in the body, in various combinations, especially in young women, and which is characterized by immune abnormalities, in particular antibodies to nuclear constituents. Treatment is based both on preventive measures, alleviation of symptoms, but in particular anti‐inflammatory agents including nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs, corticosteroids, and immunosuppressive medications.
Immune Haemolytic Anaemia
Authors: Packman Charles H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The immune haemolytic anaemias comprise a set of diseases characterized by shortened red blood cell survival (haemolysis) mediated by the action of antibodies and serum complement. The haemolysis is evidenced by a raised reticulocyte count in the absence of blood loss. Activity of the immune system is diagnosed by the presence of antibody and/or fragments of complement components (mainly C3 and C4) on the red blood cell surfaces.
Interferons: Therapeutic Uses
Authors: Penny Ronald , Stuart‐Harris Robin 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Interferons were the first cytokines to be used therapeutically as naturally derived and as recombinant forms in humans. Their broad biological activity has resulted in clinical benefits in diseases ranging from infectious (such as viral hepatitis), autoimmune (in particular multiple sclerosis) to neoplastic (lymphomas and carcinomas).
Spleen: Consequences of Lack of Function
Authors: Lewis S Mitchell 
Published: September 2006

AbstractLoss of splenic function may be absolute or partial; it may be primary (e.g. splenectomy) or secondary to a range of medical disorders. The haematological effects and clinical complications depend on the extent to which various functions are compromised. The most serious complication, requiring lifelong control, is overwhelming postsplenectomy infection (OPSI).
Polymorphism of TNF Genes and Disease Susceptibility
Authors: Knight Julian Charles , Keating Brendan James 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence variation (polymorphism) occurs commonly between individuals. Polymorphism of the
TNF
(encoding tumour necrosis factor) gene region has been implicated in defining susceptibility to many infectious, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.
Cerebrospinal Fluid and its Abnormalities
Authors: Amin‐Hanjani Sepideh , Chapman Paul H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cerebrospinal fluid bathes the central nervous system, providing mechanical support and maintaining a stable environment. Alterations in its production, circulation or absorption result in a pathological condition termed hydrocephalus, characterized by an accumulation of fluid within the cranium, usually in the ventricles of the brain. The management of hydrocephalus relies primarily on neurosurgical intervention.
Benign Intracranial Hypertension
Authors: Speed William G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Benign (idiopathic) intracranial hypertension, or pseudotumour cerebri, is characterized by a sustained increase in intracranial pressure in the absence of tumour, infection or obstruction. There are persistent, usually low grade, headaches and frequently there is impairment of visual acuity.
Brain Death and the Vegetative State
Authors: Jennett Bryan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A brain‐dead patient is unconscious and has lost the capacity to breathe (apnoea) and requires manual ventilation; even with full supportive treatment the heart of the brain‐dead patient soon stops, usually after only a few days. The vegetative patient is unconscious but has periods of eye opening and can breathe on his or her own but requires artificial feeding; given adequate support the vegetative patient can survive for years.
Epstein–Barr Virus
and Cancer
Authors: Rowe Martin , Rickinson AB 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Epstein–Barr virus
is widespread in all human populations, and is usually carried as an asymptomatic persistent infection. In a small minority of infected individuals the virus is associated with the pathogenesis of certain types of lymphoid and nonlymphoid cancers, including Burkitt lymphoma, posttransplant lymphomas, Hodgkin disease and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
Alcohol and Pregnancy and the Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Authors: Streissguth Ann P , Bonthius Daniel J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is a specific pattern of birth defects caused by prenatal alcohol exposure; the term fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) includes the broad range of offspring effects caused by
in utero
alcohol exposure. Alcohol is a teratogenic drug to which the developing brain is particularly vulnerable; thus, many alcohol‐exposed people, even without FAS, can have alcohol‐induced neurodevelopmental sequelae, ranging from mild to severe, depending on the dose, timing and conditions of exposure.
Adrenal Disease
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Wass John AH 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The adrenal gland comprises the adrenal medulla, which secretes noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and adrenaline (epinephrine), and the adrenal cortex, which is responsible for glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid and androgen production. Disorders of the adrenal gland result in either excessive or deficient production of these hormones.
Cardiovascular Disease: Epidemiology
Authors: Meade TW 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the commonest form of degenerative arterial disease, which also includes stroke and lower‐extremity arterial disease. High levels of cholesterol and fibrinogen, raised blood pressure and cigarette smoking are the main risk factors for CHD, and can be avoided to a large extent (entirely in the case of smoking) by lifestyle modifications or pharmacological methods.
Iron Deficiency
Authors: Bridges Kenneth R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Iron deficiency is a leading cause of anaemia, affecting more than half a billion people worldwide. Depletion of iron stores precedes impaired production of iron‐containing proteins, most importantly haemoglobin. The two important stages of iron deficiency are: (1) depletion of iron stores without anaemia, and (2) depletion of iron stores with anaemia.
Rhesus Haemolytic Disease of the Newborn
Authors: Letsky Elizabeth A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Rhesus (Rh) haemolytic disease of the newborn arises from maternal anti‐D immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibodies which cross the placenta and are directed against paternally derived D antigens which the fetus carries and the mother lacks. Untreated, this condition can result in intrauterine death from anaemia and cardiac failure (hydrops) or neonatal neurological problems and death following the development of severe jaundice and kernicterus.
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Wordsworth Paul 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis is a common inflammatory disorder primarily affecting synovial joints but also other organs. It is characterized by immune‐driven chronic inflammation, relapses and remissions and progressive disability. It is strongly associated with the presence of rheumatoid factor in the blood and has a significant genetic predisposition, notably from certain immune response genes.
Fungi and the History of Mycology
Authors: Kendrick Bryce 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Fungi, broadly defined, (1) are eukaryotic, (2) have no plastids or photosynthetic pigments, (3) are therefore heterotrophic (unable to make their own food from inorganic components), (4) are osmotrophic (absorb rather than ingest food), (5) are often opportunistic and capable of exploiting many different substrates, (6) are never amoeboid at any stage, (7) almost always live inside branching networks of microscopic, apically extending, tubular structures known as hyphae, (8) almost all reproduce by unicellular or multicellular spores, (9) generally have haploid somatic nuclei, and (10) mostly do not produce flagellate cells. Mycology is the branch of science that studies these organisms.
Signal Transduction Pathways in Development: Hedgehog Proteins and their Receptors
Authors: van den Heuvel Marcel 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Hedgehog proteins comprise a family of secreted signalling proteins of crucial importance for development of metazoan animals. The signalling pathway downstream of Hedgehog proteins is highly conserved in evolution. Loss or misactivation of the Hh signalling pathway can lead to pathogenesis.
Harmful Algal Blooms
Authors: Dortch Quay 
Published: September 2006

AbstractHarmful algal blooms result from the excessive growth of algae, with deleterious effects on human or animal health or on ecosystems; many produce biotoxins. The incidence of harmful algal blooms may be increasing as a result of eutrophication, transport to new areas by ballast water, or aquaculture/mariculture.
Beijerinck, Martinus Willem
Authors: Wilkinson Lise 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

1851

–

1931

Dutch

microbiologist

whose studies of the agent of tobacco mosaic disease, which he termed
contagium vivum fluidum
, yielded important early information for formation of the concept of ‘filterable’, ‘invisible’, viruses.

Martinus Willem Beijerinck (1851–1931).

image
Cell Culture Contamination
Authors: Gollin Susanne M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Cell cultures are very important in laboratory biomedical sciences research. Culture
in vitro
facilitates analysis of cells in a controlled environment, minimizes morbidity and mortality of human, animal or plant subjects, and enables replicate studies over long periods of time. The main difficulty with cell cultures is their propensity to contamination, whether by microbes or stray cells from other cultures in the laboratory.
Cell Differentiation
In Vitro
: Model Systems
Authors: Studzinski George P 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Because conditions of culture
in vitro
cannot be identical to those in the living system, cell lines cultured
in vitro
are referred to as ‘model systems’. Not all cell types are capable of differentiation
in vitro
. Procedures for studying differentiation in model systems depend on the type of culture that can be employed. Techniques employed include liquid suspension cultures, monolayer cultures and complex culture systems involving semisolid matrices or liquid overlay methods. Such
in vitro
culture techniques have applications to the study of differentiation in basic research and clinical applications.
Cell Cycle: Synchronization at Various Stages
Authors: Tate Sharon , Ko Ferrigno Paul 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Progression through, and exit from, the cell cycle are tightly coupled processes that are key to the development and health of multicellular organisms. Synchronization is a technique commonly used to enrich cell populations at a single cell‐cycle stage, enabling the study of cell‐cycle‐specific regulation.
Peroxisomes: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Völkl Alfred , Fahimi H Dariush 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Peroxisomes are ubiquitous cell organelles which are particularly enriched in mammalian liver and kidney. They contain oxidases producing hydrogen peroxide and catalase which degrades it. Their main functions are in the metabolism of complex lipids such as bile acids, leucotrienes and prostaglandins. Peroxisomes can be isolated by classical density gradient centrifugation methods and by more recent immunochemical techniques.
DNA: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Ling Michael Mingfu 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The isolation of DNA is required for genetic analysis and genetic engineering. There are primarily two types of method for isolating genomic DNA: (i) proteinase K digestion in the presence of SDS and EDTA at temperatures between 50 and 60°C; (ii) the use of strong chaotropic reagents such as guanidinium chloride. The trend is towards methods that are amenable to high‐throughput screening and automation.
Cotranslational Translocation of Proteins into Microsomes: Methods
Authors: Pool Martin , Dobberstein Bernhard 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Translocation of secretory and membrane proteins through the membrane of the endosplasmic reticulum involves a signal sequence on the nascent protein, a cytosolic receptor system and a translocation channel (translocon). The process can be reconstituted using a protein synthesizing system and rough microsomes derived from the endoplasmic reticulum of eukaryotic cells.
Protein Sorting During Endocytosis: Methods
Authors: Fabbri Monica , Pardi Ruggero 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Endocytosis in eukaryotic cells is a regulated array of several complex processes and is involved in many cellular activities. The quantitative biochemical assay described herein integrates the qualitative results obtained with the morphological techniques previously used to study endocytosis. A method based on use of a biotinylated reagent that binds covalently to proteins and is cleavable by reducing agents at 4°C allows study of the molecular mechanisms involved and the structural requirements for protein sorting.
Endoplasmic Reticulum to Golgi Transport: Methods
Authors: Allan Bernard B , Weissman Jacques T , Balch William E 
Published: September 2006

AbstractNewly synthesized cargo proteins translocated into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are incorporated into small vesicular carriers that mediate transport to the Golgi, via pre‐Golgi intermediates along microtubule tracks.In vitroassays allow for the examination of factors that are required for and/or regulate the budding of vesicular carriers from the ER and the subsequent fusion of these vesicles with the Golgi.
Protein Import into Endoplasmic Reticulum: Methods
Authors: Morrow Michael W , Brodsky Jeffrey L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Nascent secretory proteins and integral membrane proteins must translocate into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The regulation of translocation remains ill‐defined. Post‐translational translocation into the yeast ER can be measured using ER‐derived microsomes or reconstituted proteoliposomes and as the substrate the mating pheromone precursor prepro‐alpha factor.
Indirect Immunofluorescence of Cultured Cells
Authors: Fritschy Jean‐Marc , Härtig Wolfgang 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Immunofluorescence is an immunoassay for the detection of specific cellular constituents using antibodies conjugated to a fluorochrome. Indirect immunofluorescence refers to a two‐step procedure, whereby the target‐specific, primary antibodies are applied unlabelled and are detected with fluorochrome‐conjugated secondary antibodies. Its main applications are identification and localization of cell components by fluorescence microscopy, and automated identification, sorting and quantification of fluorescent cells by flow cytometry.
Cell Staining: Fluorescent Labelling of the Endoplasmic Reticulum
Authors: Terasaki Mark 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) performs functions of protein and lipid synthesis and calcium regulation. Under optimal conditions, its complex structure of interconnected tubules and cisternae can be imaged by high‐resolution light microscopy. Immunofluorescence methods, which are useful in many situations, usually destroy the delicate ER structure during fixation and permeabilization.
Cell Staining: Fluorescent Labelling of the Golgi Apparatus
Authors: Dejgaard Kurt 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Golgi apparatus can be fluorescently labelled in living cells either by a fluorescent dye, by microinjection of fluorescently conjugated antibodies to exposed Golgi epitopes, or by tagging Golgi‐resident enzymes or exocytic cargo of cells transfected with the appropriate constructs linked to green fluorescent protein (GFP). Such approaches have helped study the Golgi apparatus as well as the dynamics of cargo transport through the exocytic pathway.
Nuclear Transfer from Established Cell Lines
Authors: Wells David 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The production of cloned animals following nuclear transfer using differentiated somatic cells grown in culture represents a remarkable aspect of developmental biology. In addition to the exciting opportunities for research there are many future practical applications in the fields of agriculture, conservation and medicine. Realizing these potentials will require a greater understanding of ‘nuclear reprogramming’, whereby the pattern of gene expression in somatic cells is reset to that at the zygotic state, enabling development to proceed.
Ion Exchange Chromatography
Authors: Sheehan David , O'Sullivan Siobhan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Ion exchange chromatography is a method for separating complex mixtures on the basis of differing tendencies of individual charged molecules (ions) to exchange with like‐charged species bound by electrostatic attraction to groups immobilized on a stationary phase. It is especially suitable for purification of proteins as their net charge may be altered by varying pH.
Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography
Authors: Jennissen Herbert P 
Published: September 2006

AbstractHydrophobic interaction chromatography involves the separation of protein molecules owing to the differential interaction of these molecules with hydrophobic sites on the surface of a solid support. In the separation process, hydrophobic patches on the protein interact with hydrophobic molecules (e.g. alkyl residues) immobilized on the hydrophilic solid phase surface (agarose).
Capillary Electrophoresis
Authors: Righetti Pier Giorgio 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Capillary zone electrophoresis is a separation technique that uses narrow‐bore (10–100 μm) fused‐silica capillaries, which reduces joule heating and increases heat dissipation, and allows the use of very high electric fields (100–500 V cm
−2
). The use of high electric fields produces short analysis times with high efficiency and high resolution.
Autoradiography and Fluorography
Authors: Gromov Pavel S , Celis Julio E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Radioactive compounds are used to detect and monitor labelled cellular components by imaging on photographic emulsion in contact with the sample. In direct autoradiography, emissions from high‐energy radioisotopes directly affect the emulsion. In indirect autoradiography, a fluorescent intensifying screen produces photons that affect the emulsion; and in fluorography the emulsion detects photons produced when radioactive emissions interact with an added scintillant and the techique can use low‐energy emitters.
Permeabilized mammalian cell systems for protein synthesis
Authors: Bulleid Neil J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The use of semipermeabilized cells allows complex intracellular processes such as protein translocation, folding, assembly, glycosylation, disulfide bond formation and degradation to be studied in a system amenable to experimental manipulation. The ability to manipulate the translated protein means that the affect of changing the primary amino acid sequence on folding and assembly can be rapidly assessed.
Solid‐phase Peptide Synthesis: Fmoc
Authors: Yang Chi C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Synthetic peptides are increasingly important in biochemical, pharmacological, neurobiological, enzymological and molecular biological research. Use of Fmoc as temporary amino‐protecting group allows solid‐phase peptide synthesis with a milder acid cleavage process. Other advances in the ligation approach provide further potential for peptide synthesis.
Base Flipping
Authors: Cheng Xiaodong , Roberts Richard J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Base flipping involves rotation of backbone bonds in double‐stranded DNA to expose an out‐of‐stack base, which can then be a substrate for an enzyme‐catalysed chemical reaction. The phenomenon is fully established for DNA methyltransferases and for several key DNA repair enzymes, and is likely to prove general for enzymes that require access to unpaired, mismatched or damaged bases.
Macromolecular Structure Determination: Comparison of Crystallography and
NMR
Authors: Guss J Mitchell , King Glenn F 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The two techniques used to define the three‐dimensional structures of biological macromolecules at or near to atomic resolution are X‐ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). These techniques are based on different physical principles, and may be applicable to different systems, but they often yield complementary results.
X‐ray Diffraction: Principles
Authors: Drenth Jan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The properties of biological macromolecules cannot be fully understood without knowledge of their three‐dimensional structure. For mutation of proteins and for rational drug design it is essential to know the three‐dimensional structure. X‐ray diffraction is one technique for structure determination. It requires the macromolecules to be present in a well‐organized arrangement as crystals or as fibres; amorphous material does not provide sufficient information.
Macromolecular Structure Determination by X‐ray Crystallography
Authors: Jaeger Joachim 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
X‐ray diffraction is a well‐established method to elucidate the atomic structure of single‐crystal macromolecules. An image of the macromolecule forming the crystal cannot be directly recorded as the X‐ray phase information is lost during the diffraction experiment. Through systematic variation of the chemical content in the crystal and/or through small changes in the wavelength of the incident X‐ray beam, however, a sharp image can be reconstituted computationally. Within the Protein Data Bank, the vast majority of three‐dimensional structures available have been determined using X‐ray diffraction. These structures are used to correlate macromolecular structure with function, to study molecular mechanisms and serve as templates for structure‐based drug design of novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of many diseases.
Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (
EPR
) and Spin‐labelling
Authors: Fajer Peter G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In EPR the magnetic dipole of an electron interacts with an external magnetic field and can be excited by an oscillating magnetic field. Spin labelling involves use of extrinsic probes, nitroxides, attached to the molecule under study. The spectra of nitroxide probes are used to infer orientation, dynamics and distances between labelled sites.
Electron Cryomicroscopy and Three‐dimensional Computer Reconstruction of Biological Molecules
Authors: Ludtke Steven J , Chiu Wah 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Electron cryomicroscopy, when combined with complex computer algorithms, can provide three‐dimensional structures of large proteins and complex macromolecules. This technique can approach problems which are difficult or impossible for techniques like X‐ray diffraction or NMR.
Single‐molecule Light Microscopy
Authors: Greulich Karl Otto , Uhl Volker 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The wavelength of visible light (∼500 nm) does not permit spatial resolution of individual molecules; but single molecules can be detected if they are themselves fluorescent [fluorophores] or are fluorescently tagged with fluorophores. Such techniques allow optical microscopy studies of quantum‐mechanical phenomena, mechanical properties of macromolecules, and single‐molecule reaction kinetics and mechanisms.