bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Notes on Building-Construction in Roman Britain
Authors: Wheeler R. E. M. 
Published: May 2006

No systematic survey of the methods adopted by military and civil builders in Roman Britain has yet been attempted. Nor does the present brief paper profess to fill the gap. It is merely a collection of notes based mostly upon a personal experience of varied types of Romano-British structure observed during excavation. As such, it may have a contributory value when a more comprehensive review of the subject is undertaken.The best single collection of Roman building-material from Britain is that recovered from the factory of the 20th Legion at Holt, near Chester, and now exhibited in the National Museum of Wales at Cardiff. For the rest, building-materials and methods receive less than their due in our museums.
The Cult of Volkanus at Rome
Authors: Rose H. J. 
Published: May 2006

Few mythological names are more familiar than that of Vulcan; and few cults present more puzzling difficulties than his. I propose to review the chief points connected with this god and one or two of the main theories concerning him, ending by putting forward the view which seems to me the most likely.What may be called the orthodox theory concerning him is to be found in the works of the late Professor Wissowa, and is as follows. He was a genuinely Roman god, a deus indiges. His department was fire, considered, not as the flame of the hearth or of the smith's forge, but as the destroying element, pure and simple. Hence, he was regularly worshipped outside the city walls, or at all events outside the pomerium. For this reason the Volcanal at Rome was at one end of the Forum, outside the original Palatine settlement and the ‘Servian’ city ; the later temple of the god, of date about 540/214, was in the Circus Flaminius ; perhaps also at Perusia he was worshipped outside the walls ; at all events, the fire of 714/40, which destroyed all the rest of the city, spared his temple and, according to Cassius Dio, that of Juno likewise.
M. Porcius Cato and the Annexation and Early Administration Of Cyprus
Authors: Badian E. 
Published: May 2006

I. Cato's title and commission: the problem.II. Cic., fam. XIII, 48: C. Sextilius Rufus, quaestor in Cyprus, and his family.III. The arrangements for annexation and administration.IV. The precedent: P. Lentulus Marcellinus and Cyrene.In 58 B.C. M. Cato, then of tribunician standing, was sent to Cyprus to confiscate and realize the King's property. The mission, with its political context, has been frequently discussed—best by S. I. Oost, with his usual historical insight and critical acumen. The present article proposes to base itself on Oost's discussion and investigate some further matters that did not come within the scope of his enquiry.IWe must start with Cato's title, on which the truth has only quite recently been recognized. Amid dozens of references to the famous mission, we have only two that purport to give his title accurately. The author of de uiris illustribus tells us that Cato was sent to Cyprus as quaestor. Since he is notoriously inaccurate in such matters, to the confusion of much modern scholarship, this would not be worth a great deal by itself. But it is fully supported by Velleius, who in fact gives more details: Clodius passed a law that Cato, as quaestor with praetorian status, and with a quaestor to assist him, should be sent to Cyprus to strip Ptolemy of his kingdom.
P. Decius P. f. Subulo
Authors: Badian E. 
Published: May 2006

A P. Decius Subulo appears twice in the extant books of Livy. The cognomen is only given on the first occasion and there spelled ‘Subolo’; and that may well be the correct original form. The word, we are told, is Etruscan for ‘tibicen’ and we may thus deduce, despite the Oscan nomen, a partly Etruscan (and perhaps priestly) origin for the family. It will have come from one of those regions of Central Italy pervaded by Etruscan influence—perhaps Campania; but nothing is known about it. We have no further reference to this P. Decius. It would be interesting to know whether he reached the praetorship: if he lived long enough, it is quite probable, to judge by others in similar positions; but we cannot tell.The son of this man first appears in history in an unfortunate manner. Cicero tells us of a man whom Q. Opimius (cos. 154), at some time after his consulship, mocked for his effeminacy—a charge which, according to Cicero, was undeserved and which the. young man neatly returned. The impudent retort to a consular shows that the youth must have been of some social standing. Unfortunately his name is corrupt in our manuscripts; but with the help of a citation by Nonius, Cichorius has restored it with certainty as ‘Decius’. This same man—who, in the circumstances, must be the son of the senator P. Decius Subulo— was also the butt of a joke by Scipio Aemilianus, which Cicero greatly admired, but which we cannot understand, except to see that it was probably indecent.
Aelius Aristides, ΕΙΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΑ
Authors: Jones C. P. 
Published: May 2006

A short speech preserved among the writings of Aelius Aristides is addressed to an unnamed emperor. At present, it is generally agreed to be spurious, spoken by an unknown orator before the emperor Philip the Arab. It has been called ‘the only preserved specimen of the oratory of the third century’, ‘perhaps the only speech preserved in the corpus of Aristides of which the authenticity can be denied with confidence’, and it has been used as a primary document for the history of Philip's reign.It was not always so. Up to the end of the nineteenth century, the authenticity of the speech was never questioned, though there was disagreement about the identity of the emperor.
Was there a Roman Charter for the Jews?
Authors: Rajak Tessa 
Published: May 2006

In the cities of the pre-Christian Roman empire, Jewish groups were in general free to pursue their own religious and social practices and, at any rate until Hadrian, they were not persecuted by the Roman government; even the exceptional and provocative demands for worship which came from a tyrannical emperor such as Gaius Caligula do not amount to planned persecution. There is a contrast with the subsequent fate of the early Christians, whose cult was, of course, often suppressed by the emperor and his governors. There is also a contrast with the later plight of the Jews themselves under Christian rule.Since, at the local level, Jews on the one hand and Greeks and natives on the other were often profoundly hostile to one another, the fact that the central government was on the whole proof against anti-Jewish pressure coming from below is indeed noteworthy. The edict of L. Flaccus as proconsul of Asia, by which in 62/1 B.C. he had confiscated the Jewish Temple contributions collected for export from his province, was never repeated, so far as we know (Cic., Flac. 66–9). Not only that: the Romans appear at times to have chosen to put their influence behind Jewish communities in dispute with their neighbours, as occurred to some extent in the cases which we shall discuss here, and did not cease even after A.D. 70.
Nobilitas and Novitas
Authors: Brunt P. A. 
Published: May 2006

I. No Roman definition of nobilis or novus homo exists. Mommsen held that the nobiles comprised:(a) all patricians;(b) those descended from patricians who had effected a transitio ad plebem;(c) those descended from plebeians who had held curule offices, viz. the offices of dictator, magister equitum, censor, consul, praetor, curule aedile. They were thus identical with the persons who had the ius imaginum. (On this footing Mommsen ought to have included plebeian aediles, at least for the post-Sullan era.) All others, including those who were the first of their lines to hold curule office, were novi. This theory has been generally abandoned in favour of Gelzer's; Afzelius argued that it corresponded to the conception of nobility in the second century, but not to that prevalent in Cicero's time. Yet it may after all be right.
The Tribune C. Cornelius
Authors: Griffin Miriam 
Published: May 2006

That Roman politicians function neither in splendid isolation nor in durable groups with common policies is a lesson we have grasped in large part through the imagination of the scholar who is honoured in this volume. Therefore a study aiming to put a tribune of 67 B.C. in his immediate context may be thought an appropriate offering, especially if the author does not fail ‘to keep the absent Pompeius in mind’ (Syme, Sallust 102).If Sallust in his Histories reached the tribunate of C. Cornelius, he probably treated him as one of a number of sincere tribunes crusading against Optimate corruption; similarly, W. McDonald, writing in 1929 the first separate treatment of Cornelius' tribunate, saw him more as a representative of the Popular Party than as an agent of the ambiguous Pompey, whose quaestor he had been and who, McDonald thought, had put him forward to defend his own interests.
Pay Grades and Ranks below the Centurionate
Authors: Breeze David J. 
Published: May 2006

The career of Tiberius Claudius Maximus, published in the last volume of this Journal, is unique. The relevant portion runs: militavit eque(s) in leg(ione) VII C(laudia) p(ia) f(ideli), factus qu(a)estor equit(um), singularis legati legionis eiusdem, vexillarius equitum, item bello Dacico ob virtute(m) donis donatus ab imp(eratore) Domitiano, factus dupli(carius) a divo Troiano in ala secu(n)d(a) Pannoniorum, a quo et fa(c)tus explorator in bello Dacico et ob virtute(m) bis donis donatus bello Dacico et Parthico, et ab eode(m) factus decurio in ala eade(m), quod cepisset Decebalu(m) et caput eius pertulisset ei Ranisstoro, missus voluntarius honesta missione a Terent[io Scau]riano, consulare [exerci]tus provinciae nov[ae …His career not only contains two otherwise unattested posts, quaestor equitum and singularis legati legionis, but is unparalleled in the promotion from principalis in a legion to duplicarius, an alternative title for optio, in an auxiliary unit. Speidel assumes that this latter move involved a pay rise, since transfer from a legion to an ala would usually be accompanied by an increase in pay. This assumption if correct has such far reaching implications that it requires detailed examination.
Inconsistency and Lassitude: the Shield Emblems of the Notitia Dignitatum
Authors: Grigg Robert 
Published: May 2006

It has usually been held that the shield emblems in the Notitia Dignitatum (Not. Dig.) were based upon an official pictorial register or pattern book, containing the unit emblems of the late Roman army. Thought to have been based upon an official source, as the text was, the shield emblems of the Not. Dig. are imagined to have been accurate in the original manuscript. It was only later, according to this view, that errors crept in during the transmission of the text and illustrations, so that the emblems now appear to be somewhat debased. For example, it is held that some of them no longer accompany the titles for which they were apparently intended.Shifts in the relationship between the emblems and titles have long been noted. But there are other, more fundamental, inconsistencies that have escaped the attention of scholars. These previously led me to raise doubts about the truth of the conventional view above and to entertain the possibility ‘that the artist's sources were so impoverished that he was reduced to relying upon his own powers of invention’. I should now like to explain in greater detail my reasons for rejecting the conventional view and advancing the alternative explanation that the shield emblems of the Not. Dig. were largely ad hoc fabrications. The consequences for our understanding of the Not. Dig. and of the art of the later Roman Empire are obviously considerable.
50 years of change in a Swedish boreal old‐growth Picea abies forest
Authors: Hofgaard Annika 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Changes in the tree layer (> 1.3m) and sapling layer (< 1.3m, including seedlings) of a Swedish boreal old‐growth Picea abies (Norway spruce) forest from the 1930s to the 1980s were studied in permanent plots. The plots were established in 1938–1939 and re‐analysed in 1983–1988. Regeneration, mortality, turnover rate in the tree layer and amount of decomposing logs as well as the time required for complete decomposition of logs were investigated using the detailed data from the 1930s.Ca. 25 % of the trees present during the first analysis were no longer alive. This mortality was balanced by recruitment from the sapling layer. The rate of mortality suggests a turnover time for the tree layer of ca. 200 yr. The number of spruces in the sapling layer has increased by ca. 85 %, hypothetically in response to an increase in amount of decomposing wood that can serve as nurse logs and stumps. The mean time for total decomposition was calculated as ca. 200 yr. Spruce regeneration on logs does not occur until the log is at least ca. 50 yr old. The survival pattern in the sapling layer suggests a high mortality rate at the seedling stage (≤ 1 yr) and a low mortality rate at the sapling stage.In conclusion, it is suggested that the amount of coarse woody debris available for regeneration, the occurrence of seedlings, and seedling mortality constitute concurrent factors through which climatic fluctuations, in a long‐term perspective, direct stand recruitment and density. As a consequence, these boreal forests will be kept in a dynamical equilibrium.
The impact of grazing and human disturbance on the dynamics of woodland in S. W. Ireland
Authors: Mitchell F. J. G. 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Pollen data from three mor humus profiles taken from within native woodland in the Killarney National Park are presented. The pollen records illustrate the woodland history over about 250 years.The dynamics of woodland on the mainland are compared with those of a small ungrazed lake island. Human disturbance of the woodland in the form of felling and burning is recorded at both locations. Following the disturbance, open vegetation predominated in which Arbutus unedo was widespread. This species declined as canopy woodland re‐developed. The pollen records illustrate the dynamics of the developing woodland during which the role of Ilex aquifolium and Taxus baccata was strongly influenced by grazing. The past importance of Taxus baccata in western Irish woodland is considered.
Effects of species interactions on community organization along a trampling gradient
Authors: Ikeda H. , Okutomi K. 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Effects of interspecific interactions on the organization of two trampled communities, Eragrostio ferrugineae ‐ Plantaginetum asiaticae (EP) and Eleusino indicae ‐ Digitarietum violascentis (ED), were examined by 4‐yr field experiments. We compared changes in the relative abundance of the main component species of the communities in monoculture and mixed culture along a trampling gradient. At no trampling in mixed culture, Ambrosia artemisiifolia var. elatior and Erigeron annuus (roadside herbs, RH) predominated and excluded the trampled community species. Severe trampling markedly reduced the predominance of these roadside herbs, promoted Eragrostis ferruginea (a perennial grass of EP), but suppressed Eleusine indica (an annual grass of ED). These results suggest that the differentiation of trampled and roadside herb communities under heavy trampling are caused by asymmetric competition between their main species.Several species pairs showed a constant rank order of relative cover at high trampling levels. Pennisetum alopecuroides (a perennial grass of both RH and EP) and Eragrostis coexisted, indicating symmetric competition. Eragrostis and Plantago asiatica (a perennial herb of EP) or Poa annua (a winter‐annual grass of both EP and ED) coexisted through separation in phenology. Eragrostis promoted the survival of Plantago by moderating unpredictable drought (commensalistic positive interaction). This suggests that community composition is maintained by several interspecific interactions.
Community composition and soil properties in northern Bolivian savanna vegetation
Authors: Haase Rainer 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Direct gradient analysis (Canonical Correspondence Analysis) of northern Bolivian savanna vegetation revealed correlations between the composition of plant communities and physical and chemical soil properties. Cover/abundance values for 193 species from 27 sites were related to data on eight soil factors. A water‐regime variable and the percentage of sand and silt were correlated with the first axis of the species‐environment biplot and explained most of the variation in community composition. Along this axis, species and sites of flood‐plain vegetation were separated from sites not affected by flooding rivers. The second axis of the biplot was correlated with soil‐chemical variables, namely extract‐able phosphate, base saturation, organic carbon, pH, and effective cation exchange capacity.Part of the variation in community composition can be explained by these soil nutrient variables. Grassland communities were separated from woody vegetation along the soil nutrient gradient, and floodplain communities of white‐water rivers from those of clear‐water rivers.The results of the gradient analysis indicate that the soil texture‐moisture gradient is the prime factor determining the variation in the floristic composition of the savanna communities examined, and that, in addition, the soil nutrient gradient accounts for some of the variation.
Physiognomic development of Pseudotsuga forests in relation to initial structure and disturbance intensity
Authors: Halpern Charles B. , Franklin Jerry F. 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Physiognomic patterns may vary significantly during succession despite a tendency for larger‐growth forms to gradually replace smaller ones. Development of understory structure was observed for 25 yr after harvest of Pseudotsuga forests on two sites in the western Cascade Range, Oregon. We examine the influences of disturbance intensity and initial vegetation structure on the origin, direction, and rate of physiognomic change.Broad‐scale changes in vegetation structure differed between sites. On Watershed 1, herbs dominated for 11 yr, after which shrubs became co‐dominant. In contrast, Watershed 3 never exhibited a distinct, transitional shrub phase ‐ herbs dominated for 18 yr, after which trees assumed co‐dominance.The pattern and rate of physiognomic succession also varied among pre‐disturbance plant communities and with disturbance intensity. Differences among communities largely corresponded with initial vegetation structure, reflecting the disturbance tolerance of forest herbs and shrubs. Canopy closure occurred most rapidly in the initially depauperate, but tree‐dominated Coptis community. Along the disturbance gradient, shifts from herb to shrub dominance occurred earlier on burned than on unburned sites due to rapid development of invading shrubs, whose germination and establishment were stimulated by fire. However, subsequent transitions to tree dominance showed no clear relationship with disturbance intensity.These long‐term trends suggest that pre‐disturbance community structure and disturbance intensity are major determinants of physiognomic succession, but that their effects may be modified by historical or stochastic factors such as limited seed availability or local fluctuations in weather.
Species‐area relations in a New Zealand tussock grassland, with implications for nature reserve design and for community structure
Authors: Gitay Habiba , Roxburgh Stephen H. , Wilson J. Bastow 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. A tussock grassland, in Blackrock Reserve, New Zealand, was sampled thoroughly at scales ranging from 0.01 m x 0.01 m to 20 m x 20 m, to investigate species‐area relations of relevance to plant community structure, and to offer a pointer to reserve design. In total, 96 species were found. Of the native vascular species among these, 20% were new records for the reserve.For the total and the native vascular flora the observed points fell midway between the Arrhenius and Gleason fitted curves. Cryptogams fitted the Arrhenius model well, with z close to the 0.26 value expected for isolates under Preston's Canonical hypothesis. Extrapolation of the Arrhenius curve to the whole of the New Zealand uplands gave values far too large; the Gleason curve gave values much too low.A General Root model is introduced. It fits the observed species richnesses at various quadrat sizes considerably better than previous models. When biogeographic limitations on species richness are included, extrapolation of the General Root curve accurately predicts the size of the upland flora. This fit, the lack of an asymptote, and the rarity structure, are compatible with a random and individualistic model of community structure. However, there are differences in species‐area relation between vascular and cryptogamic plants, which cautions against expecting any universal type of community structure.Extrapolations using the General Root model suggest that if the ideal is a 10 km x 10 km reserve, a reserve one tenth that size would contain 81% of the native species in that ideal, and the present Blackrock Reserve contains 67%.
Vegetation structure and dynamics of Pinus gerardiana forests in Balouchistan, Pakistan
Authors: Ahmed Moinuddin , Ashfaq Mohammad , Amjad Mohammad , Saeed Mohammad 
Published: May 2006

Abstract. 44 forest stands, including 42 stands with Pinus gerardiana Wall, ex Lamb dominant and two stands with broad‐leaved trees, were sampled in the Suleiman Range in Balouchistan. Density oi Pinus gerardiana trees ranged from 24 to 930 trees / ha with a mean of 266 individuals / ha; the average basal area was 25.5 m2 ha‐1.Adequate recruitment of Pinus seedlings was observed; higher seedling density is recorded from east‐facing slopes, while tree density was higher on west‐facing slopes.The average growth rate was estimated as 0.08 cm / yr radial growth. However, trees on high elevations and cooler slopes grow faster.Soil variables showed no correlation with density, basal area or importance values. It is suggested that the present degraded stage of the forests in the study area is of anthropogenic origin.
The shrubland vegetation in western Shewa, Ethiopia and its possible recovery
Authors: Zerihun Woldu , Backéus Ingvar 
Published: May 2006

AbstractShrubland vegetation and environmental data in western Shewa, Ethiopia have been analysed. Vegetation data include cover‐abundance values of vascular plant species; environmental data comprise physical and chemical properties of the soil, altitude, slope, grazing and browsing pressure.The vegetation data were subj ected to hierarchical and non‐hierarchical classification and ordination with correspondence analysis. The classification resulted in seven different vegetation types, ranging from grassland with scattered shrubs to degenerated forest. Ordination of the data and biplot analysis showed that the vegetation is influenced by anthropogenic factors and altitudinal variation. Sand content is related to a low level of anthropogenic influence whereas silt content is related to a high level. This is explained by historical events rather than by the present situation. Total nitrogen, organic carbon, altitude and slope are positively correlated and these variables are negatively related to anthropogenic influences.The shrubland vegetation may have expanded from lower altitudes and drier sites as forests gradually disappeared.The recovery of an economically more rewarding vegetation type may be achieved through pro viding alternative sources of fuel and construction and through prohibiting cultivation and grazing in the shrublands on the hillsides. Regeneration can be accelerated by actively introducing seedlings of tree species that do not need a heavy canopy cover for establishment and growth.