bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ascomycota
Authors: Eriksson Ove E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The ascomycetes, the spore sac fungi, are accommodated in the phylum Ascomycota, the largest of the four phyla of the true Fungi. The life cycle (holomorph) of an ascomycete may consist of a sexual stage (teleomorph) producing meiospores (ascospores) in spore sacs (asci, sing. ascus) and/or one or several asexual stages (anamorphs) producing mitospores (conidia). Some ascomycetes lack fruit bodies (yeasts, etc.), but most form asci in ascomata. Some conidial fungi (the coelomycetes) produce conidia in conidiomata, but others (the hyphomycetes) lack fruit bodies.
Basidiomycota
Authors: Watkinson Sarah C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Basidiomycetes are the group of fungi that reproduce and are dispersed by means of basidiospores produced from basidia, specialized cells in which meiosis occurs. The basidiomycetes are one of the two most advanced groups of the kingdom Fungi, the other being the ascomycetes. The two groups probably originated from a common ancestor during the evolution of life on land. Basidiomycetes and ascomycetes are collectively known as ‘higher’ or ‘septate’ fungi, and share many features that distinguish them from the simpler and more primitive aseptate lower fungi, Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota.
Budding
Authors: Goebl Mark G , Schweitzer Kelly 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Budding is a form of asexual reproduction utilized by unicellular fungi known as yeast. A small protuberance is formed on the cell wall that grows in size until it is almost the size of the original yeast cell, forming a narrow neck between the two cells. Cytokinesis then occurs at the neck between the two cells.
Fungal Pathogens of Humans
Authors: Mitchell Thomas G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Fungi may cause human disease by establishing an infection, inducing an allergic response or producing a toxin. Most pathogenic fungi are free‐living saprophytes and are only incidental pathogens of humans. The mycoses or fungal infections with the highest prevalence are caused by the few fungi that are part of the normal microbial flora or that are highly adapted for survival on the human host. There are a number of strategies for their diagnosis and management.
Fungal Pathogens of Plants
Authors: Alfen Neal K Van 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Fungi are the most important of the various groups of pathogens that attack plants. Our agricultural fields, forests, grasslands and urban landscapes are diminished in economic value and beauty by this important group of plant pathogens. Some fungal diseases, such as chestnut blight, make it impossible for hosts such as the American chestnut to grow where the disease is present.
Mushrooms and Mushroom Cultivation
Authors: Chang Shu‐Ting 
Published: September 2006

AbstractA mushroom is a macrofungus with a distinctive fruiting body, which can be found either above ground (epigeous) or below ground (hypogeous), large enough to be seen with the naked eye and to be picked by hand. Cultivation of mushrooms starts from spawn, which is used to inoculate substrate. Under optimum conditions, mushrooms can be harvested from 10 days to 6 months after spawning depending upon the strains of species used.
Mycorrhiza
Authors: Read DJ 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMycorrhizas are multifunctional symbiotic associations between fungi and the roots of plants. In most cases, as a result of the symbiosis, the fungi obtain the sugars required to enable their growth and reproduction. The plants, in turn, may gain increased supplies of nutrients, which are captured from soil by the fungi, as well as enhanced resistance to disease and toxicity.
Fungal Xerophiles (Osmophiles)
Authors: Hocking Ailsa D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Xerophilic fungi are yeasts and moulds that are capable of growth at or below a water activity (
a
w
) of 0.85. These microorganisms have developed physiological mechanisms that enable their biochemical pathways to function in concentrated environments. As a group they are extremely important in the spoilage of many processed foods and stored commodities.
Archaeal Membrane Lipids
Authors: Patel Girish B , Sprott G Dennis 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Membrane lipids of Archaea are unique and distinct from those found in Eukarya and Bacteria. The polar lipids consist of branched phytanyl chains, 20 to 40 carbons in length and usually saturated, which are attached via ether bonds to the glycerol carbons at the
sn
‐2,3 positions. The polar lipids of Archaea can be used to make liposomes (closed vesicles) which have characteristics that are useful for applications in biotechnology.
Archaeal Flagella
Authors: Jarrell Ken F , Bayley Douglas P , Correia Jason D , Thomas Nikhil A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The motility apparatus of the Archaea, the archaeal flagellum, is a unique structure distinct from the bacterial equivalent in composition and structure as shown by studies of flagellin proteins and flagellin genes. In spite of this, there are similarities between the archaeal and bacterial chemotaxis systems.
Endosymbionts
Authors: Jeon Kwang W 
Published: September 2006

AbstractEndosymbionts are smaller symbiotic partners living inside a host organism, and they may live within the host's cells (intracellular) or outside cells (extracellular) in a multicellular host. A symbiotic relationship may be parasitic (one partner harming the other), commensal (usually not affecting each other), or beneficial (unilaterally or mutually).
Rumen
Authors: Mackie Roderick I , McSweeney Christopher S , Aminov Rustem I 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The rumen is a large pregastric fermentation compartment (foregut) which maintains a diverse but concentrated population of anaerobic bacteria, protozoa and fungi that are responsible for a variety of degradative and fermentative reactions. During this process biodegradable organic matter, mainly plant cell wall polymers, are converted into volatile fatty acids and microbial biomass which supply energy and protein to the host (ruminant) animal.
Papillomaviruses
Authors: Christensen Neil D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Papillomaviruses are small DNA tumour viruses that cause hyperproliferative lesions known as warts. A subset of human papillomaviruses (HPVs) that infect genital tissues are associated with cancers of the uterine cervix (cervical cancer) and other anogenital sites. Viral genes with oncogenic activities have been described, and treatments of HPV‐associated disease including preventive strategies are currently under assessment.
Prion Diseases
Authors: Heppner Frank L , Aguzzi Adriano 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Prion diseases, or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, are degenerative disorders of the central nervous system and are of sporadic, familial or acquired nature. They include Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD), Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome, kuru and fatal familial insomnia in humans, as well as all prion encephalopathies of animals. The latter comprise scrapie in sheep, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), or ‘mad cow disease’, and chronic wasting diseases of mule, deer and exotic ungulates. In the last few years, a great body of circumstantial evidence has accumulated indicating that BSE prions can provoke new variant CJD.
Rubella Virus
Authors: Frey Teryl K , Katow Shigetaka 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Rubella virus
is an important human pathogen that causes birth defects when infection occurs during early pregnancy. Although the range of birth defects can vary widely, in the most severe cases lifelong care is required. Rubella is controlled by vaccination in most developed countries, but vaccination has not yet been introduced to most developing countries. In the absence of control by vaccination, rubella is the leading teratogenic agent of an infectious nature.
Aquificales
Authors: Huber Robert , Stetter Karl O 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Based on 16S rDNA sequence comparisons, the order Aquificales represents a very deep phylogenetic branch within the bacterial domain. Some Aquificales relatives have an upper temperature border of growth at 95°C. Together with members of the order Thermotogales, they represent the bacteria with the highest growth temperatures known so far.
Proteobacteria
Authors: Kersters Karel , Vos Paul De , Gillis Monique , Swings Jean 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The Proteobacteria constitute one of the major lineages (phyla) within the domain of the
Bacteria
. Although these Gram‐negative bacteria are phylogenetically related, they are physiologically, morphologically and ecologically extremely diverse. They are of great biological importance because they include various pathogens of humans, animals and plants, as well as a number of taxa that play key roles in the carbon, sulfur and nitrogen cycles on our planet.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Metabolism
Authors: Reineke Walter , Kaschabek Stefan R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Aerobic bacteria are able to use chlorinated hydrocarbons as the sole source of carbon and energy, leading to carbon dioxide, chloride and biomass; some anaerobic bacteria can use some chlorinated hydrocarbons as an artificial electron acceptor in reductive dechlorination. The ligninolytic enzyme system of white rot fungi exhibits ‘side activities’ for chlorinated aromatic compounds, though without value for the fungi. Liver enzymes are responsible for the formation of hydrophilic intermediates ready for excretion; these detoxifications often lead to highly reactive and potentially toxic intermediates.
Antibody‐dependent Cell‐mediated Cytotoxicity (ADCC)
Authors: Graziano Robert F , Guyre Paul M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Antibody‐dependent cell‐mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) is the nonphagocytic killing of an antibody‐coated target cell by a cytotoxic effector cell. ADCC is triggered through interaction of target‐bound antibodies with Fc receptors, molecules on the effector cell surface that recognize the Fc region of immunoglobulins. Effector cells that mediate ADCC include natural killer cells, monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils and dendritic cells.
Antigens: Lipids
Authors: Matsuda Kazuhiro , Yamamoto Naoki , Saito Masaki 
Published: September 2006

AbstractPhospholipids and glycolipids are major components of biomembranes. Immune responses against them are implicated in several human diseases and in recognition by higher organisms of microbial infections. Structural analysis of lipid antigens is important for understanding the mechanisms of molecular interactions and the pathogenesis of immune abnormalities.
Antigens: Thymus Independent
Authors: Möller Goran 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThymus‐independent (TI) antigens are capable of directly activating B lymphocytes into antibody production without helper cells or helper factors. These antigens are mostly of microbial origin, such as lipopolysaccharide from Gram‐negative bacteria, polymerized flagellin, pneumococcal polysaccharide type III, and levans and dextrans from bacteria and they normally induce an early specific immunoglobulin M antibody response, which often exhibit cyclical fluctuations. Apart from their ability to induce an immune response without T helper lymphocytes and their microbial origin, there is little in common between different TI antigens.
Germinal Centres
Authors: Heinen Ernst 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Germinal centres are lymphoid structures appearing after an antigenic stimulation inside lymph follicles. During this germinal centre reaction, B cells undergo clonal amplifications but also affinity maturation and class switching of their immunoglobulins. These events, occurring under control of T cells and in the peculiar environments created by the follicular dendritic cells, thus lead B cells to mature into B memory cells or into precursors of plasma cells.
Immunology of Invertebrates: Humoral
Authors: Gupta Ayodhya P 
Published: September 2006

AbstractAll major groups of invertebrates possess immunocytes that perform the major cell‐mediated immune functions. During massive or prolonged microbial invasion, the cellular defence may be impaired. Under such circumstances, antimicrobial proteins (humoral factors) secreted by the host immune system provide the second line of defence.
Thymus
Authors: Hugo Patrice , Boyd Richard 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The thymus, a bilobate gland located in the upper anterior thorax in higher vertebrates, is the major site of T‐lymphocyte production. This primary lymphoid organ composed of various nonlymphoid elements, referred to as the thymic stroma, governs the maturation of haematopoietic precursors into immune‐competent T‐cells.
Transfer RNA Recognition by Synthetases
Authors: Giegé Richard , Eriani Gilbert 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Fidelity of tRNA charging by amino acids ensures correct translation of the genetic code into proteins. Charging is catalysed by aminoacyl‐tRNA synthetases in reactions whose specificity is ensured by positive elements, the identity determinants unique to each tRNA and responsible for its recognition by the cognate synthetase, and negative elements, the antideterminants that prevent false recognitions.
Eukaryotic Ribosomes: Assembly
Authors: Planta Rudi J , Raué Hendrik A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Eukaryotic ribosomes contain one copy each of four different RNA species and about 80 different proteins. These components are assembled into ribosomal subunits in the nucleolus in an ordered manner as the precursor ribosomal RNA is processed into the mature form. This assembly requires numerous accessory factors, many of which are small nucleolar ribonucleoprotein particles (snoRNPs).
Translation Initiation Models in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Authors: Londei Paola 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Translation is one stage of protein synthesis in which messenger RNA (mRNA) acts as a template for the synthesis of DNA; it consists of three phases: initiation, elongation and termination. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms use different strategies to select the translation initiation sites on mRNAs.
Initiator
t
RNAs
in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Authors: Sperling‐Petersen Hans U , Laursen Brian S , Mortensen Kim K 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
A special type of transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) is employed in the initiation step of protein synthesis. The differences between the tRNAs involved in initiation and elongation establish the specificity and recognition of the tRNAs by the factors and enzymes involved in the initiation and elongation steps of protein synthesis.
Protein Synthesis in Eukaryotes: Internal Initiation
Authors: Sonenberg Nahum 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Internal initiation is an alternative mechanism to the general pathway of translation initiation in eukaryotes and involves the internal binding of ribosomes to a specific sequence in the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) called the internal ribosome entry site (IRES). The mRNA 5′ cap structure and a cap‐binding protein, eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) 4E, play a key role in the canonical mechanism of translation initiation. However, internal initiation is independent of the cap structure and eIF4E. IRES‐mediated translation initiation has been documented for viral and cellular mRNAs, and functions during mitosis and stress conditions, such as apoptosis and hypoxia.
Proteins: Postsynthetic Modifications
Authors: Kraft Regine , Wittmann‐Liebold Brigitte 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Analysis of the entire genome (genomics) provides static information about the genes and proteins of an organism. In contrast, total protein analysis (proteomics) reflects the dynamic situation, providing information about the rate of expression and regulation of individual proteins within the cell. Clues as to the function of proteins in diverse cell processes can only be obtained if their structure and modifications or variations are fully understood.
Clathrin‐coated Vesicles and Receptor‐mediated Endocytosis
Authors: Marsh Mark 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Receptor‐mediated endocytosis (RME) is the highly efficient uptake of extracellular molecules into cells in membrane‐bound vesicles formed by invagination of the plasma membrane. RME frequently occurs through clathrin‐coated vesicles.
Base Excision Repair, AP Endonucleases and DNA Glycosylases
Authors: Sander Miriam , Wilson Samuel H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Base excision repair is an important cellular mechanism that protects the integrity of DNA by repairing damage caused by alkylating agents and reactive oxygen species. The altered DNA base, and in some cases a few nucleotides adjacent to the altered base, is removed by excision, and the DNA is repaired by DNA synthesis and ligation.
Porphyrias
Authors: Elder George H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The porphyrias are diseases caused by partial deficiencies of the enzymes of haem biosynthesis, most of which are inherited. Clinically, they are characterized by acute episodes of abdominal pain, sometimes with mental disturbances and neuropathy, or by skin disease, caused by photosensitization by porphyrins, or by both of these separately or together.
Short
DNA
Sequence Repeats
Authors: Mitas Michael 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The human genome contains numerous segments of short, reiterated nucleotide sequences that are often located near or within transcriptional units. Despite extensive characterization of these DNA elements over three decades, no sequence‐specific role has been firmly established. However, it has been recognized that expansions of certain trinucleotide repeat sequences are associated with several inherited human disorders.
DNACrosslink Repair
Authors: Siede Wolfram 
Published: September 2006

AbstractCrosslinking agents are bifunctional or polyfunctional chemicals that generate a covalent linkage between complementary deoxyribonucleic acid strands. Repair of interstrand crosslinks has been studied in prokaryotes and in lower and higher eukaryotes. Repair involves the concerted action of nucleotide excision repair and recombinational processing.
Homologous Genetic Recombination during Bacterial Conjugation
Authors: Rosenberg Susan M , Motamedi Mohammad R 
Published: September 2006

AbstractConjugation is the sexual transfer of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) from one bacterium directly into another. The transferred DNA can replace DNA of similar sequence in the recipient cell's chromosome by homologous genetic recombination, a process that both exchanges lengths of similar DNA sequences and repairs broken chromosomes, using similar chromosomes as templates.
RecA Protein
Authors: Bianco Piero R , Kowalczykowski Stephen C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The RecA protein of
Escherichia coli
is the prototypic DNA strand exchange protein. It assembles on single‐stranded DNA to form a helical nucleoprotein filament that is the active species for all RecA protein‐dependent functions. This protein–DNA complex is responsible for three mutually exclusive functions: DNA recombination, induction of the SOS response and SOS mutagenesis.
Lipoprotein Metabolism: Structure and Function
Authors: Brunzell John D , Chait Alan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Lipoproteins are particles in plasma which carry cholesterol and triglyceride. Lipoprotein metabolism is described based on structure and function of their apolipoproteins and the enzymes, transfer proteins and receptors involved in their assembly and catabolism. Genetic defects in lipoprotein metabolism highlight the functions of these metabolic parameters.
Organic Reaction Mechanisms
Authors: le Noble William J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The mechanism of a reaction is a pathway by which the atoms travel from their initial positions in the reactants to the final ones in the products; of all the possible pathways, the one followed by most of the molecules in a sample is that which requires the smallest rise in free energy along the way. Reactions are called stepwise if they involve intermediate species with a finite lifetime, or concerted if they do not.
Glycolysis Regulation
Authors: Lopaschuk Gary D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Glycolysis provides an important source of energy for most cells as well as a source of substrate for a number of other metabolic pathways. Its regulation is complex, involving allosteric control, phosphorylation control and transcriptional control of glycolytic enzymes. Modulation of fructose 2,6‐bisphosphate has emerged as one of the key sites at which glycolysis is controlled.
Gluconeogenesis
Authors: Wallace John C , Barritt Greg J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The gluconeogenic pathway, which is found in the liver and kidney, involves the synthesis of glucose from three‐carbon precursors such as lactate, alanine and glycerol. The main function of gluconeogenesis is to supply glucose to tissues, such as brain and red blood cells, that depend on glucose as their main or sole energy source.
Starvation: Metabolic Changes
Authors: Brosnan John T , Watford Malcom 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Animals, including humans, invoke a comprehensive programme of hormonal and metabolic adaptations that enable them to withstand prolonged periods of starvation. The main goal of such adaptations is to provide glucose for the brain and fat‐derived fuels for most of the other tissues of the body. This is achieved through a well orchestrated pattern of tissue‐specific fuel metabolism.
Lysosomal Degradation of Proteins
Authors: Dice J Fred 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Lysosomal enzymes and lysosomal membrane proteins are targeted to lysosomes by distinct mechanisms. Mutations that cause a reduction in activity of a lysosomal enzyme cause a variety of lysosomal storage diseases. Lysosomes are able to take up and degrade proteins by at least five different pathways, and their contribution to overall proteolysis depends on the cell type and its physiological status.
Thiamin Diphosphate and Vitamin B
1
Authors: Schowen Susana K , Schowen K Barbara , Schowen Richard L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Thiamin diphosphate is the active form of thiamin (vitamin B
1
)
required as an enzyme cofactor to assist in fission and formation of
carbon–carbon bonds in biosynthetic and bioenergetic reactions.
Photosystem I
Authors: Krauß Norbert , Saenger Wolfram 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

In oxygenic photosynthesis, the two protein–pigment complexes photosystem I and photosystem II are involved in the light‐driven charge separation across the thylakoid membrane, which results in the oxidation of water to O
2
and in the reduction of NADP
+
to NADPH. In addition to a photosynthetic reaction centre, each of these photosystems contains a core antenna system. The crystal structure of photosystem I reveals the spatial organization of protein subunits and cofactors.
Iron Cofactors: Non‐haem
Authors: Fox Brian G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Proteins and enzymes with non‐haem iron centres display many functions: metal centres with primarily sulfur ligation are involved in electron transfer, electrophilic activation of hydroxyl groups, regulation of gene expression and fixation of N
2
; mononuclear and diiron centres with oxygen and nitrogen ligation have roles in various reactions with O
2
and in hydrolysis. The principles of their mechanisms of action are beginning to emerge from the considerable experimental data obtained on these proteins. Future research will attempt to manipulate the enzymes to extend their already substantial catalytic capabilities.