bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
DFT
and
FFTs
Authors: Wöstenkühler Gerd 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Time signals can be analyzed in the time and frequency domain. To convert signals between these domains on a computer, the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) can be used. This article describes the principle of this conversion based on periodic signals. It also outlines the advantage and conditions of the fast Fourier transform (FFT), the effect of a limited time window and a weighting window for data acquisition and the improvements by using an averaging algorithm in the time and frequency domain.
DSP
Chip Sets
Authors: Paterson‐Stephens Iain 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
In order to make the transition from a theoretical design on paper to a real working application, which employs a mixture of hardware and software elements and algorithm designs, a number of further concepts need to be grasped. This article gives an overview of a range of fundamental signal processing functions and relates these to the associated hardware features found in a typical DSP system. A number of system approaches are presented including the use of general purpose ‘programmable’ DSP devices, Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICS) and the use of Gate Arrays.
DSP
Tools
Authors: Paterson‐Stephens Iain 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
In this section, a number of issues are considered relating to the range of software tools that may be used during the design and development of DSP‐based applications. Software tools that could be used include algorithm design and visualization packages such as MATLAB and Simulink that help the designer to understand and tackle a signal‐processing problem. Other software tools can then be used to help move a theoretical design that exists only in simulation across to a target device for integration into a real‐world signal processing system; to verify and optimize the operation of the final working DSP system.
Principles of
DSP
Hardware Design
Authors: Paterson‐Stephens Iain 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
When designing DSP hardware to suit a particular application, a number of issues must be considered regarding the algorithms to be used, interfacing requirements, and system architecture. The performance of the required algorithms will be greatly affected by the processing demands of the complete DSP system and it is important to take a holistic approach when setting out the design strategy at the start. This section outlines some of the initial steps and gives an overview of the tools and techniques that can be used to ease the development of new DSP hardware. Information about testing and evaluation of the DSP system design and its real‐time performance is also presented.
Nature and Scope ofAITechniques
Authors: Abraham Ajith 
Published: August 2008

AbstractThe field of computational intelligence (artificial intelligence) has evolved with the objective of developing machines that can think like humans. As evident, the ultimate achievement in this field would be to mimic or exceed human cognitive capabilities including reasoning, understanding, learning, and so on. Computational intelligence includes neural networks, fuzzy inference systems, global optimization algorithms, probabilistic computing, swarm intelligence and so on. This article introduces the fundamental aspects of the key components of modern computational intelligence.
Artificial Neural Networks
Authors: Abraham Ajith 
Published: August 2008

AbstractArtificial neural networks are useful tools that have been applied successfully in a broad range of signal‐processing problems. From a signal‐processing perspective, their ability to adapt continuously to new data allows them to track changes in a signal over time, and their ability to learn from arbitrary, noisy data permits them to solve problems that cannot be handled adequately with some of the conventional statistical techniques. This chapter presents the fundamental principles of neural network modeling and illustrates some of the most commonly used neural network architectures for practical problem solving.
Rule‐Based Expert Systems
Authors: Abraham Ajith 
Published: August 2008

AbstractThe success of intelligent signal processing systems lies in their capabilities of logical reasoning, decision making, adaptation, self‐organization and communication in different modalities: speech, image, language, and so on. This article describes how rule‐based expert systems could be useful for signal processing tasks. Heuristic problem solving is introduced, which is followed by some fundamental aspects of conventional rule‐based systems and fuzzy expert systems. The design of a fuzzy expert system for a forecast problem is also illustrated.
Evolutionary Computation
Authors: Abraham Ajith 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Evolutionary computation offers practical advantages to the researcher facing difficult optimization problems. These advantages are multifold, including the simplicity of the approach, its robust response to changing circumstance, its flexibility, and many other facets.
The evolutionary algorithm can be applied to problems where heuristic solutions are not available or generally lead to unsatisfactory results. As a result, evolutionary algorithms have recently received increased interest, particularly with regard to the manner in which they may be applied for practical problem solving.
Knowledge‐Based Systems
Authors: Hofmann Dietrich 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
An innovative paradigm in measurement engineering is the application of the knowledge‐based Web working between innovative enterprises, universities, and research organizations to support Internet metrology. The aim of the article is to discuss the new knowledge‐based methods, which are mature for application in everyday measurements and what they are able to do. A key feature is the new understanding concerning simple and complex measurements and the elaboration and standardization of not only metrological but also particular and objective virtual measuring standards. Practical examples for knowledge‐based legal metrology and knowledge‐based industrial metrology are given.
Quantizing Theory Relevant to
DAS
Authors: Wöstenkühler Gerd 
Published: August 2008

Abstract

Analog‐to‐digital (A/D) conversion in its basic conceptual form is a two‐step process:
quantizing
and
coding
. Quantizing is the process of transforming a continuous analog signal into a set of discrete output states. Coding is the process of assigning a digital code word to each of the output states. Some of the early A/D converters were appropriately called quantizing encoders. This article describes the quantizer of a data acquisition system (DAS).
Sampling Theory Relevant to
DAS
Authors: Wöstenkühler Gerd 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
An analog‐to‐digital (A/D) converter requires a small, but significant, amount of time to perform the quantizing and coding operations. The time required to make the conversion depends on several factors: the converter resolution, the conversion technique, and the speed of the components employed in the converter. The conversion speed required for a particular application depends on the time variation of the signal to be converted and on the accuracy desired.
Coding for Data Converters
Authors: Wöstenkühler Gerd 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Data acquisition systems convert the analog value of signals into a digital representation which can only be realized with a step function. Each step is characterized with a unique binary combination. For further processing, the codes for all steps of the data converter have to be known. On the basis of the application and the amplitude range used, different codes are suitable. This article describes the commonly used codes in data acquisition systems.
Digital‐to‐Analog (
D
/
A
) Converters
Authors: Wöstenkühler Gerd 
Published: August 2008

Abstract

Very elementary elements of data acquisition systems are digital‐to‐analog (D/A) converters. They convert a digital signal into a corresponding analog value and they are used to control the analog values of a process. This D/A function is also utilized in some analog‐to‐digital (A/D) converters (
see also
Analog‐to‐Digital (A/D) Converters
). This article describes some realizations and the typical behavior of some often used D/A circuits.
Analog‐to‐Digital (
A
/
D
) Converters
Authors: Wöstenkühler Gerd 
Published: August 2008

Abstract

Elementary components of a data acquisition system are analog‐to‐digital converters (ADC). Several different circuits have been developed. On the basis of the required speed, only a few types of the ADC are normally used. This article describes the nonintegrating types of ADC circuits used for medium‐ and high‐speed applications in contrast to the integrating types for low‐speed applications (
see also
Integrating Type A/D Converters
).
Integrating Type
A
/
D
Converters
Authors: Wöstenkühler Gerd 
Published: August 2008

Abstract

Elementary components of a data acquisition system are analog‐to‐digital converters (ADC). Several possible circuits have been developed. On the basis of the necessary speed only a few types of the ADC are typically used. This article describes the integrating types of ADC circuits for low‐speed applications in contrast to the nonintegrating types for medium and high‐speed applications (
see also
Analog‐to‐Digital (A/D) Converters
).
Analog Multiplexers
Authors: Wöstenkühler Gerd 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
A main task of a data acquisition system is the conversion of several analog input signals into their digital representations. A central component is the analog‐to‐digital converter (ADC). On the basis of the price of the ADC, it is recommended to multiplex one converter into several input signals. With this method, one ADC can convert 4, 8, or 16 analog channels using the time sharing principle.
Sample‐Hold Circuits
Authors: Wöstenkühler Gerd 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
A data acquisition system (DAS) converts between analog information and digital information. A sample‐hold circuit can be used to improve the uncertainty at analog‐to‐digital (A/D) conversion based on changes of the input voltage and the conversion time. Another application is its utilization as an output filter at digital‐to‐analog (D/A) conversion where it stores the analog information as long as it will be updated by the next converted value. This article describes some often used sample‐hold circuits and general characteristics.
Principles ofMEMSActuators
Authors: Bryzek Janusz 
Published: August 2008

AbstractAs the sophistication level of MEMS devices increased, the electromechanical systems on a chip started demanding equally sophisticated integrated on‐chip actuators. The first devices to include actuators were closed‐loop sensors to enhance the measurement accuracy. With time, complex mechanical systems on a chip were developed. Five basic control actuators were designed for MEMS devices: electrostatic, magnetic, piezoelectric, thermal, and optical. These are discussed.
Embedded Systems
Authors: Wilmshurst Timothy 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Embedded Systems have wide application in the field of measurement and instrumentation, enabling as they do the automation of a measurement process, calculation of intermediate data and results, interface with other computer‐based systems, and data logging. The embedded system is generally designed around one or more microcomputers, usually taking the form of microcontrollers. Their design therefore incorporates, inter alia, aspects of hardware, software, interfacing, and data acquisition.
Error Sources in Fine Mechanics
Authors: Sydenham Peter H. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Despite the fact that many measurement solutions are now implemented in the electronic regime, there is still need for fine mechanical components that perform well. Their design knowledge reached a peak of interest around the 1950s. Since then, the topic of errors in fine mechanics has found little publication interest. This article provides an introduction to the errors and how to control them in the mechanical aspect of the design and application of measuring systems.
Optical Materials
Authors: Chu Pak L. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract

Many measuring instruments make use of optical elements. This article deals with the basic materials commonly used to form optical elements, the building blocks of optical systems. (The term ‘optical’ is used frequently to describe the wavelength bandwidth including the outer bands of ultraviolet and infrared.) The basic glasses, abrasives for working glass, tools for shaping elements, and materials for holding elements during shaping, polishing, and cleaning are covered here. The properties of optical elements are outlined. Optical elements formed from these materials are covered in
Optical Elements
. Sources and detectors are discussed in
Light Sources and Detectors
. For the testing of optical systems,
see
Testing Optical and Other Radiation Systems
.
Optical Elements
Authors: Chu Pak L. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
This article describes the basic optical elements encountered in optical systems. Emphasis is on the principle of operation of each kind of element. All topics are treated in terms of the ray theory of light, not the more comprehensive and complicated wave theory. Here, the optical fiber is treated as a light transmission component: coherent and incoherent fiber bundles are discussed. The GRIN lens, as an imaging device, is also included.
Testing Optical and Other Radiation Systems
Authors: Cormier Alan J. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
A wide range of optical instrumentation exists; however, the task of testing such instruments may in general be reduced to one of evaluating emitted wavefront form and image quality, where imaging is intended. Considered here are the test equipment commonly used to perform these tasks and the principles upon which key test methods are based, namely, interference, diffraction, and the optical transfer function. We also review typical limitations associated with the use of such test equipment and the need for regular calibration.
Uses and Benefits of
MEMS
Authors: Bryzek Janusz 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
MEMS technology dates back to the discovery of the piezoresistive effect in silicon at Bell Labs in early 1950s, as a by‐product of the semiconductor research. Though this technology evolved slower than the general semiconductor industry, as of 2004, several of its applications have created the expected multibillion‐dollar market. The forecast for the next decade points to many other applications based on MEMS technology that will grow by billions of dollars. This article characterizes key applications of MEMS devices in measurement and instrumentation applications.
Human Factors Engineering
Authors: Beagley Nicholas I. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
The human is an essential component of most systems whether it is in the completion of a central function required for system success, or as a customer of a system's output. Human Factors provides the supporting science required to ensure the safe, effective, and efficient participation of people in achieving the objectives of a system. A wide range of methods have been developed to help researchers understand the capabilities of the human in conjunction with their tasks and environment in support of the design of efficient systems.
Human—Machine Interface
Authors: Beagley Nicholas I. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Interaction with our surroundings is an interactive loop in which sensory information is processed by our nervous system as the basis of actions in which we influence the world around us. Our ability to influence the world is enhanced by our ability, through human evolution, to develop tools. These mechanical devices are an extension of the physical world and we rely on the same cycle of sensory processing and control to direct the operation of machines. Human Factors is concerned with the interface between the human and the machine in the context of the intended task and associated environment. Recognition of the functional capabilities of the human senses and their translation into control actions is central to the appropriate design of suitable human–machine interfaces.
The Domains of Human Factors Integration
Authors: Beagley Nicholas I. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
The true value of Human Factors lies in its ability to influence systems design for the better. Tools and techniques have been developed to support systems design to account for Human Factors issues. Adoption of these methods by systems design programs varies greatly. With consumer products, Human Factors tools are used to increase the chance of consumer acceptance and hence product success. In large‐scale government procurements, user acceptance is also one of the many considerations. Recognition of the importance of Human Factors Integration has led to the development of the US MANPRINT and the UK Human Factors Integration (HFI) defense procurement policies designed to ensure that these issues are raised and appropriately mitigated throughout the process of system procurement.
Design Methodology
Authors: Beagley Nicholas I. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
To be successful in the design of human/systems, the design process must recognize a users inability to completely specify the precise details of a requirement at the start of a design program and the role of prototyping and iterative user testing for the refinement of a concept toward a design that is fit for a purpose. Several strategies exist to account for the capabilities of the user and variations within a target population. Techniques for exploring concepts at their earliest stage and for evaluating potential designs within a representative context offer a vital contribution to the challenges of human/system integration that face the designer.
Amplitude Modulated Signals: The Lock‐in Amplifier
Authors: Burdett Richard 
Published: August 2008

Abstract

By modulating signals that are accompanied by significant noise, it is possible to use synchronous detection to recover the signal. This gives a very narrow bandwidth, thereby significantly increasing the measured signal‐to‐noise ratio. This article deals with this detection method, as commonly implemented by an instrument called a
lock‐in amplifier
.
Grounding and Shielding
Authors: Fowler Kim R. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Grounding and shielding aids electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) by reducing or eliminating electromagnetic interference (EMI) between electronic circuits. Grounding and shielding applies to components, subsystems, or separate instruments. Grounding provides reference for signals and safety for people. This discussion assists determination of the paths of current flow in ground structures and the selection of the appropriate grounding scheme. Shielding reduces or eliminates EMI. It also covers sources of noise and mechanisms of noise coupling; these determine shielding and filtering needs.
EMC
and
EMI
Authors: Fowler Kim R. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and electromagnetic interference (EMI) deal with how electronic circuits interfere with one another. These interferences may exist between components, subsystems, or separate instruments. The discussion that follows provides the basis for EMC and EMI; these basic principles include: reciprocity, current follows the path of lowest impedance, diagnostic impedance, noise‐coupling mechanisms, electrostatic discharge, and diagnostic clues. These basic principles are then used in
Grounding and Shielding
, as a foundation for particular forms of grounding and shielding.
Pulse Height Discrimination, Ratemeters and Pileup
Authors: Burdett Richard 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
In pulse counting systems, it is possible to separate out the different pulse heights, allowing signal extraction from a noisy situation. Related to this are the issues of pulse rate counting and pulse pileup effects with high‐intensity signals. This article discusses the use of photomultipliers to outline the elements of pulse height discrimination, rate counting, and pileup.
Types of Paper Standards and their Purpose
Authors: Eren Halit 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Published standards play a fundamental role in shaping the efficiency of domestic and global economies. These statements, for measuring systems, provide textual and illustrative information on the ‘what’ and ‘how to’ of measurements. This article introduces the general form and nature, the methods of obtaining them, and their use in supporting the designs. A case study of the development of a standard is provided.
Safety Analysis Methods
Authors: Sydenham Peter H. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract
Safety is very much a subjective system issue but analysis using formal thinking will assist improvement in a logical, modeled and recorded manner. This article defines basic definitions, outlines the relevant standards and safety assessment methods including Work Safety Assessment, Failure Mode and Effects Analysis, Failure Mode and Effects and Criticality Analysis, Fault Tree Analysis, and Hazard and Operability Analysis.
Fuzzy Approaches for Measurement
Authors: Benoit Eric , Foulloy Laurent , Mauris Gilles 
Published: August 2008

AbstractSince it appeared in Zadeh's (1965) seminal paper, fuzzy subsets theory has been effectively applied in many domains. This article presents the different approaches used in the measurement domain. It first defines fuzzy sensors as the application of fuzzy subset theory to measurement. Numerical and linguistic versions of fuzzy subsets for measurement are then presented before discussions of rule‐based fusion and interpolation fusion of information.
Scheduling Systems
Authors: Michta Emil 
Published: August 2008

AbstractApplication of the scheduling theory to the design of a distributed, real‐time networked measurement–control system is presented. Review of the priority‐based scheduling theory for the fixed priority assignment, system and task models, and application example are outlined. Emphasis is given to the processor and network utilization‐based test and to the task's worst‐case response time analysis. The same analysis approaches for task scheduling on single processor node and message scheduling across the network will be used. During the designing stage, scheduling of resources is decoupled and scheduling of each node and network is analyzed independently.
Electrical Bridge Circuits—Basic Information
Authors: Warsza Zygmunt L. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract

The principle of the voltage and current balance states of electrical circuits, applied in measurement is discussed. The Wheatstone bridge and a review of its 170‐year‐long history of development of different versions and their applications is presented. Bridge classifications are covered. A description of the bridge as a two‐port device represented by matrix
Z
parameters and their increments from the balance state is provided. This is a unified, universal, and useful tool for analysis of bridge properties and their two‐port application in various circuits of measurement systems.
Unbalanced
DC
Bridges
Authors: Warsza Zygmunt L. 
Published: August 2008

Abstract

Equivalent circuits for linear passive and reciprocal four‐terminal networks (4T) are developed. For a particular case, a detailed discussion is given on the resistance bridge working as the type X twoport of variable parameters. Relations of its impedance matrix elements as functions of bridge resistances in the balance state and of their increments are shown in Tables 1(a) and 1(b). The product of bridge terminal resistances completes the bridge balance condition. General linearity conditions of terminal parameters depending on large‐scale changes of arm resistances are formulated. Bridge output signals and terminal resistances of any mode of DC supply and load as functions of its

Z
R

matrixelements. Some properties and relations of the unbalanced DC bridge are presented below in a generalized and an original way.