bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Wonder of Armchair Inquiry
Authors: Sorensen Roy A. 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter focuses on armchair inquiry. Thought experiment has the feel of clairvoyance, thus eliciting awe in some and suspicion in others. But the wonder of thought experiment is just a special case of our vague puzzlement about how a question could be answered by merely thinking. There is no mystery when investigators look, measure, and manipulate. Their answers come from the news borne by observation and experiment. But if you just ponder, then the information you have leaving the armchair is the same as the information you had when you sat down. It is argued that part of our wonder is based on a modal fallacy. The theories of armchair inquiry that promise answers to the legitimate portion of our wonder are surveyed. Finally, a cleansing model of rationality that sets the stage for a detailed analysis of how thought experiments work is developed.
Kant's Mechanical Determination of Matter in the Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science
Authors: Carrier Martin 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This paper deals with the interpretation of the Mechanics chapter of Kant’s Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (1786). It is aimed at clarifying the procedure Kant invokes for the transcendental determination of the quantity of matter in mechanical respect. Kant’s intention is to ground mass measurement on the moving force that matter possesses by virtue of its motion, and that moving bodies display by setting other bodies in motion. An important issue in this context concerns the role of gravitation as compared to mechanical processes in the narrow sense of “pressure and impact”.
Kant on the Scientific Status of Psychology, Anthropology, and History
Authors: Makkreel Rudolf A. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Kant’s efforts to replace psychology as a theoretical natural science with anthropology as a pragmatic science are examined on the basis of his anthropology lectures. For Kant, psychology posits the soul as a distinct substance, but his pragmatic anthropology makes no such metaphysical assumption. It can succeed by limiting itself to providing historical rather than rational cognition, being descriptive rather than explanative, and having a worldly rather than an academic perspective. Kant’s reflections on culture in the Critique of Judgment are claimed to account for certain final changes in the anthropology that was published in 1798.
All Is Not Vanity
Authors: Abbey Ruth 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Friedrich Nietzsche believes that self-love is a necessary ingredient for healthy individualism. This chapter explores the connections between his conceptions of egoism, self-love, and vanity in the middle period works. It is argued that the roots of Nietzsche’s later concept of ressentiment appear in these works, for several of the features associated with vanity, such as heteronomy and the absence of self-love, come to be characteristic of ressentiment. The chapter then moves into a discussion of what room there might be for a conception of justice, in an analysis that imputes so much power to egoism.
The Soul‐Friendship of Two People of Differing Sex
Authors: Abbey Ruth 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
At times in the works of the middle period, Friedrich Nietzsche accepts that higher friendship is possible between men and women, and holds love and marriage in high esteem. Sometimes, he even models marriage on friendship. While he does say some damning things about love and marriage, this chapter tries to balance his critical comments against his more positive ones to allow for a clearer, albeit more complex, appreciation of his stance to be achieved. This analysis also requires some reconsideration of the commonplace view that Nietzschean free spirits abjure marriage and family life.
The Invention of Invention
Authors: Abbey Ruth 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
The image of Friedrich Nietzsche as a radical critic of the western philosophical tradition pervades the literature dedicated to his thought. He is often depicted as a sui generis thinker, whose thoughts evolve out of his peculiar genius. Yet this image is accepted partly because of the picture he draws of himself, for in his later works, Nietzsche repeatedly invents himself as inventor rather than legatee. Only with a knowledge of middle period writings is it possible to see how Nietzsche has constructed this image of himself. The works of the middle period disclose a thinker who presents himself as constructively engaged with the western intellectual tradition, as continuing some of its ideas, expanding some of its possibilities, and repudiating other of its claims. This chapter discusses Nietzsche’s distinctive writing style in the middle period works. It then uses some of his reflections on interpretation to question the view that Nietzsche advocates an ad hominem analysis of the work of others.
Visible Identities
Authors: Alcoff Linda Martín 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
In the heated debates over identity politics, few theorists have looked carefully at the conceptualizations of identity assumed by all sides. Drawing on both philosophical sources as well as theories and empirical studies in the social sciences, this book makes a strong case that identities are not like special interests, nor are they doomed to oppositional politics, nor do they inevitably lead to conformism, essentialism, or reductive approaches to judging others. Identities are historical formations and their political implications are open to interpretation. But identities such as race and gender also have a powerful visual and material aspect that eliminativists and social constructionists often underestimate. This book analyses the political and philosophical worries about identity and argues that these worries are neither supported by the empirical data nor grounded in realistic understandings of what identities are. The book develops a more realistic characterization of identity in general through combining phenomenological approaches to embodiment with hermeneutic concepts of the interpretive horizon. Besides addressing the general contours of social identity, the book develops an account of the material infrastructure of gendered identity, compares and contrasts gender identities with racialized ones, and explores the experiential aspects of racial subjectivity for both whites and non-whites. In several chapters the book looks specifically at Latino identity as well, including its relationship to concepts of race, the specific forms of anti-Latino racism, and the politics of mestizo or hybrid identity.
The Philosophical Critique
Authors: Alcoff Linda Martín 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter discusses the philosophical critique of identity. In order to understand the current aversion to cultural identity, one needs to retrace the development of the philosophical treatment of the self in modern, Western philosophy. Charles Taylor's Sources of the Self (1989) is the best recent attempt to do this, and the chapter begins with an overview of some of the main ideas in his philosophical history that relate to the question of identity. Based on readings of Hegel, Sartre, and other key figures, a genealogy of the philosophical critique of identity is developed, which shows that its more fundamental basis is not actually in the Western concept of rationality but in the modern Western treatments of the Other developed in the context of the European colonialism. Finally, it is shown how this legacy lives on today in some aspects of postmodern philosophy.
The Identity Crisis in Feminist Theory
Authors: Alcoff Linda Martín 
Published: February 2006

AbstractCultural feminists define women by their activities and attributes in the present culture. In contrast, poststructural feminists attack the category and the concept of woman by problematizing subjectivity. Each response has serious limitations, and it has become obvious that transcending these limitations while retaining the theoretical framework from which they emerge is impossible. This chapter discusses the inadequacies of these responses. It then argues that these inadequacies are inherent and develops an alternative response.
Racism and Visible Race
Authors: Alcoff Linda Martín 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines the relationship between racism and the visibility of racialized identity. It has been argued in earlier chapters that social identities are hermeneutic locations attached to historical experiences that are also concrete sites of interpretation and understanding. On this account, racial identity is not a product of “race”, but is historically evolving and culturally contextual, and thus it remains unclear that racist hierarchies are necessarily entailed. The historical legacy of racial identities will always carry as a central feature the history of racism, and in this way there is an association of race with racism, but future meanings of racial identity itself are open-ended.
Latinos and the Categories of Race
Authors: Alcoff Linda Martín 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the Latino identity. It calls for the understanding Latino identity as an ethnic identity. This option could allow for more internal heterogeneity and resist the racializing that brings racism as well as the mischaracterization of the Latino's sense of self. However, it is also argued that the “ethnic option” is not fully adequate for contemporary social realities, and may inhibit the development of useful political strategies for diverse Latino communities. The main argument in this chapter will take the form of a negative: the ethnic option is not adequate. The very failure of the ethnic option will establish some of the necessary criteria for such an alternative.
Latinos, Asian Americans, and the Black‐White Binary
Authors: Alcoff Linda Martín 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter argues that even if we try to build coalition around what might seem to be our most obvious common concern — reducing racism — the black-white paradigm that dominates racial discourse in the United States inhibits our comprehension of the variety of racisms and racial identities and thus proves more of an obstacle to coalition building than an aid. It uses the situation of Latinos and Asian Americans to explore the black-white binary, what it is, how it operates, and how it is limiting. It then discusses the black-white paradigm.
A Conception of Autonomy
Authors: Friedman Marilyn 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter presents the author's basic account of autonomy, considering its social context and dimensions. It then explores the difference between a substantive and a content-neutral conception of autonomy, opting for the latter. This is followed by some thoughts about the prospects for autonomy under dangerous or oppressive conditions. The chapter concludes with some remarks about possible counterexamples to the conception of autonomy presented.
Autonomy and Social Relationships: Rethinking the Feminist Critique
Authors: Friedman Marilyn 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter surveys prominent feminist writings that call for a relational conception of autonomy and that criticize the philosophical mainstream for lacking such an account. It shows that prominent mainstream accounts of autonomy do acknowledge the importance of social relationships, thus tending to converge on this point with the prevalent feminist view. Feminists' objections to mainstream conceptions of autonomy are considered, focusing on the charge that mainstream accounts do not take account of social relationships.
John Rawls and the Political Coercion of Unreasonable People
Authors: Friedman Marilyn 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter focuses on John Rawls's recent approach to liberal political legitimacy. His views on reasonableness and rationality are considered. It is argued that Rawls's legitimation pool for political liberalism is defined precisely in such a way as to exclude those whose prior (illiberal) commitments would lead them to reject political liberalism. The challenge for Rawls is to find good but politically independent reasons for eliminating so-called unreasonable people from the legitimation pool.
Legislating Morality
Authors: Peach Lucinda 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis book examines the place of religion in political life. It considers the problems that may arise between religious beliefs and lawmaking. It discusses the liberal and communitarian proposals for addressing the dilemma of religious lawmaking, focusing on theories of Kent Greenawalt and George Herbert Mead. It then proposes an alternative legal strategy for religious lawmaking that is based on an expanded test for Establishment Clause violations. The strategy invalidates religiously influenced laws in a limited range of circumstances when Establishment Concerns are present, and when infringements on Citizenship Rights cannot be fully justified by a secular rationale and/or by a compelling state interest.
The Dilemma of Religious Lawmaking
Authors: Peach Lucinda 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of the meaning of the term religious lawmaking. It then describes the factors that make religious lawmaking constitutionally problematic in a morally and religiously pluralistic society. It argues that religious lawmaking in the U.S. is contentious for several reasons, including the publicly inaccessible character of religion; the consequent tendency of religiously based laws to alienate, exclude, coerce, or be politically divisive of nonbelievers; the gender bias of prominent religious traditions in the U.S.; and the magnification of that bias when incorporated into the binding laws of a morally and religiously pluralistic society. These problems are evident in the religious influences on abortion laws.
Liberal Approaches to Religious Lawmaking
Authors: Peach Lucinda 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter examines liberal proposals for addressing the dilemma of religious lawmaking, focusing on the work of Kent Greenawalt. It shows that liberal approaches to religious lawmaking reflect problematic assumptions about the nature of religion as voluntarist, of religious convictions as a matter of choice rather than compulsion, of religion as a private rather than public matter, and of the moral self as divisible into private and public aspects. Greenawalt’s approach, which permits a larger role for religion in lawmaking, is an improvement over traditional liberal theories. However, these proposals remain inadequate, particularly in their failure to recognize or protect the Citizenship Rights and interests of pregnant women.
Rationality and Intelligence
Authors: Russell Stuart 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter considers how to formalize intelligence or rationality in a way that has value for the development of agents built for a specific application and of general theories of intelligence. It presents three candidates that traditionally have stood as formalizations of intelligence: perfect rationality, calculative rationality, and meta-level rationality. Perfect rationality is an abstraction that does not correspond to any physical reasoner. Calculative rationality fails to scale up to problems of sufficient and interesting complexity. Meta-level rationality pushes the problem into a never-ending regress. As an alternative, this chapter considers the notion of bounded optimality as a workable proxy for theorizing about machine intelligence. This notion rests on two crucial elements: that behaviors and decisions happen in real time and that an agent is defined by a particular (software and hardware) architecture and a particular program that runs on that architecture. Under this view, an agent is bounded optimal if it maximizes the utility of its behavior for a task within the demands of the environment. The chapter then elaborates on the role of adaptive, inductive mechanisms as the means for making gains in calculative and meta-level rationality for real-world application systems, and for bounded optimality more generally.
The Logical Foundations of Means‐End Reasoning
Authors: Pollock John L. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter focuses on one aspect of practical cognition — plan-construction. Human plan-construction is generally based on means-end reasoning. Means-end reasoning is concerned with finding the means for achieving goals. The basic idea is a simple one: to achieve a goal, we consider an action that would achieve it under some specified circumstances and then try to find a way of putting ourselves in those circumstances in order to achieve the goal by performing the action. Putting ourselves in those circumstances becomes a subgoal. The idea is to work backward from the goal through subgoals until we arrive at subgoals that are already achieved. The resulting sequence of actions constitutes a plan for achieving the goal. A precise logical theory of plan-construction is formulated that completely characterizes means-end reasoning.
The Logic of Ordinary Language
Authors: Harman Gilbert 
Published: February 2006

AbstractThis chapter considers whether there is a naive or folk logic of ordinary language, a set of principles that plays the same role in our understanding and use of language as, say, the principles naive physics play in our understanding of the everyday world. A distinction is made between true logical and nonlogical principles: the truth of the former is a matter of their form, while the truth of the latter is a matter of their content. It is argued that logical principles can inform a reasoner about the acceptability of an argument's structure but not how the argument is to be assembled or even whether the argument's conclusion should warrant a change in belief state. It is also argued that a (loose) logic of ordinary language embodies our commonsense knowledge about language and how we use it to reason and speak fluidly about what is known in the world and what is said about the world.
The Wu-men kuan (J. Mumonkan)
Authors: Shūdō Ishii , Welter Albert 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter examines the Wu-men kuan, one of the most widely read Zen texts in the canon. This text offers 48 kung-an or koan cases that have been significant in Zen practice since the late Sung. Ishii’s essay seeks to trace the development of this text and its genre to the Tsung-men t’ung-yao chi and other earlier Zen sources. The essay seeks to understand why this text was favored so prominently in Japan, and how its structural features relate to the context of Sung dynasty Chan textual history.
Chanyuan qinggui and Other “Rules of Purity” in Chinese Buddhism
Authors: Foulk T. Griffith 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This essay examines an entire class of Zen literature, the so called qinggui (J. shingi) or “rules of purity.” It demonstrates that the qinggui is actually several genres, some written to regulate one particular monastic community and others intended more broadly for all Chinese Buddhist communities. This essay traces the historical origins of this broad genre, its steady development, and its relations to early Buddhist vinaya. Its goal is to clarify the relations between these widely used texts, and show how changing social and political contexts are reflected in them.
The Complexity of Moral Psychology
Authors: Arpaly Nomy 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter explores some complexities of moral life that have not received due attention, but should be of interest to moral psychologists. It presents a collection of cases in which phenomena that occur in real life appear to be different from the paradigmatic cases contemporary moral psychologists try to accommodate. These include the cases of inadvertent virtue and misguided conscience; belief formation “under the influence” or intentionally induced belief; external desires and the closet homosexual; self control and unconscious motivation; deliberation, reflection, and getting through the day; and rationality and unconsciousness.
On Acting Rationally Against One's Best Judgment
Authors: Arpaly Nomy 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter argues against a common assumption in moral psychology — that akrasia is always irrational, or at least, always less rational than the corresponding self-controlled action. It contends that sometimes an agent is more rational for acting against her best judgment than she would be if she acted in accordance with her best judgment. There are cases where following her best judgment would make the agent significantly irrational, while acting akatrically would make her only trivially so, and as rational as most ever are.
Moral Worth
Authors: Arpaly Nomy 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter proposes a quality-of-will based theory of moral worth. It argues that people are praiseworthy for acts of good will and blameworthy for acts of ill will or absence of good will, and the amount of praise or blame they deserve varies with the depth of their motivation or extent of their indifference. Since good will is wanting to perform actions that have whatever property it is that makes action right, a full account of moral worth is impossible until the property that makes actions right is known.
Righteous Riches
Authors: Harrison Milmon F. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
Does God want us to be wealthy? Many people believe that God offers not only eternal joy in the hereafter but also material blessings in the here and now. Other Christians see this “prosperity theology”, as nothing more than vulgar materialism, incompatible with orthodox Christianity. This book examines the Word of Faith movement, an independent, non-denominational Christian movement that preaches the so-called “health and wealth gospel”. Drawing on the author's personal experiences as a former insider and in-depth interviews with members, this book takes the reader inside the movement, revealing what it is like to belong, and how people accept, reject, and reshape Word of Faith doctrines to fit their own lives. Analyzing the movement's appeal to African Americans, the book argues that because of their history of oppression and discrimination, African American religious institutions have always had to address the material ' as well as spiritual ' concerns of their members.
Negotiating the Demands of Membership at Faith Christian Center
Authors: Harrison Milmon F. 
Published: February 2006

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the difficult positions faced by some people as they attempt both to live out the teachings of the Faith Message and to serve the needs of the ministry. It discusses four coping strategies church members use to cope with the demands placed upon them: filtering, venting networks, break taking, and, leaving the church permanently. Filtering is the active, intentional practice of accepting certain parts of the pastor's interpretation of scripture (or definition of the situation in terms of practice) while consciously rejecting others. Venting networks emerged out of social interactions in which members — who may or may not be deemed “disgruntled” but who have something to say that may be interpreted by others as against the dominant view — are able to critique and to give voice to their disagreements or discontents concerning some aspect of their experiences in the church. Break taking involves members voluntarily removing themselves either from their position in the church as a worker for a period of time before returning at some later date or staying away from the ministry altogether for a period of time.