bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The alchemy of jargon: Etymologies of urologic neologisms. Number 2: Basic biochemical nomenclature
Authors: Shelfer Lochlan 
Published: November 2008

AbstractBackgroundAs the scientific community is increasingly severed from the study of linguistics, once an imperative for all scholars, the underlying significance of their common technical words is becoming blurred. This series of notes will focus on the etymologies of a series of technical scientific terms pertinent to the biomedical sciences in general and to Urology in particular.MethodsThese notes will give a detailed background of the history of each technical term, including how it came into being, whence it was derived, and how it impacted the scientific community through the ages.ResultsIn this installment, the following terms will by analyzed: Biology, Biochemistry, Hormone, Protein, Lipid, Carbohydrate, Enzyme, Metabolism, and finally Chemistry.ConclusionsThis analysis of the history and significance of scientific terms common to the urological community works toward a fortification of their power by offering a reminder of their origins. Prostate 69:231–233, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The Long Exception: Rethinking the Place of the New Deal in American History
Authors: Cowie Jefferson , Salvatore Nick 
Published: November 2008

Abstract“The Long Exception” examines the period from Franklin Roosevelt to the end of the twentieth century and argues that the New Deal was more of an historical aberration—a byproduct of the massive crisis of the Great Depression—than the linear triumph of the welfare state. The depth of the Depression undoubtedly forced the realignment of American politics and class relations for decades, but, it is argued, there is more continuity in American politics between the periods before the New Deal order and those after its decline than there is between the postwar era and the rest of American history. Indeed, by the early seventies the arc of American history had fallen back upon itself. While liberals of the seventies and eighties waited for a return to what they regarded as the normality of the New Deal order, they were actually living in the final days of what Paul Krugman later called the “interregnum between Gilded Ages.” The article examines four central themes in building this argument: race, religion, class, and individualism.
“Nothing Special to Offer the Negro”: Revisiting the “‘Debsian View’ of the Negro Question”
Authors: Jones William P. 
Published: November 2008

AbstractSince the early twentieth century Eugene V. Debs and his essay “The Negro in the Class Struggle” have been cited repeatedly as examples of an alleged indifference among white radicals to African Americans and the historical significance of racism in the United States. A close reading of the essay reveals just the opposite. Not only did Debs support African Americans' struggle for equality, he believed that it was critical to the realization of America's democratic promise. That position alienated him from other white Socialists, but it won the admiration of African American radicals including W.E.B. Du Bois and A. Philip Randolph. This essay examines how Debs's essay came to be interpreted as a capitulation to racism and, over time, alleged indifference to African Americans and the significance of racism in the history of the United States.
Translated English and universals of translation
Authors: Yajun Jiang , Zaixin Ren 
Published: November 2008

ABSTRACTThis paper investigates the notion of ‘translated English’, in contrast to ‘non-translated English’. Its focal point is that translated English texts differ from comparable non-translated texts in English, the target language (TL), in the sense that they have specific properties that cannot be found in the latter. Translated English, therefore, is a distinct variety of English. What makes it distinct is that, on the one hand, translated English texts, regardless of the source language (SL), have been found to share significant lexical, syntactic, and textual features and, on the other hand, they are inevitably SL-specific, exhibiting unique characteristics due to, among other factors, features of the source language and the translation tradition involved.
Burial and secondary dispersal of small seeds in a tropical forest
Authors: Marthews Toby R. , Mullins Christopher E. , Dalling James W. , Burslem David F. R. P. 
Published: November 2008

Abstract:Secondary dispersal is an important stage in the life cycle of tree species, determining the fate of a high proportion of all seeds. For small-seeded species both physical and biological processes may influence the secondary fate of seeds, however the relative importance of these processes is not well known. Seeds of the pioneer tree speciesCecropia insignis(seed mass 0.5 mg),Trema micrantha(2.5 mg) andApeiba aspera(14.2 mg) and five types of artificial seed were sown in understorey, treefall-gap and large-gap sites on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, during the wet season of 2005. Sowing areas were excavated after periods up to 26 d and cores divided into depths of 0–5, 5–10, 10–20 and 20–50 mm to allow high-resolution estimation of the rate and amount of burial and displacement of seeds. Over 26 d, 2.8% of artificial seeds were buried to a mean depth of 10.5 mm below the soil surface and 43.9% of unburied seeds displaced laterally >5 cm. Significantly more (87.9% and 80.9%) seeds ofCecropia insignisandTrema micranthawere displaced than artificial seeds of similar mass, size and density. A generalised linear model suggested that burial mostly occurred within 15 d, while displacement occurred continuously up to 26 d. The dominant cause of displacement and burial was probably rainfall, while seed removal by ants may also have contributed to displacement.
Methods of Morpheme Quantification: Their Effect on the Interpretation of Second Language Data
Authors: Pica Teresa 
Published: November 2008

Production of English grammatical morphemes has provided a fruitful data base for language acquisition research. However, questions have been raised as to how these data can best be analyzed to represent subjects' actual use of morphemes (Andersen 1977, Hakuta 1976, Hatch and Wagner-Gough 1976, Lightbown, Spada, and Wallace 1980, Stauble 1981). In the following study, application of different methods of morpheme quantification to the spontaneous speech data of 18 adults acquiring English as a second language led to conflicting interpretations regarding their morpheme production.Application of two alternative methods of morpheme quantification—one by suppliance in obligatory contexts, the other by target-like use—resulted in substantially different percentages of accuracy for subjects' production of the morphemes progressive -ing, progressive auxiliary, and past irregular. Another set of methods, used to analyze plural -s—quantification by noun tokens and by noun types—yielded contradictory findings regarding subjects' production of this morpheme.Results of this study demonstrate that data can be described in various ways depending on how morphemes are quantified. As a consequence of applying different analyses to the same data base, conflicting interpretations about subjects' interlanguage can occur.
Speaking and Self-Order: A Critique of Orthodox L2 Research
Authors: Frawley William , Lantolf James P. 
Published: November 2008

While the recent explosion of work on L2 discourse has provided researchers with a mass of data on the development of communicative abilities, we find that most of this work is predicated on a single (perhaps even curious) assumption: that all discourse, of which L2 discourse is taken as a subcategory, is intended by its speakers to be informative to some interlocutor (i.e., transmits a message via an acoustic or graphic conduit) and that the production of discourse entails the formulation of strategies on the part of speakers in order to maximize this transmission of data. That discourse is not communicative (i.e., sending and receiving information) by nature has, in fact, been long known, but overlooked, especially in L2 research. Malinowski pointed out as early as 1935 that:Language is an activity the function of which is not an expression of thought or communication of ideas … the neglect of the obvious has often been fatal to the development of scientific thought. The false conception of language as a means of transferring ideas from the head of the speaker to that of the listener has, in my opinion, largely vitiated the philological approach to language (Malinowski, 1935, 9).
Psychological Constraints on the Teachability of Languages
Authors: Pienemann Manfred 
Published: November 2008

This paper reports on the influence of formal instruction on L2 acquisition in an instructional experiment with child learners. The main tendency of the findings is that a structure can only be learned under instruction if the learner's interlanguage has already reached a stage one step prior to the acquisition of the structure to be taught.My hypothesis for an explanation suggests that the teachability of L2 structures is constrained by the same processing restrictions that determine the developmental sequences of natural L2 acquisition: since the processing procedures of each stage build upon the procedures of the preceding stage there is no way to leave out a stage of the developmental sequence by the means of formal teaching. Following such a processing capacity approach I reject the assumption that the constraints on teachability can be explained on the basis of linguistic input.
The Issue of Grammaticalization in Early German Second Language
Authors: Pfaff Carol W. 
Published: November 2008

This paper treats the development of the expression of grammatical categories in German in the early second language acquisition of Turkish and German children attending a bilingual day-care center in a multilingual speech community in Berlin. We examine case and gender marking on noun phrases and pronouns and tense/aspect and agreement marking on verb phrases. These are examined in light of the following general issues: (a) Do grammatical markers develop from independent lexical items in child language as well as in diachronic development? (b) Do the markers initially mark pragmatic categories before being grammaticalized as syntactic functors? (c) Do grammaticalizations of the first language influence the development of the second language?We find no evidence that pragmatic precede syntactic categories; however, some evidence indicates that grammatical markers develop first as independent words—for example, pronominal use preceding definite article use ofder, die, das, and main verb use preceding auxiliary use ofsein(‘be’) andhaben(‘have’). Some evidence that the categories of the first language (Turkish) play a role in the development of German second language is found in compound verb constructions.
Means and coefficients of functions which omit a sequence of values
Authors: Baernstein Albert , Rochberg Richard 
Published: November 2008

Suppose that f is analytic in the unit disk D. If its range f(D) is contained in a simply connected proper subdomain of the plane, then the principle of subordination and the distortion theorem for univalent functions show thatwhere M(r, f) denotes the maximum modulus of f. Cartwright (2) studied functions which, instead of omitting all values on a continuum stretching to infinity, omit only a sequence of values. She assumed that the sequence {wn} satisfiesandand proved that if f(D) contains none of the points {wn} thenmfor every ε > 0. Cartwright's proof was based on the Ahlfors Distortion Theorem, and is quite complicated. A much simpler proof was given by Pommerenke in (10). The key idea in his proof will also be used in the present paper.
On functionally constant invariants of the Riemann tensor
Authors: Buchdahl H. A. 
Published: November 2008

AbstractIn any V4 two quadratic invariants of the Riemann tensor, J4 and K4, say, are known which are functionally constant, i.e. the Hamiltonian derivatives of which vanish identically. Certain natural generalizations, J2n and K2n, of degree n of these are considered, J2n being defined in any Vm but K2n only in a V2n. It is shown by methods having purely local character that J2n is functionally constant in any V2n, and that K2n vanishes identically when n is odd or when n is even and the V2n is either conformally flat or admits a hypersurface-orthogonal Killing vector; whilst in a V4n it is functionally constant. These results follow upon a prior spinorial treatment of the special case n = 3 which leads to an explicit expression for a pseudo-vector density of which the scalar density 6 is the divergence. Finally, it is shown that for appropriate values of n there exist functionally constant invariants other than J2n and K2n
On the solutions of the Low equation
Authors: Lardner R. W. 
Published: November 2008

AbstractAn alternative procedure is developed for examining the solutions of the Low equation. The ambiguities of those solutions which have a finite number of zeros are shown to satisfy the conditions derived earlier by Castillejo, Dalitz and Dyson. The method presented here has the advantage that it makes no special use of the positiveness of the cut-off function, and so can be used when this function changes sign. It is shown that the arbitrariness of the solution increases with the number of these sign changes, but that a completely negative cut-off function still satisfies the CDD conditions.
Scalar diffraction by prolate spheroids whose eccentricities are almost one
Authors: Goodrich R. F. , Kazarinoff N. D. 
Published: November 2008

AbstractThe pressure distribution on the surface of a long, thin prolate spheroid is found under the conditions:(1) The spheroid is illuminated by a harmonic point source of wavelength λ located on the axis of the spheroid.(2) If a and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the spheroid, then(3) The boundary conditions on the spheroid are either the Neumann or the Dirichlet conditions.The distribution is found from the asymptotic solutions of the Helmholtz equation using the inequalities in (2). The distribution is interpreted on certain regions of the surface in terms of travelling waves.
A differential equation for undamped forced non-linear oscillations. II
Authors: Morris G. R. 
Published: November 2008

In a previous paper of the same title (1) onwhere e(t) is even and has least period 2π, I have shown that the equation has a family of periodic solutions or, equivalently, that a topological transformation T has a family of fixed points. Since much of the detail in (1) is irrelevant here, it will be convenient if the results we must quote about are put into the following form:Theoerm A. There is a constant integer p such that, whenever k ≥ p, there is at least one solution xk(t) of (1·1) for which(i) xk(0) > 0, ẋk(0) = 0 and xk(t) has period 2π;(ii) xk(t) = xk(2π–t);(iii) xk(t) has, in 0 ≤ t < 2π, k positive maxima, k negative minima and no other stationary points;(iv) This except (ii), is a special case of Theorem 2 with the notation x*(t|k, 1, 0) simplified to xk(t) and the constant p introduced to guarantee that (vi) of Theorem 2 implies (iv) above. Finally Lemma 1 of (1), in its original form or as specialized in Theorem B (i) below, gives (ii).We shall write ak = xk(0) and note, though we do not need to use it here, that, by (v) of Theorem 2, ak = kw + O(k−2) as k→ ∞. If Fk denotes the point (ak, 0) of the (a, b)-plane then Fk is a fixed point of T and we can best state this paper's results in terms of the segment joining a pair of such points.
A ‘Waring's problem’ for homogeneous forms
Authors: Ellison W. J. 
Published: November 2008

Professor H. Davenport has raised the following question. Let f(X) be a homogeneous form in n variables X, of degree k, with coefficients in a field K. Is it possible to write f(X) in the formwhere the Li(X) are linear forms over K and N depends only on K, n, and k? In particular, what can be said when K = R, the reals; K = Q, the rationals; K = C, the complex numbers ?We shall show that when k is odd such a representation is always possible and we shall obtain an explicit bound for N. However, if k is even, no such result is possible when K = R or Q, even when we impose the obvious necessary condition that f(X) be positive semi-definite. In fact we shall exhibit a construction for obtaining forms f(X) which are positive definite but cannot be expressed in the formr even, where φi(X) is a homogeneous form of degree s and sr = k. We shall determine precisely which definite forms can be expressed in the required form. Some natural generalizations of the problem are then considered.
On limiting cases in the flexure of simply supported regular polygonal plates
Authors: Rajaiah K. , Rao Akella Kameswara 
Published: November 2008

AbstractLimiting solutions are derived for the flexure of simply supported many-sided regular polygons, as the number of sides is increased indefinitely. It is shown that these solutions are different from those for simply supported circular plates. For axisymmetric loading, circular plate solutions overestimate the deflexions and the moments by significant factors.
Approximate solutions of the general relativity field equations with a scalar meson field
Authors: Hyde J. 
Published: November 2008

It was shown by Birkhoff ((1), p. 253) that every spherically symmetric solution of the field equations of general relativity for empty space,may be reduced, by suitable coordinate transformations, to the static Schwarzschild form:where m is a constant. This result is known as Birkhoff's theorem and excludes the possibility of spherically symmetric gravitational radiation. Different proofs of the theorem have been given by Eiesland(2), Tolman(3), and Bonnor ((4), p. 167).
The Action of the Electrical Counter
Authors: Emeléus K. G. 
Published: November 2008

Some previous work on the theory of the electrical counter is extended by a detailed consideration of the ionic process involved. It is shown that with a positive point the total number of ions produced should be proportional to the initial ionisation. Evidence is adduced to show that with a negative point extinction of the discharge is probably brought about by a local increase of pressure, accompanied by an electrical wind along the sides of the point. The latter would bring about the discharge of a definite quantity of electricity, independent of the initial ionisation, provided the initial pressure was not too low. It is shown that these considerations account for a number of other phenomena connected with discharges from small electrodes, and that the quantities involved are of the right order of magnitude.The experimental work in connection with this paper has been carried out in the Cavendish Laboratory. The author desires to thank Professor Sir E. Rutherford for his continual interest in its progress, and further to thank Professor Appleton, and Dr Chadwick for much helpful discussion of several of the points involved.
On the non-linear difference equation Δxn = kΦ (xn)
Authors: Haldane J. B. S. 
Published: November 2008

1. Among the equations arising in the theory of natural selection is the finite difference equationwhere k is a constant which may have any value between 1 and − ∞ inclusive, but is often small. Its solution is discussed in the accompanying paper(1). It is a particular case of the equationwhere Φ(x) is a known one-valued function of x. When k is small this may obviously be solved approximately by treating it as a differential equationwhence
Asymptotic expansions of the expressions for the partition function and the rotational specific heat of a rigid polyatomic molecule for high temperatures
Authors: Viney Irene E. 
Published: November 2008

The partition function F(θ) is of fundamental importance in the theory of the specific heat of gases. Once it is known, the rotational specific heat of a perfect gas is given bywhere R is the gram-molecular gas constant, and θ bears the relationto the absolute temperature T, k being Boltzmann's constant.
The Compton Effect in Wave Mechanics
Authors: Dirac P. A. M. 
Published: November 2008

The problem of the scattering of radiation by a free electron has been treated by the author on the basis of Heisenberg's matrix mechanics, which was first modified to be in agreement with the principle of relativity. The main point of this modification is that, whereas in the non-relativity theory one deals with matrices whose elements vary with the time according to the law eiwt, in the relativity theory the elements of the matrices must vary according to the law eiwt′ where t′ = t − (l1x1 + l2x2 + l3x3)/c if they are to determine correctly the radiation emitted in the direction specified by the direction cosines (l1, l2, l3), x1x2 and x3 being the coordinates of the electron at the time t. These matrices were obtained by writing the Hamiltonian equation of the system in the formwhere W′ is a variable canonically conjugate to t′ and H′ commutes with t′, and then using H′ as an ordinary Hamiltonian function of a dynamical, system that has W′ for its energy and t′ for its time variable.
The ionisation curve of an average α particle
Authors: Feather N. , Nimmo R. R. 
Published: November 2008

Photographs have been taken under controlled illumination of the tracks of α particles in a cloud expansion chamber and a calibration of the photographic plates employed has been carried out. Systematic photometry of the track images has made possible the calculation of the variation of the light scattering power of an α particle track over the last two centimetres of its length in standard air, and the variation of this quantity has been identified with the variation of ionisation along the track.Photographs of tracks in air, helium and hydrogen have been examined. In these three gases the maximum ionising efficiency of the α particle occurs when it possesses the velocity respectively appropriate to the distances 3·0, 2·55 and 2·25 mms. from the end of its path in standard air. This common velocity parameter has been employed throughout the discussions which are appended to the experimental results.
The Interference of Light in a Wedge
Authors: Arnot F. L. , Rutherford E. 
Published: November 2008

Briefly summing up we see that when a point source is employed the slit of the spectroscope is illuminated by light coming from one point only in the wedge, and consequently clear distinct bands will be obtained in the spectrum irrespective of which end of the wedge is towards the source, and irrespective of the angle of incidence or of the distance between the wedge and spectroscope.With a large source, however, the slit of the spectroscope receives rays coming from many different points in the wedge. The path difference between the interfering components of each of these rays is in general different. Therefore each ray will produce a complete set of interference bands in the spectrum. These sets of bands are relatively displaced, the superposition of all causing uniform illumination.It has been shown, however, that there is one special case in which the path difference for the interfering components of all rays is the same. In this case, each ray still produces, a complete set of bands in the spectrum but these sets are no longer relatively displaced; bright bands are superimposed on bright bands and dark bands coincide with dark bands. There is thus both an increase of intensity and definition.It has been shown that the conditions necessary for this special case are:(1) The thick end of the wedge is towards the source.(2) The slit of the spectroscope is placed at a distance offrom the wedge, the distance being measured along the central ray entering the slit of the spectroscope.The case of an air wedge has been discussed, and a possible advantage to be gained in using such for spectroscopic purposes in place of parallel plates has been mentioned.