bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Representations of the (woman) judge: Hercules, the little mermaid, and the vain and naked Emperor
Authors: Rackley Erika 
Published: April 2006

This paper reconsiders images of the judge and, in particular, the position of the woman judge using fairy tale and myth. It begins by exploring the actuality of women's exclusion within the judiciary, traditional explanations for this and the impact of recent changes. It goes on to consider the image of the Herculean judge, arguing that whilst we may view him as an ideological construct, or even as a fairy tale, we routinely deny this to ourselves and to others. This both ensures the normative survival of Hercules and simultaneously constrains counter-images of judges, including that of the woman judge, who becomes almost a contradiction in terms, faced with the need to shed her difference and fit the fairy tale. Like the little mermaid, the woman judge must trade her voice for partial acceptance in the prince's world.This image of silencing which Andersen's tale so vividly captures highlights a paradox in current discourses of adjudication. On the one hand, women judges are viewed as desirable in order to broaden the range of perspectives on the bench, thus making the judiciary more representative; on the other hand, judges are supposed to be without perspective, thus suggesting there is little need for a representative judiciary. Feminists and other commentators negotiate their way uncomfortably through this territory, acknowledging a gender dimension to adjudication, but failing fully to confront its implications. This paper seeks to ‘undress’ the judge, to flush out images of adjudication which deter or prevent women from joining the judiciary and constrain their potential within it. It highlights both the role of the imagination in existing conceptions of adjudication and the increasing necessity for a re-imagined Hercules – an alternative understanding of the judge which women and other groups currently underrepresented on the bench can comfortably and constructively occupy.
Making sex: law's narratives of sex, gender and identity
Authors: Grenfell Laura 
Published: April 2006

From the 1970 decision of Corbett onwards, legal narratives established two modes of categorising complex social identity in relation to sex and gender. These narratives responded to complex identity questions by attempting to simplify identity by limiting it to biological factors or anatomical and psychological factors.I demonstrate that the law's struggle to ‘make’ sex is reflected to a certain extent by feminism's trajectory, in that feminisms have also attempted to grapple with these complex questions, and often opted for the same simple solutions to the problem of understanding gender, sex and identity. The aim of this paper is to show that some strands of feminist theory, specifically post-structuralist feminist theory, can produce a more progressive and constructive approach to determining sex in their ability to illuminate the complexities of identity. In particular, my aim is to urge those courts that ‘make’ sex to consider these complexities and the implications that flow from placing transgender people into rigid and narrow categories.
Appointment and career of judges in continental Europe: the rise of judicial self-government
Authors: Guarnieri Carlo 
Published: April 2006

Traditionally, European continental judiciaries have been organised along a bureaucratic, civil service model. Early recruitment was complemented by the strong hierarchical character of the judicial organisation. Therefore, in this type of judiciary guarantees of independence have been problematic because of the influence hierarchical superiors (or in some cases the government itself) had on promotions.Since the Second World War the need for change has been increasingly felt. The main aims have been to increase external independence, especially vis-à-vis the executive, and to protect lower ranking judges from negative influence by the senior judiciary, often considered to be too responsive to governmental wishes.
‘Morning after’ pills, ‘miscarriage’ and muddle
Authors: Keown John 
Published: April 2006

Section 58 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861 prohibits the use of means with intent to procure ‘miscarriage’. In Smeaton Munby J held that the administration of the ‘morning after’ pill with intent to prevent the implantation in the uterus of any embryo conceived as a result of sexual intercourse does not contravene s 58. This article respectfully questions the learned judge's decision.'[Albortion techniques have changed since we legislated in 1967 ... Nowadays they can be carried out by injection or what is euphemistically called the morning after pill, which is an early abortifacient. There have always been legal doubts about whether the morning after pill can be prescribed within the present abortion law ... [Tlhe drug ... works in the early period of pregnancy.'
The Strengthening Relationship between ENSO and Northeast Monsoon Rainfall over Sri Lanka and Southern India
Authors: Zubair Lareef , Ropelewski C. F. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Recently, it was reported that the relationship of the Indian southwest monsoon rainfall with El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has weakened since around 1980. Here, it is reported that in contrast, the relationship between ENSO and the northeast monsoon (NEM) in south peninsular India and Sri Lanka from October to December has not weakened. The mean circulation associated with ENSO over this region during October to December does not show the weakening evident in the summer and indeed is modestly intensified so as to augment convection. The intensification of the ENSO–NEM rainfall relationship is modest and within the historical record but stands in contrast to the weakening relationship in summer. The intensification of the circulation is consistent with the warming of surface temperatures over the tropical Indian Ocean in recent decades. There is modestly intensified convection over the Indian Ocean, strengthening of the circulation associated with ENSO (Walker circulation), and enhanced rainfall during El Niño episodes in a manner consistent with an augmented ENSO–NEM relationship.
Investigating the Causes of the Response of the Thermohaline Circulation to Past and Future Climate Changes
Authors: Stouffer R. J. , Yin J. , Gregory J. M. , Dixon K. W. , Spelman M. J. , Hurlin W. , Weaver A. J. , Eby M. , Flato G. M. , Hasumi H. , Hu A. , Jungclaus J. H. , Kamenkovich I. V. , Levermann A. , Montoya M. , Murakami S. , Nawrath S. , Oka A. , Peltier W. R. , Robitaille D. Y. , Sokolov A. , Vettoretti G. , Weber S. L. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
The Atlantic thermohaline circulation (THC) is an important part of the earth's climate system. Previous research has shown large uncertainties in simulating future changes in this critical system. The simulated THC response to idealized freshwater perturbations and the associated climate changes have been intercompared as an activity of World Climate Research Program (WCRP) Coupled Model Intercomparison Project/Paleo-Modeling Intercomparison Project (CMIP/PMIP) committees. This intercomparison among models ranging from the earth system models of intermediate complexity (EMICs) to the fully coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation models (AOGCMs) seeks to document and improve understanding of the causes of the wide variations in the modeled THC response. The robustness of particular simulation features has been evaluated across the model results. In response to 0.1-Sv (1 Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1) freshwater input in the northern North Atlantic, the multimodel ensemble mean THC weakens by 30% after 100 yr. All models simulate some weakening of the THC, but no model simulates a complete shutdown of the THC. The multimodel ensemble indicates that the surface air temperature could present a complex anomaly pattern with cooling south of Greenland and warming over the Barents and Nordic Seas. The Atlantic ITCZ tends to shift southward. In response to 1.0-Sv freshwater input, the THC switches off rapidly in all model simulations. A large cooling occurs over the North Atlantic. The annual mean Atlantic ITCZ moves into the Southern Hemisphere. Models disagree in terms of the reversibility of the THC after its shutdown. In general, the EMICs and AOGCMs obtain similar THC responses and climate changes with more pronounced and sharper patterns in the AOGCMs.
Impact of Atmospheric Moisture Storage on Precipitation Recycling
Authors: Dominguez Francina , Kumar Praveen , Liang Xin-Zhong , Ting Mingfang 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Computations of precipitation recycling using analytical models are generally performed under the assumption of negligible change in moisture storage in the atmospheric column. Because the moisture storage term is nonnegligible at smaller time scales, most recycling studies using analytical models are done at monthly or longer time scales. A dynamic precipitation recycling model, which incorporates the change in moisture storage, is developed. It is derived formally from the conservation of mass equation and is presented in a simple and computationally efficient form. This model allows for recycling analysis at a range of temporal scales, from daily to monthly and longer. In comparison to the traditional models that do not include the storage term, the new model presents almost identical spatial and temporal variability, but predicts recycling ratios that are 12%–33% larger at a monthly level.
The dynamic model is used to study the variability of monthly precipitation recycling over the conterminous United States using Reanalysis-II data from 1979 to 2000. On average, the southeastern and southwestern parts of the country exhibit high summer recycling ratios, contrasting with the low values in the northeastern and northwestern United States. The Colorado region also presents high recycling ratios. Dominant modes of spatiotemporal variability in recycling are identified using EOF analysis. The first mode captures strong recycling ratios over the western United States during the summers of 1986, 1992, and 1998. The second mode captures anomalous high recycling ratios during 1988 and 1989 over the central part of the country, and anomalous low ratios during 1980 and 1993.
Dynamical Processes Related to the Appearance of Quasi-Stationary Waves on the Subtropical Jet in the Midsummer Northern Hemisphere
Authors: Sato Naoki , Takahashi Masaaki 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Statistical features of quasi-stationary planetary waves were examined on the subtropical jet in the midsummer Northern Hemisphere by using objectively analyzed data and satellite data. As a result, a quasi-stationary wave train that is highly correlated with the midsummer climate over Japan was identified. A clear phase dependency of the appearance of waves was also confirmed. An analysis of temporal evolution and wave activity flux revealed that the eastward propagation of the wave packet starts in the Middle East, passes over East Asia, and reaches North America. The anomaly pattern is strengthened through kinetic energy conversion near the entrance of the Asian jet over the Middle East. The interaction between the anomaly pattern and the basic field contributes to the appearance of the anomalous wavelike pattern. Although the wave train is correlated with the anomaly of convective activity over the western North Pacific and the Indian Ocean, it is implied that internal dynamics are important in determining the statistical features of the appearance of anomalous quasi-stationary waves on the subtropical jet.
Variability in the Characteristics of Precipitation Systems in the Tropical Pacific. Part II: Implications for Atmospheric Heating
Authors: L'Ecuyer Tristan S. , Masunaga Hirohiko , Kummerow Christian D. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThis paper explores changes in the principal components of observed energy budgets across the tropical Pacific in response to the strong 1998 El Niño event. Multisensor observations from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI), Visible and Infrared Scanner (VIRS), and precipitation radar (PR) instruments aboard TRMM are used to quantify changes in radiative and latent heating in the east and west Pacific in response to the different phases of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation. In periods of normal east–west SST gradients there is substantial heating in the west Pacific and cooling in the east, implying strong eastward atmospheric energy transport. During the active phase of the El Niño, both the east and west Pacific tend toward local radiative–convective equilibrium resulting in their temporary energetic decoupling. It is further demonstrated that the response of these regions to ENSO-induced SST variability is directly related to changes in the characteristics of clouds and precipitation in each region. Through quantitative analysis of the radiative and latent heating properties of shallow, midlevel, and deep precipitation events and an equivalent set of nonprecipitating cloud systems, times of reduced atmospheric heating are found to be associated with a shift toward shallow and midlevel precipitation systems and associated low-level cloudiness. The precipitation from such systems is typically less intense, and they do not trap outgoing longwave radiation as efficiently as their deeper counterparts, resulting in reduced radiative and latent heating of the atmosphere. The results also suggest that the net effect of precipitating systems on top-of-the-atmosphere (TOA) fluxes and the efficiency with which they heat the atmosphere and cool the surface exhibit strong dependence on their surroundings. The sensitivity of cloud radiative impacts to the atmospheric and surface properties they act to modify implies the existence of strong feedbacks whose representation may pose a significant challenge to the climate modeling community.
Estimating Large-Scale Precipitation Minus Evapotranspiration from GRACE Satellite Gravity Measurements
Authors: Swenson Sean , Wahr John 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Currently, observations of key components of the earth's large-scale water and energy budgets are sparse or even nonexistent. One key component, precipitation minus evapotranspiration (P − ET), remains largely unmeasured due to the absence of observations of ET. Precipitation minus evapotranspiration describes the flux of water between the atmosphere and the earth's surface, and therefore provides important information regarding the interaction of the atmosphere with the land surface. In this paper, large-scale changes in continental water storage derived from satellite gravity data from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) project are combined with river discharge data to obtain estimates of areally averaged P − ET.
After constructing an equation describing the large-scale terrestrial water balance reflecting the temporal sampling of GRACE water storage estimates, GRACE-derived P − ET estimates are compared to those obtained from a reanalysis dataset [NCEP/Department of Energy (DOE) reanalysis-2] and a land surface model driven with observation-based forcing [Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS)/Noah] for two large U.S. river basins. GRACE-derived P − ET compares quite favorably with the reanalysis-2 output, while P − ET from the Noah model shows significant differences. Because the uncertainties in the GRACE results can be computed rigorously, this comparison may be considered as a validation of the models.
In addition to showing how GRACE P − ET estimates may be used to validate model output, the accuracy of GRACE estimates of both the seasonal cycle and the monthly averaged rate of P − ET is examined. Finally, the potential for estimating seasonal evapotranspiration is demonstrated by combining GRACE seasonal P − ET estimates with independent estimates of the seasonal cycle of precipitation.
The Interannual Variability and Trend of Precipitable Water over Southern Greece
Authors: Kassomenos P. A. , McGregor G. R. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe precipitable water (PW) content was estimated over southern Greece for three atmospheric layers, using 28-yr twice-daily radiosonde measurements of temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure. Precipitable water demonstrates considerable variation at the monthly and interannual time scales as well as statistically significant upward trends at the annual level and for June–August (JJA) and September–November (SON). The relationship between PW and surface climate was also found to vary by season and surface climate variable. Disaggregation of seasonal PW trends by synoptic type revealed that seasonal trends might be attributed to increases in moisture in a limited number of airmass types such that maritime air masses appear to be becoming moister while their continental counterparts are drying. Despite fundamental changes to the intrinsic PW properties of air masses for some synoptic categories, the significance of these for determining the overall trend in seasonal PW levels is related to their weighted contribution as determined by changing airmass frequency. Consequently, the climatological effects of a moistening or drying air mass may be offset by a declining frequency. It is also shown that increasing PW trends cannot be attributed unequivocally to airmass warming as significant increases in PW have occurred in conjunction with falling temperatures in some seasons and airmass types. Accordingly, factors other than the commonly assumed global-warming-related increase in atmospheric moisture via the link between temperature and saturation vapor pressure must be considered if the mechanisms responsible for PW trends over southern Greece are to be fully understood.
Examination of the Bouchet–Morton Complementary Relationship Using a Mesoscale Climate Model and Observations under a Progressive Irrigation Scenario
Authors: Ozdogan Mutlu , Salvucci Guido D. , Anderson Bruce T. 
Published: April 2006

AbstractThe complementary relationship between actual and potential evaporation over southeastern Turkey was examined using a mesoscale climate model and field data. Model simulations of both actual and potential evaporation produce realistic temporal patterns in comparison to those estimated from field data; as evaporation from the surface increases with increasing irrigation, potential evaporation decreases. This is in accordance with the Bouchet–Morton complementary relationship and suggests that actual evapotranspiration can be readily computed from routine meteorological observations. The driving mechanisms behind irrigation-related changes in actual and potential evaporation include reduced wind velocities, increased atmospheric stability, and depressed humidity deficits. The relative role of each in preserving the complementary relation is assessed by fitting a potential evaporation model to pan evaporation data. The importance of reduced wind velocity in maintaining complementarity was unexpected, and thus examined further using a set of perturbation simulation experiments with changing roughness parameters (reflecting growing cotton crops), changing moisture conditions (reflecting irrigation), and both. Three potential causes of wind velocity reduction associated with irrigation may be increased surface roughness, decreased thermal convection that influences momentum transfer, and the development of anomalous high pressure that counteracts the background wind field. All three are evident in the mesoscale model results, but the primary cause is the pressure-induced local wind system. The apparent necessity of capturing mesoscale dynamical feedbacks in maintaining complementarity between potential and actual evaporation suggests that a theory more complicated than current descriptions (which are based on feedbacks between actual evaporation and temperature and/or humidity gradients) is required to explain the complementary relationship.
Fractal Distribution of Snow Depth from Lidar Data
Authors: Deems Jeffrey S. , Fassnacht Steven R. , Elder Kelly J. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Snowpack properties vary dramatically over a wide range of spatial scales, from crystal microstructure to regional snow climates. The driving forces of wind, energy balance, and precipitation interact with topography and vegetation to dominate snow depth variability at horizontal scales from 1 to 1000 m. This study uses land surface elevation, vegetation surface elevation, and snow depth data measured using airborne lidar at three sites in north-central Colorado. Fractal dimensions are estimated from the slope of a log-transformed variogram and demonstrate scale-invariant, fractal behavior in the elevation, vegetation, and snow depth datasets. Snow depth and vegetation topography each show two distinct fractal distributions over different scale ranges (multifractal behavior), with short-range fractal dimensions near 2.5 and long-range fractal dimensions around 2.9 at all locations. These fractal ranges are separated by a scale break at 15–40 m, depending on the site, which indicates a process change at that scale. Terrain has a fractal distribution over nearly the entire range of scales available in the data. Directional differences in the fractal dimensions for each parameter are also present at multiple scales, and are related to the wind direction frequency distributions at each site. The results indicate that different sampling resolutions may yield different results and allow rescaling in specific scale ranges. Resolutions of 10 m and finer are consistently self-similar, as are resolutions greater than 30 m, though the coarser resolutions show nearly random distributions.
Characterization and Evaluation of Hybrid Polarization Observation of Precipitation
Authors: Wang Yanting , Chandrasekar V. , Bringi V. N. 
Published: April 2006

Abstract
Transmitting an arbitrary state of polarization while receiving horizontal–vertical polarization states is termed the hybrid polarization mode of operation. A theoretical model is developed for hybrid mode dual-polarization measurements in terms of the covariance matrix under linear horizontal–vertical polarization basis. The cross polarization encountered introduces biases in the copolar parameters estimated in the hybrid mode. Such biases are investigated for different precipitation types and propagation effects resulting from hydrometeor orientation and antenna properties. Polarimetric data measured by the Colorado State University–University of Chicago–Illinois State Water Survey (CSU–CHILL) radar transmitting horizontal–vertical polarization states is alternately used to demonstrate the measurement accuracy that would be expected in different storm scenarios observed in the hybrid mode.
Elongational Viscosity as a Tool to Predict the Foamability of Polyolefins
Authors: Ruinaard Henk 
Published: April 2006

The foaming of polyolefins (POs) by direct gas injection is a delicate balance between the melt strength of the expanding polymer and the pressure of the blowing gas in the growing cells. Important parameters in this process are: melting and crystallization temperature of the polyolefin grade, viscosity in the crystallization temperature range and elongational viscosity in the crystallization temperature range. In particular, the increase in elongational viscosity or so-called strain hardening is vital for a successful foam structure. This study shows how the elongational viscosity is measured according to the rheological melt extension (RME) method. The experimental conditions for LDPE, LLDPE, HDPE, mPE plastomers, and PP are defined and used for a series of 25 PO grades. These experiments show that the strain hardening ratio (SHR) is influenced by the average molecular length, molecular weight distribution (MWD) and the long chain branching (LCB).