bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Great Adventure: Mercenaries in The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1915
Authors: Taylor Lawrence D. 
Published: July 2006

Scholarly studies of the Mexican revolutionary period seldom have approached the subject from the standpoint of how this momentous struggle was actually waged by its combatants. While considerable investigation has rendered valuable insights into leading personalities and movements of the time, no comparable effort has been made to unravel the myriad military complexities and paradoxes of one of the major wars waged on the North American continent.A case in point concerns the foreign soldiers who fought side by side with Mexican troops in the rebel armies. Such military personnel are commonly referred to in modern-day parlance as mercenaries, a term indicating “paid soldiers in the service of a foreign country.” However, not all foreigners who served in the Revolution were professional soldiers for hire, nor did all have previous military experience. Such words and phrases as soldiers of fortune or adventurers, in vogue during the period, more clearly define the status of these combatants as “men fighting for pay or love of adventure under the flag of any country.” Be that as it may, all of the terms given above are basically synonymous and can be used interchangeably to refer to the foreign volunteers who joined the various armed factions contending for supremacy in Mexico.
Waldo Frank's Crusade for Latin American Literature
Authors: Rostagno Irene 
Published: July 2006

Waldo Frank, who is now forgotten in Latin America, was once the most frequently read and admired North American author there. Though his work is largely neglected in the U.S., he was at one time the leading North American expert on Latin American writing. His name looms large in tracing the careers of Latin American writers in this country before 1940. Long before Franklin D. Roosevelt launched the Good Neighbor policy, Frank brought back to his countrymen news of Latin American culture.Frank went to South America when he was almost forty. The youthful dreams of Frank and his fellow pre-World War I writers and artists to make their country a fit place for cultural renaissance that would change society had waned with the onset of the twenties.1 But they had not completely vanished. Disgruntled by the climate of "normalcy" prevailing in America after World War I, he turned to Latin America. He started out in the Southwest. The remnants of Mexican culture he found in Arizona and New Mexico enticed him to venture further into the Hispanic world. In 1921 he traveled extensively in Spain and in 1929 spent six months exploring Latin America.
Battleground Women:Soldaderasand Female Soldiers in the Mexican Revolution
Authors: Fuentes Andrés Reséndez 
Published: July 2006

Revolution and women did not mix well, at least in the eyes of most leaders of the insurrection that swept Mexico in 1910-17. Moreover, common wisdom suggested that armies were no place for the “gentler sex” and hence the two kinds of women that did accompany men to the battleground–female soldiers and soldaderas–were generally regarded as marginal to the fighting and extraordinary, or strange, in character.Female soldiers received much notice in the press and arts during the revolution and in its aftermath. They were portrayed as fearless women dressed in men's garb flaunting cartridge belts across the chest and a Mauser rifle on one shoulder. But they were invariably shown in the guise of curiosities, aberrations brought about by the revolution. Soldaderas received their share of attention too. They were depicted as loyal, self-sacrificing companions to the soldiers or, in less sympathetic renderings, as enslaved camp followers: “the loyalty of the soldier's wife is more akin to that of a dog to its master than to that of an intelligent woman to her mate.” But even laudatory journalistic accounts,corridos, and novels did not concede soldaderas a prominent role in the revolutionary process, much less in the success of the military campaigns.
Beyond the Obraje: Handicraft Production in Quito Toward the End of the Colonial Period
Authors: de Moreno Christiana Borchart 
Published: July 2006

Theobrajesof the Sierra and the plantations of the Coast are the poles around which, in different eras, the economy of theAudienciaof Quito seems to revolve. Woolen cloth and cacao are the two products that allowed this territory to participate in regional and international commercial circuits, and have attracted the most attention from historians in the last two decades.In a region lacking large mining centers,encomenderoswere from early times compelled to develop activities that would allow them to move in the Andean colonial sphere, which was dominated by the “Rich Hill” of Potosí, the actual force behind the formation of this great interregional market, as Carlos Sempat Assadourian has demonstrated. The inter-Andean corridor and its plateaus, suitable for the raising of sheep and a source of ready Indian labor, facilitated the development of the obrajes that were set up in Indian communities, on private haciendas, and in urban areas.
Kill All the Lawyers!: Lawyers and the Independence Movement in New Granada, 1809-1820
Authors: Uribe Victor M. 
Published: July 2006

Simón Bolívar, soon to become an icon of Latin American independence, wrote a celebrated document, dated from Kingston, his place of temporary exile, on September 6, 1815. Bolívar's document, later known as the Jamaica Letter, made prophesies for Latin America's future, appraised its contemporary political conditions, and justified the region's current rebellions against the Spanish crown. Chief among the justifications for rebellion was the exclusion of American-born Spaniards, or creoles, from administration, government, and politics. Wrote Bolívar:We were cut off and, as it were, virtually removed from the world in relation to the science of government and administration of the state. We were never viceroys or governors, save in the rarest instances; seldom archbishops and bishops; diplomats never; as military men, only subordinates; as nobles, without royal privileges. In brief, we were neither magistrates nor financiers.
Literary Contributions of Catholics in Nineteenth-Century Mexico: Part Two: The Díaz Regime (1867–1910)
Authors: Steck Francis Borgia 
Published: July 2006

Having dealt with the poetry which Catholics contributed to Mexican literature during the Díaz era, we now turn our attention to their literary contributions in the field of prose composition. As in the case of poetry, much of this literary prose appeared originally in the periodicals of the day and, unfortunately, much of it is still there, comparatively little having been assembled and brought out in book form. In this respect the prose writers have received smaller recognition from posterity than the poets, owing perhaps to the fact that the Mexican by tradition and temperament prefers verse to prose, finds greater delight in the measured magic of a song than in the less appealing beauties of an essay, a discourse, or even a novel.Whatever the reason may be, we must examine the periodicals of the time before we can form an adequate estimate of contributions to literary prose. The part that Catholics played in the realm of periodical literature will, therefore, occupy our attention before we marshal the writers themselves and their productions in prose.
Woolen Manufacture in Sixteenth-Century New Spain
Authors: Dusenberry William H. 
Published: July 2006

Although the natives made a crude kind of coarse woolens prior to the time of the Conquest, the manufacturing of woolen goods did not begin in New Spain until the early fifteen forties. At that time the first viceroy, Antonio de Mendoza, laid the base of this industry in the new colony. Mendoza considered such an enterprise essential to lasting prosperity. He imported the merino, or fine wool, breed of sheep from Castile, and did everything possible to foster their growth. The viceroy had wide powers over local administration, and all matters pertaining to wool manufacturing were under his jurisdiction. Legislation regarding wool mills emanated from the crown; it was reissued by the viceroy; and its immediate execution was a cabildo function.Licenses to establish textile mills could be granted only by the King through the mediation of the viceroy and audiencia. “None shall be founded in any way, nor for any cause, nor in any place, without my express license, or that of the viceroys …”
Pigments Used by the Mission Indians of California
Authors: Webb Edith 
Published: July 2006

The old mission buildings of California will, so long as a vestige of them remains, furnish inspiration for writers of fiction and history, poetry and song. For there were built into their very walls stories that can never be completely told; stories that can only be guessed at. And so the subject is ever new, never ending.Over twenty years ago the writer began a serious study of the old establishments as of the mission day period, feeling that there was need of a better, fuller understanding of them and of the part they had played in the early history of our State. There has been too much of romantic, fanciful, even prejudiced writing and too little that is sanely historical.
Literary Contributions of Catholics in Nineteenth-Century Mexico: Part Two: The Díaz Regime (1867–1910)
Authors: Steck Francis Borgia 
Published: July 2006

Whereas proper classification presents no difficulty in the case of Peón y Contreras, who was primarily a poet, it is not so apparent in which group of writers one should place José María Roa Bárcena. That he was a poet of real merit is recognized, for instance, by González Peña, who treats of him in the chapter on poetry. In the present study, following the plan originally adopted, he will be considered now only as a poet and later in the study be given attention as a prose writer.José María Roa Bárcena was born in 1827 in Jalapa, State of Veracruz, and he breathed his last in 1908 in Mexico City at the ripe old age of eighty-one. Thus his devotion to letters was yielding fruit long before the collapse of the Second Empire and continued to do so during the transition period and most of the Díaz era that followed. In this respect he ranks with the two bishops, Pagaza and Montes de Oca, whose contributions to Mexican literature will be dealt with presently. To the vigilant care with which his deeply religious parents watched over his childhood and early youth and also to the beneficent influence of a private tutor who combined learning with piety must be ascribed the fact that throughout his long life José María not only clung tenaciously to the Catholic faith but also exemplified in his private life and fearlessly upheld in his writings the religious and social principles which this faith stood for.
An Analysis of the Program of the Mexican Liberal Party, 1906
Authors: Cumberland Charles C. 
Published: July 2006

The Mexican nation has been incessantly plagued with revolutionary plans since the “grito of demoralization” by Guerrero in 1829. The word “plagued” is used advisedly, for very few of the revolutionary plans were more than expressions of personalismo, the bane of Latin-American politics. The immense majority of these so-called “programs” have had very little in the way of social and economic reforms embodied in them, either by word or implication; for the most part they have been political rather than socio-economic in character.Early in the twentieth century, however, a small group developed one of the few socio-economic programs to be found in Mexican history. On July 1, 1906, while the Diaz government was still firmly entrenched, Ricardo Flores Magón and his little group of followers, almost unnoticed by the majority of the Mexicans, published a program of reform which at the time was one of the most sweeping ever outlined in Mexico. Announced as the philosophy of the Mexican Liberal Party, in it were all the elements of a vast socio-economic plan for the Mexican nation, with only a small part of the program dealing with political change. The Liberals well realized that curing only the political sore would not heal the sick nation.
Valentin de Foronda’s Memoir on the United States of North America, 1804
Authors: de Onís José 
Published: July 2006

In the Rich Collection of the New York Public Library there is a manuscript, Apuntes ligeros sobre los Estados Unidos de la América Septentrional, in which a Spanish diplomat and author, Valentín de Foronda, gives his impressions about the United States of America.We cannot say with certainty what the history of this manuscript is, but from the few scattered facts which we have we can come to certain conclusions. At the time when it was written, in 1804, there must have been more than one copy. The perfection of the manuscript and the fact that ft is not in Foronda’s handwriting, tends to indicate that it was recopied several times. It is probable that there were at least three sets of copies. The original he must have kept for himself. One, in all likelihood was given to his immediate superior, who at that time was Casa Irujo. A third set might have been sent to the Spanish Minister of State. It is my belief that the manuscript that has come down to us is the one he gave to the Ambassador Casa Irujo. The reason on which I base this, is that twenty years later, long after Foronda and Casa Irujo had died, Mrs. Casa Irujo became a personal friend of Obadiah Rich, the bibliographer, and used to be a frequent guest at his house in Madrid. Rich obtained the manuscript about this time and it is very probable that he got it from her. Where the other hypothetical copies are would be difficult to say. The set sent to the Spanish Minister of State must be buried in some Spanish archive. The other one which he kept for himself was more than likely confiscated by the Spanish authorities, along with his other papers, and was probably destroyed during Foronda’s trial of 1814.
Gabriela Mistral
Authors: Bates Margaret J. 
Published: July 2006

When, on November sixteenth last, the newspapers announced the awarding of the Nobel Prize for literature to a Chilean poetess, Gabriela Mistral, the news came as a surprise to many Americans, who, although they considered themselves well read, had never heard her name.The fundamental reason we know so little of this remarkable woman who enjoys such a great popularity in the Spanish-speaking world, not only for her words but for her deeds, is because the limited number of her poems which have been translated into English, by heavy hands, for the most part, allow hardly a glimmer of the real Mistral to shine through them. Of course, all translation of poetry is difficult but that of Gabriela extremely so because of her unique selection of words. She has created a plant that does not grow on English soil.
Father Gonzalo Tenorio, O.F.M., and his Providentialist Eschatological Theories on the Spanish Indies
Authors: Eguiluz Antonio 
Published: July 2006

At the present time there is much interest both in factual history and in the history of the ideas which motivated these facts. This might be the justification, for instance, of so many monographs which are now appearing in many countries about the religious motives which gave impulse to great reforms.The Spanish enterprise of the Indies has already been the subject of such studies, both from the point of view of Spanish thinkers and writers or from the standpoint—much less frequent—of the “Indianos” or Americans themselves.
The Wilson Administration and Nicaragua, 1913–1921
Authors: Baker George W. 
Published: July 2006

In latin american relations, Woodrow Wilson sought to revolutionize United States policy by supplanting the “Big Stick ”diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt and the “Dollar Diplomacy ”of William H. Taft with a new Pan Americanism. He not only reiterated his desire to be a good neighbor in numerous speeches, particularly his famous Mobile address of October, 1913, but he even formulated a Pan American Pact to promote hemispheric unity by providing for mutual sovereign and territorial respect. His pact failed largely because of the nationalistic opposition of Chile, and his grand design, though cropping up later in the League of Nations idea, ultimately went the way of all Utopian dreams. Then, since Wilson turned his attention to European and domestic affairs, it remained for his three successive secretaries of state, William Jennings Bryan, Robert Lansing, and Bainbridge Colby, to face the realities of Latin American relations and to apply their own policies in dealing with the immediate problems, especially of the smaller republics. Though each man predicated his policies upon Wilson’s promises of friendship as far as possible, and referred critical problems to the president, each generally left the imprint of his own beliefs and personality on hemispheric relations.Bryan was sympathetic with the president’s goal of the brotherhood of nations, but he conceived his own plan for resolving international conflicts by proposing that all nations sign bilateral arbitration treaties and then submit their differences for at least a year’s consideration to an international arbitral board. He believed that if nations could be deterred from a hasty resort to arms, they would either “cool off ”while awaiting the decision or have their problem solved. But, Bryan, like Wilson, was not to achieve his larger objective because of nationalistic opposition, and he had to do what he could as a “Good Samaritan ”to help all nations become, like the United States, constitutionally sound republics.
Marquis of Pombal to George III
Authors: Alden Dauril 
Published: July 2006

Exmo. Sr.1. A carta de V. S.a que trouxe o n.° 44, e a data de 7 do corrente chegou aqui no dia de hoje depois de haverem partido os despachos que dirigi a V. S.a na data de 18 e 25 do mesmo mez que corre.2. Em continuação e supplemento d'elles, não posso deixar de significar a V. S.a que o seu referido despacho fez subir ao maior ponto a justa perplexidade, que me tinham causado os inesperados termos com que mylord Rocheford se havia explicado com V. S.a nas conferencias que fizeram os objectos da minha instrução de 20 de outubro proximo precedente: vendo que o referido lord insistia ainda em mostrar que se não tinha feito algum cargo, de que a situação em que actualmente se acha este côrte, mettida entre as concussões das de Madrid e Paris, não émais critica a respeito de Portugal do que o é a respeito da Inglaterra, pelas obvias razões que no meu officio de 25 do corrente foram recopiladas.
The Alternativa: A Study in Spanish-Creole Relations in Seventeenth-Century Peru
Authors: Tibesar Antonine 
Published: July 2006

Within recent years there has been increasing interest in those aspects of Spanish American history which represent a growing political consciousness among the inhabitants of those lands especially during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.Perhaps nowhere can the growth of this sentiment be studied with greater ease than in the religious orders. By their development, the religious orders, the Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits, and Mercedarians, came to consist almost exclusively of criollos (descendants of Europeans born in America) and Chapetones (friars born in Europe, in particular in Spain): the two groups which were to be the leaders of the two contending parties in the wars of independence. The ultimate estrangement of these two groups developed during the colonial period in the course of which the rising creole desire to manage their own affairs encountered increasing opposition from the Spanish Crown. The encounters were not always peaceful. The participants, on both sides, in good faith held to their principles with a deep conviction of which the incidental vehemence is perhaps the clearest proof. Neither side yielded readily. This is true also of the friars.
Fray Jose Antonio Liendo y Goicoechea, O.F.M. Y LA Philosophia Recentior del Siglo XVIII
Authors: Lamadrid Lázaro 
Published: July 2006

He aquí una figura menos conocida, pero que es sin embargo un exponente más de la sabia y prudente conducta del Catolicismo en un terreno en que prejuicios sectarios quisieron y aun de vez en cuando tienden a querer representarlo como una fuerza retardataria del brillante desenvolvimiento científico-natural de nuestros días.El gran predominio de las ciencias naturales en su amplio concepto que abraza también a las matemáticas en nuestros días ha producido un espejismo que lleva a las mayorías a reconocer ese campo como antono-másticamente la CIENCIA.Más aun, como una resultante, para muchos las ciencias que pudiéramos llamar del espíritu como la teología, metafísica, derecho a historia han venido a ser para ellos como ciencias de segunda categoría y en gran parte se las considera como campo especial para inteligencias menos avanzadas o para personas que por profesión están más en conexión con esos estudios.
Fray Jerónimo de Alcalá: Author of the Relación de Michoacán?
Authors: Warren J. Benedict 
Published: July 2006

PERHAPS the most vexing problem in the historiography of Michoacán is the question of the authorship of the Relación de las ceremonias y ritos y población y gobernación de los indios de la Provincia de Michoacán, commonly known as the Relación de Michoacán. This small volume, conserved in the Library of the Escorial in Spain (MS. Ç. IV.5.), is our principal source of information regarding the pre-conquest history and culture of the Tarascan Indians of Michoacán and their first contacts with the Spaniards. It originally consisted of three parts, which the author described in his introductory letter as follows:saqué … dónde vinieron sus dioses más principales y las fiestas que les hiacían, lo cual puse en la primera parte; en la segunda parta puse cómo poblaron y conquistaron esta provincia los antepasados del Cazonci, y en la tercera la gobernación que tenían entre sí hasta que vinieron los españoles a esta provincia y hace fin en la muerte del Cazonci.”
The Conquest of Mexico The Views of the Chroniclers
Authors: Greene Paul E. 
Published: July 2006

The historian often confronts contradictory sources. The inconsistencies are frequently synthesized into an account satisfying the historian's world view. Sometimes the points of agreement and disagreement are systematically examined. The chronicles of the conquest of New Spain provide the opportunity to engage in this latter process of collation. The sources under consideration in this essay are the chronicles of Francisco López de Gómara, Hernán Cortés, Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Francisco de Aguilar, and Andrés de Tapia. The first three men write for specific objectives; the latter two do not.Cortés addressed his letters to the king of Spain seeking to legitimize his precarious position vis-à-vis the governor of Cuba, from whom he was seeking autonomy. For this reason, the captain's actions appear in the most favorable light.
Labor in Amazonia in the First Half of the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Gross Sue A. 
Published: July 2006

Labor questions put their indelible stamp on colonial life, whether in Brazil, Spanish America, or the North American colonies. Methods of labor recruitment varied among these regions, however, as did the social consequences of enslavement, race mixture, and destruction or modification of native cultures.The poverty of the Amazon region, the old state of Maranhão e Grão Pará, prevented a system of black slavery such as characterized the Brazilian Northeast. Indians, whether slave, or held as free men in mission villages, dominated the labor market. The perennial lay-ecclesiastical fight for jurisdiction over the Indian has been vividly documented by historians such as Boxer, Kiemen, and Leite. This ground need not be retraced. What may be of interest is to examine the variety of sources from which labor was supplied to the plantations, cities, and fortresses of Maranhão e Grão Pará during the first half of the eighteenth century, just before the disruptions brought by Pombal's reforms.