bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Experimental Foundation for Relative Permeability Modeling of Foam
Authors: Vassenden F. , Holt T. 
Published: December 2007

Summary
Optimization of foam treatments requires modeling or simulation of the process using a foam model that is capable of reproducing the critical properties of foam. In this work we present a simple model that is based on the relative permeability concept, and is well suited for simulation of foam processes with conventional or slightly modified numerical simulators. The model can unify understanding of a number of phenomena that characterizes foam flow. The validity of the model is substantiated by experimental data. A consistent interpretation of foam breakdown, shear thinning effects, permeability effects, and effects of system pressure is possible with the model for gas relative permeability in foam presented.
Integrated Characterization and Flow Modeling of a Heterogeneous Carbonate Reservoir in Daleel Field, Oman
Authors: Abbaszadeh Maghsood , Koide Naoki , Murahashi Yoya 
Published: December 2007

Summary
This article presents applications of deterministic and conditional geostatistical reservoir characterization methods to the heterogeneous carbonates of the upper Shuaiba formation in Daleel field, Oman. High-resolution reservoir descriptions based on the integration of logs, core, pressure transient tests, geology, and seismic data are constructed; and upscaled for use in reservoir simulation models to history match field performance data. Generally, geostatistical techniques combined with geology and proper upscaling of permeability heterogeneity yield best results without artificial alterations in various fluid and rock properties. Although acceptable history matches can be obtained with compromised less-detailed reservoir descriptions, these require modifications to reservoir data beyond reasonable ranges. Only detailed and concise reservoir descriptions result in history matches that are consistent with a variety of measured data sources.
Characterizing the Greater Burgan Field With Geochemical and Other Field Data
Authors: Kaufman R. L. , Kabir C. S. , Abdul-Rahman B. , Quttainah R. , Dashti H. , Pederson J. M. , Moon M. S. 
Published: December 2007

Summary
This paper describes recent results from an ongoing geochemical study of the supergiant Greater Burgan field, Kuwait. Oil occurs in a number of vertically separated reservoirs including the Jurassic Marrat reservoir and Cretaceous-Minagish, -Third Burgan, -Fourth Burgan, -Mauddud, and -Wara reservoirs. The Third and Fourth Burgan sands are the most important producing reservoirs. Over 100 oils representing all major producing reservoirs have been analyzed using oil fingerprinting as the principal method, but also supported by gravity, sulfur, and pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) measurements.
From a reservoir management perspective, an important feature of the field is the approximately 1,200-ft-long hydrocarbon column which extends across the Burgan and Wara reservoirs. Oil composition varies with depth in this thick oil column. For example, oil gravity varies in a nonlinear fashion from about 10°API near the oil/water contact to about 39°API at the shallowest Wara reservoir. This gravity-depth relationship makes identification of reservoir compartments solely from fluid property data difficult. Including oil geochemistry in the traditional mix of PVT and production logging data improves the understanding of compartmentalization and fluid flow in the reservoir, both in a vertical and lateral sense.
The composition of reservoir fluids is controlled by a number of geological and physical processes. We attempted to identify unique sets of geochemical parameters that were sensitive to specific oil alteration processes. One set of geochemical properties correlated strongly with gravity and is, therefore, related to the gravity-segregation process. A second set of parameters showed essentially no correlation with gravity or depth but established unique oil fingerprints for most of the major producing reservoirs and identified a number of different oil groups within the Burgan and Wara reservoirs. We interpret the presence of these oil groups to indicate reservoir compartments owing to laterally continuous shales and faults which act as seals on a geologic time frame. More tentative is the identification of production time frame barriers from the fluid composition data. The oil fingerprint data have been used to distinguish oils from the major producing reservoirs and evaluate hydrocarbon continuity within the reservoirs.
Development Drilling From a Floating Rig
Authors: Eckerfield R.J. , Soemantri B. 
Published: December 2007

A drilling concept using a floating rig to drill development wells has been used successfully offshore Indonesia. The results have been acce-lerated cash flow and more effective use of equipment.

Introduction
In 1973, Union Oil Co. of Indonesia, acting as operator under a production-sharing agreement with Pertamina, the Indonesian state oil company, drilled a discovery well in the Kerindingan field offshore East Kalimantan, using the floating rig Wodeco VI. The company wanted to develop the field and get it on production as soon as possible, but no other rig was available. To accelerate possible, but no other rig was available. To accelerate development, it was decided to develop the field with the Wodeco VI.
The project was successful, and the concept also has been applied in the Sepinggan and Attaka fields.

Equipment and Procedure
The concept involves two "new" hardware systems: a multislot subsea drilling template that fixes well spacing, and a subsea casing-hanger modification that allows subsequent casing tie-back to the platform.
Similar templates have been used in jack-up drilling operations, where a mud-line suspension system is used to support the casing at the mud line. In the jack-up operation, the template is used only to space the wells. Three such templates have been used with a jack-up to complete development projects in the area.
The floater-type template structure (Figs. 1 and 2) is much heavier than usual because it is designed to support the 30-in. conductors, as well as to space them out.
P. 711
Environmental Aspects of Produced Waters From Oil and Gas Extraction Operations in Offshore And Coastal Waters
Authors: Koons C.B. , McAuliffe C.D. , Weiss F.T. 
Published: December 2007

Environmental literature has been greatly concerned with possible detrimental effects of continued produced-water discharges in offshore and coastal areas. This review paper presents results from a number of studies that should relieve some of these concerns.

Introduction
This paper reviews the constituents of produced waters and their effects on both offshore and coastal marine environments. Considerable laboratory and field data were interpreted.
This review paper was prepared to allay certain concerns expressed recently in environmental literature about possible detrimental effects on the marine environment of continued produced-water discharges in offshore and coastal areas.
Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Produced Waters Produced Waters Inputs
A recent National Academy of Sciences (NAS) report reviews the input of petroleum hydrocarbons to the marine environment from various sources. This study estimates that the worldwide input of oil to the oceans from all sources is about 6 million metric tons per year and from offshore drilling and production operations only about 0.08 million tons per year. Of this latter total, about 0.06 million tons comes from major spills. The remaining 0.02 million tons is attributed to minor spills (50 bbl or less) plus discharges of oilfield-produced waters during normal drilling and producing operations. Table 1 summarizes the input estimates from the different sources.
Another particularly interesting comparison can be made between the produced-water input and the much higher continuous discharge of petroleum hydrocarbons from submarine seeps, estimated to total 0.6 million metric tons per year. Seeps have been discharging hydrocarbons into the marine environment for millions of years. Petroleum hydrocarbons also are being added continuously to the marine environment by erosion and discharge from uplifted sedimentary rocks containing hydrocarbons generated during burial. Thus, petroleum hydrocarbons are certainly not substances foreign to the marine environment.
The relative amount of hydrocarbons contributed to the marine environment by oilfield-produced waters is so small that any over-all environmental effects from this input should be minimal.

Fate
Water coproduced with oil and gas and separated for discharge retains up to 50 ppm of separate-phase oil as small droplets. The water also may contain up to 35 ppm of dissolved hydrocarbons. These produced waters discharged from offshore operations are diluted with large volumes of moving water, The oil (dispersed and dissolved) immediately undergoes a number of changes that result in changes in concentration and composition. The mechanisms are dilution, evaporation, spreading, emulsification, air-sea interchange, biological degradation, and photo-oxidation. These natural processes quickly lower the actual measured concentrations of hydrocarbons.
JPT
P. 723
Diffraction Theory and Statistical Methods To Predict Wave-Induced Motions and Loads for Large Structures
Authors: Loken A.E. , Olsen O.A. 
Published: December 2007

This paper presents the results of computations of wave loads on fixed antifloating structures using three-dimensional, sink-source techniques (diffraction theory). Theoretical calculations are compared with model experiments. Statistical methods are discussed also.

Introduction
Basic contributions to the use of three-dimensional diffraction theory are the studies of Lebreton and Cormault and Garrison and Seetharama Rao. Since their presentations, this method increasingly has become the predominant technique for handling wave-induced loads on large offshore structures of arbitrary form.
However, strip theories based on two-dimensional (diffraction) solutions have been applied in ship design to determine responses in regular waves for some time. The linear superposition technique proposed by St. Denis and Pierson normally is used to determine the responses in irregular seas.
Different computer programs have been developed on the basis of the method proposed by Lebreton and Cormault. This paper presents the applications of a computer program and information gained from experimental program and information gained from experimental results. Computations of short-term responses in irregular seas using different wave-spectrum formulations are included also. This procedure has not been prominent in the design of large offshore structures yet, although it long has been used widely in ship design.

Theoretical Formulation
A review of the basic equations used in the diffraction theory program is presented in the following section.

The Equations of Motions
The motions of a floating structure are derived from the condition of dynamic equilibrium between excitation and restoring and the damping and inertial reactions of the system. Assuming that the system is harmonic, the six coupled linear differential equations of motions may be written as
6 -iwt (mjl + mjl) nl + Wjl nl + Cjl Nl = Fje.
l=1 .................................(1)
Here, mj is the component of the generalized mass matrix (j=l = 1,2, . . . 6) and mjl and Wjl are the added-mass and damping coefficients, respectively. The restoring coefficients Cjl and the complex amplitude of the exciting forces and moments are Fj. The real part should be used in all expressions where e-iwt is part should be used in all expressions where e-iwt is involved. The wave encounter frequency that is the same as the response frequency is denoted as w. Displacements are represented by n. Dots are used to indicate time derivatives.
A right-handed coordinate system (x, y, z) fixed with respect to the mean position of the structure with an origin in the plane of the free undisturbed surface is presented. The coordinate z points up vertically through the center of gravity and the coordinate x points in the direction of backward motion. It is assumed that the structure is symmetric about the x-z plane and the center of gravity is located in (O, O, Zc).
JPT
P. 549
Microbial-Induced Corrosion of Subsea Pipeline in the Gulf of Suez
Authors: El-Raghy S. M. , El-Leil H. M. Abou , Ghazal H. H. 
Published: December 2007

Summary
In mid-May 1996, a leak developed in a 24-in. crude oil line that transfers the untreated crude oil from El-Morgan field in the Gulf of Suez to the onshore process facilities (Fig. 1). The line, a carbon steel API-5L XS-60 seamless pipeline with a wall thickness of 0.75 in., was installed in April 1993. A diving survey was carried out after an oil spill using side-scan sonar survey and a remote operating vehicle (ROV) video. The ROV inspection identified the leak to be the result of internal corrosion in eight joints located at a depth of 240 to 250 ft. After fixing the leaks, a complete ultrasonic survey was performed using a high-resolution intelligent pig. The ultrasonic data, with the sample analysis of the deposits accumulated ahead of the pig, confirmed the mode of corrosion as internal microbial-influenced corrosion (MIC) at the 6 o'clock position.
A comprehensive review of the corroded line history, the available corrosion monitoring data, and the applied corrosion-mitigation program shows the following:
corrosion monitoring using weight loss coupons, electrochemical devices, and/or chemical methods installed in the two ends of the subsea pipelines does not show any sign of a high corrosion rate (average 3 MPY); absence of the frequent pigging in the pipeline resulted in the accumulation of sludge that caused underdeposits corrosion; thermophilic sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) were not detected; however, some non-SRB were detected.
This article reviews the pipeline history, corrosion mechanism, inspection outlines, and reservoir souring modeling. We present a plan of action to prevent this leak from happening again, and a brief introduction for mitigation options strategies and economics.
Probabilistic Fatigue Analysis of Fixed Offshore Structures
Authors: Vugts J.H. , Kinra R.K. 
Published: December 2007

This paper describes the application of probabilistic techniques to a detailed fatigue analysis of offshore structures. The structural properties are characterized by stress transfer functions in the properties are characterized by stress transfer functions in the frequency domain. Long-term statistics follow by accumulation and fatigue damage is computed using Miner's law. Spectral analysis is used to evaluate short-term stress statistics for each sea state in the wave climate.

Introduction
General Description of Fatigue in Offshore Structures
Failure caused by fatigue in welded structures is related to the variable loads experienced by the structure during its life. Fatigue under random loading conditions, as experienced offshore, is a complex subject. The present state of the art for welded steel structures generally accepts the following as trueWelded connections are most susceptible to the development of fatigue cracks.Small, sharp defects inevitably exist in welds and can cause cracks.Fatigue in offshore structures is predominantly a matter of crack propagation as a result of these defectsIn as-welded connections, stress of yield-strength magnitude in tension exist because of residual stresses.Therefore, stress fluctuations range from tension yield downward and this range of the fluctuation alone is the governing parameter.Consequently, fully tensile stress cycles and partially or wholly compressive stress cycles are equally partially or wholly compressive stress cycles are equally damaging in welded structures.The fatigue strength of welded connections is independent of the yield strength of presently used structural steels.Crack propagation and consequent fatigue damage in an offshore environment will continue at some rate, no matter how small the stress range - that is, no endurance limit is found such as in constant-amplitude, cyclic loading above 2 x 10(6) cycles.Shear stresses may be neglected in fatigue life calculations.
Stress fluctuations normally result predominantly from wave loads. These wave-induced stresses are of variable magnitude and occur in random order. The true time history of the local stresses almost invariably is simplified because it can be described adequately in statistical terms by a reasonable number of stress blocks. Each stress block is composed of a number of cycles of constant stress. Thus, the sequence of variations in the true stress history is lost. The cumulative effect of all stress blocks representing the stress history is estimated by Miner's rule of linear accumulation of damage:
nb ni Fd = -----, ni i=1
where Fd = damage ratio
and
nb = number of stress blocks considered
A fatigue failure is assumed to occur when the damage ratio, Fd, reaches unity. In fatigue analysis, this criterion is considered the definition of a local fatigue failure. This does not necessarily imply an actual failure nor a partial or complete collapse of the structure.
JPT
P. 657
The Successful Use of Austenitic Stainless Steels in Sea Water
Authors: Moller G.E. 
Published: December 2007

Moller, G.E., International Nickel Co., Inc., Torrance, Calif.

Abstract
Austenitic stainless steels are providing excellent trouble-free service in sea water for pumps, propellers, valves. and other marine equipment. propellers, valves. and other marine equipment. Occasionally, a failure occurs as the result of deep localized pitting in a crevice. Data are given showing that austenitic, ferritic. and martensitic stainless steels suffer pitting in crevices and under deposits in quiescent sea water. Austenitic stainless steels remain free from attack in high-velocity sea water. Low-purity ferritic and the martensitic stainless steels frequently pit in high-velocity sea water. Crevice corrosion can be controlled effectively with cathodic protection from iron, zinc. aluminum or magnesium galvanic anodes or impressed current cathodic protection by polarization to -0.6 v vs Calomel. Austenitic stainless steel performs well in many situations because it is a component of a multi-alloy assembly utilizing iron or steel. Examples from field experience arc given.

Introduction
During the past decade, there has been a growing use of austenitic stainless steel in marine equipment. Most applications have been successful but an unexpected failure has been observed occasionally. It is the purpose of this paper to describe when and how to use austenitic stainless steel with success. The selection of stainless steels appears to result from the engineering requirements of new, advanced, high-speed, high-reliability commercial, pleasure, and military craft. Ocean science and pleasure, and military craft. Ocean science and engineering, offshore oil production, fishing, and ocean mining are also contributing to the selection of stainless steels for sea-water applications. The increasing use of stainless steel in the marine environment is found in work-boat propellers, pump components, bow thrusters, valves, shafting pump components, bow thrusters, valves, shafting and shaft components, through-hull fittings, parts on data-gathering buoys, fasteners, and housings of oceanographic instruments. When austenitic stainless steel has given good, corrosion-free service, it is most often found to be used as a key component in a multi component, multi-alloy assembly or system receiving the benefit of built-in cathodic protection. For example, in Fig. 1 a cast Type 304 (Alloy Casting Institute CF-4) propeller is being used on a steel seagoing tugboat with zinc anodes attached to the rudder. Fig. 2 shows a cast ACI CE-30 power-plant sea-water circulation-pump impeller free power-plant sea-water circulation-pump impeller free of any corrosion after 6 years of service that was used in combination with an austenitic cast-iron suction bell and diffuser.
SPEJ
p. 101
Considerations Concerning Bank Financing of Oil and Gas Properties
Authors: Warren J.E. 
Published: December 2007

Introduction
Over the years, technological development, expanding markets and competition have kept the petroleum industry dynamic and progressive, fulfilling a vital part in the nation's expanding economy. Looking to the future, indications point to a greater and greater demand for petroleum products to meet the growing needs of a larger population and an increasing per capita dependency upon energy. Expansion of facilities in all branches of the industry will be needed as demand grows. This expansion will increase financial requirements, for there is a continual need of capital to make it all possible. A major share of these capital requirements will be needed to explore for and develop increasing amounts of crude oil and natural gas.
This paper will cover first, the banking concept as it applies to all oil property loans; second, current considerations concerning specific loan situations; and, finally, considerations of future political and economic forces as they are related to oil and gas loans.

Banking Concept Concerning Oil Property Loans
We have all heard in the oil country allegations such as "tight bankers" and "bankers only loan money on cinches". This is a natural human reaction, for all of us accept easily those things that conform to our own thinking and forward our own interests, and reject readily those contrary to our beliefs and interests. The misunderstanding arises because banking and oil producing, by their very natures, must operate in different business climates. Actually, banking and the oil business do not have conflicting objectives, for bankers are anxious to do all they can to build relationships and promote the welfare of their oil clients. They must, however, confine their judgment within limits imposed by their over-all responsibilities. So, perhaps it might be well at this point to compare the two businesses - banking and petroleum - and point out the differences in business climate in which each one is permitted to operate.
New Material and Technique for Matrix Stimulation in High-Water-Cut Oil Wells
Authors: Chang F. F. , Love T. G. , Affeld C. J. , Blevins III J. B. , Thomas R. L. , Fu D. K. 
Published: December 2007

Summary
A new process has been developed that effectively diverts acid away from zones with high water saturation into hydrocarbon zones. This process is designed to increase the success of matrix acidizing treatments. Because of the relative permeability effect, aqueous acid predominantly enters the zone with highest water saturation, resulting in stimulation of the water zones and an increase of water cut. Although foam can be used to divert acid from the "aquifer" to the damaged oil zones, nitrogen is not readily available in some areas and additional handling equipment is required. A new nonparticulate, nongaseous material has been developed to effectively divert acid away from highly water saturated zones. The material forms a highly viscous plug when it contacts water in the matrix yet degrades when mixed with oil in the matrix of the formation.
In this article we discuss in detail the diversion technique from both laboratory testing and field studies. Laboratory tests conducted in a dual-core flow apparatus showed excellent diversion from a water-rich zone to an oil-rich zone, as well as from a high-permeability formation to a low-permeability formation. Case histories showed the new material successfully diverted acid and stimulated the carbonate formations in the Permian Basin.