bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Has Artificial Intelligence Contributed to an Understanding of the Human Mind?: A Critique of Arguments For and Against
Authors: Miller Laurence 
Published: October 2005

This essay examines arguments for and against the proposition that Artificial Intelligence (AI) research makes an important contribution to the understanding of the human mind. A number of recent articles have seemed to question the value of Al ideas in specific domains (e.g., language. mental imagery, problem solving). In the present paper, it is argued that the real disagreement concerns the form of a scientific psychology. The critics of Artificial Intelligence believe that many acceptable psychological theories exist and the important task of the scientist is to show that certain of these theories are true. They criticize AI research because it has not produced theories whose adequacy can be tested by empirical research. The supporters of AI research believe that no adequate psychological theories exist. They claim that the important task is to develop adequate theories and until such theories have been constructed, it is pointless to worry about empirical tests.A number of major arguments attacking and defending AI research are examined in order to illustrate that the real issue is methodological. It is concluded that the present debate is counterproductive since both sides assume that the methodological premise of the other side is wrong without attempting to refute it. A more constructive debate would address directly the more fundamental question of what methods offer the greatest promise of solving the major problems of psychology.
Why John Married Mary: Understanding Stories Involving Recurring Goals
Authors: Wilensky Robert 
Published: October 2005

A story understander needs a great deal of knowledge about people's goals. This knowledge is needed to infer explanations for the behavior of the characters in a story. Sometimes a character's behavior cannot be explained in terms of a particular goal, but only in relation to a set of recurring goals that a character anticipates having.The concept of goal subsumption is introduced to deal with these situations. Goal subsumption is a way of planning for many goals at the same time. It occurs in three different types of story situations, each of which has its own rules for recognition and understanding.
Conversational Coherency*
Authors: Reichman Rachel 
Published: October 2005

A major goal of this work is to specify some steps of the process by which participants maintain coherency in their conversations.The underlying element of the analysis is a construct called a “context space.” Roughly, a group of utterances that refers to a single issue or episode forms the basis for a context space. Superficially, a conversation is a sequence of utterances; at a deeper level it is a structured entity whose utterances can be parsed into hierarchically related context spaces.As a conversation proceeds, each conversant builds a discourse model that includes the conversation's context space structure, a notion of the present discourse topic, and a list of items being focused upon. Conversational coherency depends upon a lack of conflict between the respective models of the participants. Conflicts are prevented by speakers following high level syntactic and semantic relational rules that enable listeners to identify their discourse models. These rules, given in the study, are highly integrated with the view of conversation presented here—a hierarchy of related context spaces.
The Process of Retrieval from Very Long‐Term Memory
Authors: Williams Michael David , Hollan James D. 
Published: October 2005

In this paper we argue that the protocols of subjects recalling the names of their high school classmates, as well as an army of traditional memory phenomena, can be understood from an information processing analysis which interprets retrieval as a problem‐solving process. This characterization of retrieval focuses on the reconstructive and recursive nature of the process of remembering. Retrieval is viewed as a process in which some information about a target item is used to construct a description of the item and this description is used in attempts to recover new fragments of information. A new description i s formed and the process continues recursively. Three subprocesses are identified: FIND A CONTEXT, in which a proper environment for conducting a search i s established: SEARCH, in which bits and pieces of information appropriate to the context are recovered until an adequate description can be formed within the search context; and VERIFY, in which recovery information is checked for consistency.From the perspective this characterization, we examine the protocols of subjects asked to think aloud while recalling the names of their classmates. Subjects' retrievals continued for a surprisingly long period and were characterized by the phenomena of overshoot, systematic hypothesizing, fabrications, establishment of search contexts, self‐corrections, and the use of a number of basic search strategies. The view of memory as a problem‐solving process not only leads us to the identification of these phenomena but also to a framework for a coherent interpretation for them.
Toward a Theory of Intrinsically Motivating Instruction*
Authors: Malone Thomas W. 
Published: October 2005

First, a number of previous theories of intrinsic motivation are reviewed. Then, several studies of highly motivating computer games are described. These studies focus on what makes the games fun, not on what makes them educational. Finally, with this background, a rudimentary theory of intrinsically motivating instruction is developed, based on three categories: challenge, fantasy, and curiosity.Challenge is hypothesized to depend on goals with uncertain outcomes. Several ways of making outcomes uncertain are discussed, including variable difficulty level, multiple level goals, hidden information, and randomness. Fantasy is claimed to have both cognitive and emotional advantages in designing instructional environments. A distinction is made between extrinsic fantasies that depend only weakly on the skill used in a game, and intrinsic fantasies that are intimately related to the use of the skill. Curiosity is separated into sensory and cognitive components, and it is suggested that cognitive curiosity can be aroused by making learners believe their knowledge structures are incomplete, inconsistent, or unparsimonious.
Involuntary automaticity: a work-system induced risk to safe health care
Authors: Toft Brian , Mascie-Taylor Hugo 
Published: October 2005

Automaticity is the term given by psychologists to the skilled action that people develop through repeatedly practising the same activity, for example driving a car. Usually, automaticity is discussed in terms of the benefits it brings to people, such as the reduction in the degree of conscious attention a person needs to pay to such skilled activities. However, there is evidence to suggest that substantial costs may also be associated with such learned behaviour. Managing patient safety is a difficult task and one of the ways in which health-care professionals seek to accomplish it is through the use of verbal challenge-response protocols. However, it is argued in this paper that it is possible for the negative effects of automaticity to involuntarily capture those using such verbal checklist techniques and cause them to erroneously believe that the treatment that they are about to administer to a patient is safe when it is not. This phenomenon does not, however, seem to have been recognized by the health-care community nationally or internationally. We conclude that patient safety could be significantly improved worldwide if the organizational arrangements which appear to induce involuntary automaticity were to be robustly addressed by the management of all health-care organizations.
Transplantation of Neuronal and Glial Restricted Precursors into Contused Spinal Cord Improves Bladder and Motor Functions, Decreases Thermal Hypersensitivity, and Modifies Intraspinal Circuitry
Authors: Mitsui Takahiko , Shumsky Jed S. , Lepore Angelo C. , Murray Marion , Fischer Itzhak 
Published: October 2005

Transplanting neuronal and glial restricted precursors (NRP/GRP) into a midthoracic injury 9 d after contusion improved bladder and motor function, diminished thermal hypersensitivity, and modified lumbosacral circuitry compared with operated controls (OP-controls). Histological analysis showed that NRP/GRP survived, filled the lesion site, differentiated into neurons and glia, and migrated selectively. Volume of spinal cord spared was increased in NRP/GRP recipients, suggesting local protection. Bladder areflexia developed in both operated groups, but NRP/GRP recipients exhibited an accelerated recovery, with decreased micturition pressure and fewer episodes of detrusor hyperreflexia. Because noradrenergic receptors proliferate after spinal injury and descending noradrenergic pathways contribute to regulation of bladder control, we examined the effects of administering an α-1A-adrenergic antagonist, Tamsulosin, on urodynamics. This improved all cystometric parameters in both operated groups, and micturition pressure in NRP/GRP rats recovered to normal levels. Both operated groups initially showed increased sensitivity to a thermal stimulus applied to the tail; the NRP/GRP rats showed significant improvement over time. NRP/GRP grafts also produced greater recovery of hindlimb function in several tests, although both groups showed persistent and similar deficits in locomotion on a grid.Because bladder, hindlimb, and tail sensory and motor functions are organized through lumbosacral cord, we examined descending and primary afferent projections at L6-S1. The density of serotonergic, noradrenergic, and corticotrophin releasing factor-positive fibers increased in the NRP/GRP group compared with OP-controls, suggesting some sparing and/or sprouting of these modulatory pathways. Immunocytochemical staining density of dorsal root axons in the dorsal horn increased in the OP-controls but appeared normal in the NRP/GRP group. Synaptophysin immunoreactivity in the lumbosacral dorsal horn was similar among groups, consistent with restoration of synaptic density in both groups of operated animals but by different pathways. We suggest that local protection provided by NRP/GRP resulted in increased sparing/sprouting of descending pathways, which prevented sprouting by dorsal root axons, and that this modification in lumbosacral circuitry contributes to the recovery of function.
Validation of Abundance Estimates from Mark–Recapture and Removal Techniques for Rainbow Trout Captured by Electrofishing in Small Streams
Authors: Rosenberger Amanda E. , Dunham Jason B. 
Published: October 2005

Abstract
Estimation of fish abundance in streams using the removal model or the Lincoln– Peterson mark–recapture model is a common practice in fisheries. These models produce misleading results if their assumptions are violated. We evaluated the assumptions of these two models via electrofishing of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss in central Idaho streams. For one-, two-, three-, and four-pass sampling effort in closed sites, we evaluated the influences of fish size and habitat characteristics on sampling efficiency and the accuracy of removal abundance estimates. We also examined the use of models to generate unbiased estimates of fish abundance through adjustment of total catch or biased removal estimates. Our results suggested that the assumptions of the mark– recapture model were satisfied and that abundance estimates based on this approach were unbiased. In contrast, the removal model assumptions were not met. Decreasing sampling efficiencies over removal passes resulted in underestimated population sizes and overestimates of sampling efficiency. This bias decreased, but was not eliminated, with increased sampling effort. Biased removal estimates based on different levels of effort were highly correlated with each other but were less correlated with unbiased mark–recapture estimates. Stream size decreased sampling efficiency, and stream size and instream wood increased the negative bias of removal estimates. We found that reliable estimates of population abundance could be obtained from models of sampling efficiency for different levels of effort. Validation of abundance estimates requires extra attention to routine sampling considerations but can help fisheries biologists avoid pitfalls associated with biased data and facilitate standardized comparisons among studies that employ different sampling methods.
Predictive Habitat Models for the Occurrence of Stream Fishes in the Mid-Atlantic Highlands
Authors: Rashleigh Brenda , Parmar Rajbir , Johnston John M. , Barber M. Craig 
Published: October 2005

Abstract
In most wadeable streams of the mid-Atlantic Highlands region of the eastern USA, physical habitat alteration is the primary stressor for fish. Models that predict the occurrence of stream-fish species based on habitat measures can be useful in management, and predicted probability of occurrence can be a measure of habitat suitability with which to compare alternative habitat management scenarios and assess the effectiveness of stream restoration. We developed such models for each of 13 mid-Atlantic Highlands stream-fish species and species groups by using multiple logistic regression and six instream habitat measures: depth, temperature, substrate, percent riffles, cover, and riparian vegetation. The predictive ability of the models ranged from 61% to 79% in cross-validation and from 38% to 85% on an independent data set. The models predicted well for both the original and test data sets for black bass Micropterus spp., brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis, darters Etheostoma and Percina spp., shiners Notropis spp., and suckers Hypentelium and Moxostoma spp. Suitable habitat for most of the fish species groups was characterized by intermediate depth, a high percentage of cobble and riparian vegetation, and a low percentage of instream cover. The relatively high predictive ability and reasonable responses to habitat measures indicated that these models could be useful for management. However, the models were more sensitive to depth and temperature than to measures that are more commonly affected by restoration activities, such as cover and riparian vegetation.
Distribution and Abundance of Nonnative Fishes in Streams of the Western United States
Authors: Schade Charles B. , Bonar Scott A. 
Published: October 2005

Abstract
This report presents data from one of the largest standardized stream surveys conducted in the western United States, which shows that one of every four individual fish in streams of 12 western states are nonnative. The states surveyed included Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. The most widely distributed and abundant nonnative fishes in the western USA were brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis, brown trout Salmo trutta, rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss, common carp Cyprinus carpio, smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieu, largemouth bass M. salmoides, green sunfish Lepomis cyanellus, fathead minnow Pimephales promelas, yellow perch Perca flavescens, yellow bullhead Ameiurus natalis, cutthroat trout O. clarkii, western mosquitofish Gambusia affinis, golden shiner Notemigonus crysoleucas, channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus, and red shiner Cyprinella lutrensis. The greatest abundance and distribution of nonnative fishes was in interior states, and the most common nonnatives were introduced for angling. Nonnative fishes were widespread in pristine to highly disturbed streams influenced by all types of land use practices. We present ranges in water temperature, flow, stream order, riparian cover, human disturbance, and other environmental conditions where the 10 most common introduced species were found. Of the total western U.S. stream length bearing fish, 50.1% contained nonnative fishes while 17.9% contained physical environment that was ranked highly or moderately disturbed by humans. Introduced fishes can adversely affect stream communities, and they are much more widespread in western U.S. streams than habitat destruction. The widespread distribution and high relative abundance of nonnative fishes and their documented negative effects suggest their management and control should elicit at least as much attention as habitat preservation in the protection of native western U.S. stream biota.
Experimental study of gas mixing in a spout‐fluid bed
Authors: Zhong Wenqi , Xiao Rui , Zhang Mingyao 
Published: October 2005

AbstractGas mixing in a spout‐fluid bed with a cross section of 0.3 × 0.03 m and height of 2 m was investigated by simultaneously injecting two different tracer gases. One was injected into the spouting gas flow and the other was injected into the fluidizing gas flow. Steady‐state tracer gas measurements were carried out to obtained radial tracer gas concentrations at various bed elevations. Effects of two important operating parameters—spouting gas velocity and fluidizing gas flow rate—on the gas mixing were discussed with flow patterns recorded by a high‐resolution digital CCD camera. The results show that increasing spouting gas velocity and fluidizing gas flow rate can both promote the gas mixing in spout‐fluid beds. Increasing fluidizing gas flow rate is the more effective way, given that a satisfactory mixing condition at a relatively low bed height can be obtained by increasing the fluidizing gas flow rate. For both cases, it is difficult to obtain a good mixing condition in the wall layers. Besides, the mechanism of gas mixing was preliminarily discussed. Results indicate that gas mixing in the spout‐fluid bed is caused by both convection and diffusion. Diffusion other than molecular diffusion should not be neglected, especially at high spouting gas velocity or fluidizing gas flow rate. © 2005 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2006
Calcitonin gene–related peptide does not excite or sensitize meningeal nociceptors: Implications for the pathophysiology of migraine
Authors: Levy Dan , Burstein Rami , Strassman Andrew M. 
Published: October 2005

AbstractMigraine is among the most common types of pain, but its mechanisms are poorly understood. A growing body of evidence points to a critical role of calcitonin gene–related peptide (CGRP) in the pathophysiology of migraine headache. During migraine, CGRP is thought to be released from peripheral endings of perivascular meningeal nociceptors primary and to promote vasodilatation. A current hypothesis suggests that peripheral CGRP and its related meningeal vasodilatation results in activation and sensitization, leading to the generation of migraine headache. However, direct evidence supporting this idea is lacking. Here, using electrophysiological, extracellular, single‐unit recording combined with laser–Doppler flowmetry measurements of dural blood flow (DBF), we examined whether CGRP and meningeal vasodilatation promote activation or sensitization of meningeal nociceptors. Changes in (DBF), ongoing discharge, and responsiveness to mechanical stimulation of the dura were studied after either topical administration or intravenous infusion of rat α‐CGRP in anesthetized rats. Both topical and systemic administration of CGRP caused a significant increase in dural blood flow; however, neither method of CGRP administration resulted in activation or sensitization of meningeal nociceptors. The results of this study suggest that CGRP effects in the meninges, including meningeal vasodilatation, are not sufficient to activate or sensitize meningeal nociceptors. Ann Neurol 2005;58:698–705
Overdiagnosis of multiple sclerosis and magnetic resonance imaging criteria
Authors: Nielsen Jessica M. , Korteweg Tijmen , Barkhof Frederik , Uitdehaag Bernard M. J. , Polman Chris H. 
Published: October 2005

AbstractRetrospectively, we assessed the specificity of two proposed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) criteria for multiple sclerosis (MS) in patients suspected to have MS but who ultimately receive another diagnosis. Brain MRIs of 28 patients mixed with 28 MRIs of MS patients from the same cohort of 377 consecutively referred patients were scored by a neuroradiologist masked to the final diagnosis. The criteria for dissemination in space incorporated in the McDonald International Panel showed good specificity (89%). However, the more sensitive criteria proposed by a Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology resulted in a lower specificity (29%), indicating an increased risk of a false‐positive diagnosis. Ann Neurol 2005;58:781–783
A common pattern of persistent gene activation in human neocortical epileptic foci
Authors: Rakhade Sanjay N. , Yao Bin , Ahmed Sharlin , Asano Eishi , Beaumont Thomas L. , Shah Aashit K. , Draghici Sorin , Krauss Raul , Chugani Harry T. , Sood Sandeep , Loeb Jeffrey A. 
Published: October 2005

AbstractEpilepsy is a disease of recurrent seizures that can develop after a wide range of brain insults. Although surgical resection of focal regions of seizure onset can result in clinical improvement, the molecular mechanisms that produce and maintain focal hyperexcitability are not understood. Here, we demonstrate a regional, persistent induction of a common group of genes in human epileptic neocortex in 17 patients with neocortical epilepsy, regardless of the underlying pathology. This relatively small group of common genes, identified using complementary DNA microarrays and confirmed with quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunostaining, include the immediate early gene transcription factors EGR‐1, EGR‐2, and c‐fos, with roles in learning and memory, and signaling genes such as the dual‐specificity kinase/phosphatase MKP‐3. Maximal expression of these genes was observed in neurons in neocortical layers II through IV. These neurons also showed persistent cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein (CREB) activation and nuclear translocation of EGR‐2 and c‐fos proteins. In two patients, local interictal epileptiform discharge frequencies correlated precisely with the expression of these genes, suggesting that these genes either are directly modulated by the degree of epileptic activity or help sustain ongoing epileptic activity. The identification of a common set of genes and the persistent activation of CREB signaling in human epileptic foci provide a clinically relevant set of biological markers with potential importance for developing future diagnostic and therapeutic options in human epilepsy. Ann Neurol 2005;58;736–747
Resolution of EBV+ CNS lymphoma with appearance of CSF EBV‐specific T cells
Authors: de Beukelaar Janet W. , van Arkel Cornelis , van den Bent Martin J. , van 't Veer Mars B. , van Doornum Gerard J. , Cornelissen Jan J. , Sillevis Smitt Peter A. , Gratama Jan W. 
Published: October 2005

AbstractCurrent knowledge of Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)–specific T‐cell responses in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with EBV‐related lymphoproliferative disease (EBV‐LPD) in the central nervous system (CNS) is very limited. Here, we present two recipients of hematopoietic stem cell transplants with EBV‐LPD in the CNS. EBV‐specific CD8+ T lymphocytes were detected in CSF and peripheral blood using major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I multimers loaded with EBV‐derived peptides. The appearance of EBV‐specific CD8+ T cells in CSF and blood correlated with neurological improvement and disappearance of EBV‐LPD. These observations suggest a role for EBV‐specific CD8+ T cells in the control of EBV‐LPD in the CNS. Ann Neurol 2005;58:788–792