bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Caudata (Salamanders)
Authors: Milner Andrew R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The order Caudata is the amphibian group comprising the living salamanders (including newts, mud‐puppies, axolotls, sirens, congo eels and the olm) and their extinct relatives back to their divergence from the Salientia (frogs). The term Urodela is similar in use but applies only to the crown group, i.e. living salamanders and the fossil forms falling within the group from the point where the living forms started to diversify.
Testudines (Tortoises, Turtles and Terrapins)
Authors: Meylan Peter A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Testudines is an order of reptilian tetrapods commonly called turtles (including tortoises and terrapins). All fossil and living members of the group have a shell that encloses both of the limb girdles. The group has its origins in the Triassic and is now represented by 13 living families, many of which contain species in danger of extinction.
Rodentia (Rodents)
Authors: Montuire Sophie 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The rodents include more than 30 families and 350 genera. The distribution of the rodent species is worldwide and they occupy almost every kind of ecological niche. Most species are terrestrial, but some are specialized for underground, semiaquatic or arboreal life. Rodents are abundant and very diverse in form, adaptations and geographic distribution.
Pogonophora (Beard Worms)
Authors: Rouse Greg W 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Pogonophora represents a group of segmented worms living in chitinous tubes, largely restricted to deep‐sea environments such as methane seeps and hydrothermal vents. They are unusual in lacking a mouth and anus as adults, and in having the gut tissue massively expanded and filled with symbiotic bacteria, through which they gain their nutritional requirements.
Bryozoa (Ectoprocta: ‘Moss’ Animals)
Authors: Nielsen Claus 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Bryozoa are a phylum of small, colonial, almost exclusively sessile, aquatic organisms. More than 4000 living species are known, and the fossil record comprises about 20 000 species. Most species encrust stones or algae, others form erect bushes, and a few form free‐living colonies. Bryozoans are found in all oceans and many freshwater areas.
Diversity of Life through Time
Authors: Miller Arnold I 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Global diversity can be defined as the number of taxa extant in the present day or at any given time in the geological past. Using data collected from the fossil record, palaeontologists have reconstructed the trajectory of global biodiversity throughout the history of life. Documentation of this trajectory has fuelled a vigorous research agenda focusing on the causes of major diversity increases (radiations), decreases (extinctions) biotic transitions and the relationship between diversification in the marine and terrestrial realms.
Post‐Permian Radiation
Authors: Twitchett Richard J 
Published: September 2006

AbstractEvents at the close of the Permian, 251 Ma, led to the most severe mass extinction of the Phanerozoic. Seposki's ‘Palaeozoic Fauna’ suffered worst; the surviving groups, more ‘modern’ in aspect, were those that would seed the post‐Permian radiation and produce the ‘Mesozoic Marine Revolution’ of Vermeij.
Human Evolution: Radiations in the Last 300 000 Years
Authors: Pearson Osbjorn M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Homo sapiens
and Neanderthals (
Homo neanderthalensis
) evolved from
Homo heidelbergensis
in the last 300 000 years.
H. sapiens
subsequently spread throughout the world; all other hominins disappeared. The Out of Africa and multiregional models offer different explanations for this pattern.
Photosynthesis and Respiration in Cyanobacteria
Authors: Vermaas Wim FJ 
Published: September 2006

AbstractCyanobacteria are among the very few groups that can perform oxygenic photosynthesis and respiration simultaneously in the same compartment, and some cyanobacterial species are able to fix nitrogen. This combination of metabolic pathways is unusual and this metabolic flexibility may be responsible for the evolutionary hardiness of the cyanobacteria and their ability to thrive under a wide range of conditions.
Evolutionary Ideas: The Eclipse of Darwinism
Authors: Bowler Peter J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Following the acceptance of evolutionism, biologists tried – with limited success – to reconstruct the history of life on Earth, and also debated the mechanism of evolution. Many alternatives to Darwinian natural selection were tried out, including a revived version of Lamarck's theory of the inheritance of acquired characters, and evolution by saltations (which paved the way for Mendelian genetics).
Evolutionary Ideas: The Modern Synthesis
Authors: Bowler Peter J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
By the middle decades of the twentieth century a synthesis between Mendelian genetics and the Darwinian selection theory had emerged that attracted the support of the majority of evolutionary biologists. The genetical theory of natural selection was applied to field studies and palaeontology, giving rise to disagreements among biologists and historians over the nature and ultimate impact of the synthesis.
Sex: Advantage
Authors: Jokela Jukka 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
One of the most intriguing quests in evolutionary biology is to find an explanation for why sexual reproduction is so common in nature, and how it is maintained. In theory, sexual reproduction is expected to carry considerable costs when compared with asexual reproduction. Competing hypotheses for the advantage of sex range from better resistance to coevolving parasites to efficient clearance of deleterious mutations.
Speciation and
Wolbachia
Authors: Karr Timothy L , Ballard Bill 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
This article has sections titled

What
Wolbachia
is

What
Wolbachia
Does to Its Host

Wolbachia
– a Reproductive Parasite of Arthropods

Models for
CI

Theory of Coevolution of
Wolbachia
and Host Insect

Likely (Theoretical) Role of
Wolbachia
in Speciation

Drosophila
as a Case Study

What Defines a Strain of
Wolbachia
?
Molecular Evolution
Authors: Klein Jan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Molecular evolution is the process by which molecules of living forms diverge from one another over time. The study of molecular evolution embraces the evolution of the molecules themselves, their origins, how they change from taxon to taxon, the effects of these changes on function, and the integration of the molecules in the biochemical pathways of an organism. It also infers phylogenetic relationships and contributes to the formulation of general principles of evolution at the molecular level.
Chordate and Vertebrate Body Plans
Authors: Jefferies Richard 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The phylum Chordata is divided into: (1) Craniata (including the Vertebrata), (2) Urochordata or tunicates, and (3) Cephalochordata or lancelets, the best known of which is amphioxus (
Branchiostoma
). Each of these three subphyla differs greatly from the other two in the body plan (the broad layout of an animal and its division into major anatomical regions such as head, trunk or tail) of its extant members. The longitudinal extent of the notochord is crucial in this respect.
Thermoregulation in Vertebrates
Authors: Speakman John R 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Body temperature is one of the most important factors influencing animal function. Vertebrate animals generally regulate their body temperatures within quite narrow limits, but use different mechanisms to achieve this stability. In some circumstances, maintaining a high stable body temperature is not possible and several vertebrate groups have involved adaptive responses, such as torpor and hibernation, to overcome these problems.
Gas Transfer in Vertebrates
Authors: Truchot Jean‐Paul 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Oxygen supply to, and carbon dioxide removal from, vertebrate respiring tissues take place through a set of serially arranged anatomical compartments, either by molecular diffusion or by mass convection via carrier fluids. Respiratory organs are designed in such a way as to optimize the efficiency of gas transfer according to particular constraints set out by ambient media and/or animal physiology.
Sex Hormones in Vertebrates
Authors: Bentley PJ 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The dimorphic development of male and female vertebrates, including humans, and the physiological processes involved in their respective contributions to reproduction are coordinated by a variety of hormones. They include specific sex hormones which are predominantly produced by the ovaries and testes. They are also called gonadal steroid hormones, the principal ones being classified as oestrogens, androgens and progestogens (progestins).
Musculoskeletal System – Overview
Authors: Lieberman Daniel E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The musculoskeletal system comprises a number of specialized connective tissues, including bone, cartilage, muscle, ligament and tendon, whose major functions are to provide rigid support for the body, protect organs and other tissues, and to generate and enable controlled movement. Most movement is created by muscular contractions which act upon bones that move (some slide) at joints. Variations in joint structure constrain the range and type of movement that can occur at each joint.
Complex Multifactorial Genetic Diseases
Authors: Camp Nicola J , Bansal Aruna 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Variation in traits can be due to genetic factors or the environment – nature versus nurture – or to a combination of both. It can be of interest, especially when a trait is detrimental, to model the effect of the genes involved and, beyond that, to map them. Knowledge of disease susceptibility genes may help in the quest for new treatments and cures.
Plant Cuticle and Suberin
Authors: Kolattukudy PE 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Plant cuticle comprises an insoluble lipid‐derived polymeric structural component – cutin – embedded in a complex mixture of soluble lipids (‘wax’). When a plant needs to erect a barrier to seal a wound or to generate an internal diffusion‐resistant compartment, a polymeric cell wall accrustation – suberin – together with soluble waxes is deposited. Both polymers can be degraded, analysed and characterized. The epidermal cells and suberizing cells have specialized enzymes that convert the common cellular fatty acids into the unique components of the cuticle and suberin.
Leishmaniases
Authors: Chang Kwang‐Poo 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Leishmaniases are diseases transmitted by sandflies. These diseases are largely zoonotic, but sometimes anthroponotic, and have a spectrum of clinical manifestations ranging from self‐healing cutaneous lesions to visceralization with fatal consequence. The causative agents are the trypanosomatid protozoa
Leishmania
, widespread in temperate, tropical and subtropical areas. Intralysosomal parasitism of macrophages is a key feature in their molecular mechanisms of virulence.
Phyllotaxy
Authors: Rutishauser Rolf , Peisl Peter 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Phyllotaxy (phyllotaxis) is the mode of arrangement of leaves, scales, or bracts with flowers along the plant stem. Phyllotaxy research deals with the study of biological pattern formation (morphogenesis); it answers questions such as what the shoot apical meristem (SAM) does and how it does it.
Mesophyll
Authors: Pyke Kevin 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Cells of the mesophyll make up the bulk of internal leaf tissue and are the major site of photosynthesis in a plant by virtue of containing large populations of chloroplast organelles. The differentiation of the mesophyll and its coordinated expansion is important to leaf function because light interception by chloroplasts and gas exchange in the internal airspaces of the leaf are crucial to optimize rates of photosynthesis.
Venous Thrombosis
Authors: Taberner David A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Certain pathological situations, usually several, interact to cause the development of a coagulum (thrombus) of clottable protein (fibrin) and cellular blood components within veins, which may cause damage by occluding the venous circulation locally, or by migration (embolization) elsewhere in the vascular tree. Treatment is usually by anticoagulation, which prevents further formation, relying on natural lysis to remove the fibrin.
Renal Tubular Disorders
Authors: Wilson Patricia D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Kidney diseases that derive from the malfunction of the tubular portion of the renal nephron comprising the proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule and collecting ducts. These diseases can be common or rare and may have genetic or nongenetic causes and include cystic kidney diseases as well as disease caused by abnormalities of tubule ion transport.
Glycosylation and Disease
Authors: Rhodes Jonathan , Yu Lu‐Gang 
Published: September 2006

AbstractGlycosylation is the process of attachment of sugars to proteins and lipids to form the glyoproteins and glycolipids found in eukaryotic organisms. The presence of oligosaccharides on a protein can have substantial effects on its size, stability, charge and antigenicity. Altered glycosylation is implicated in cancer, mucosal diseases and pathogen–host interactions.
Eosinophilia and the Hypereosinophil Syndromes
Authors: Venge Per 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Eosinophilia denotes the increased number of eosinophil granulocytes in blood or tissue and is associated with a large number of human diseases. Hypereosinophilia is the condition when excessive numbers of eosinophils are produced and which often leads to serious organ damage by the eosinophils.
Anaemia: Adaptive Mechanisms and Consequences
Authors: Erslev Allan J 
Published: September 2006

AbstractTissue hypoxia induced by an anaemia causes the activation of a number of metabolic activities, all with the aim of ameliorating hypoxic injury. This compensatory feedback, which effects the symptomatology of anaemia, is to a great extent initiated by the production of a single transcription factor, HIF, enhancing the action of genes involved in the transport and utilization of oxygen.
Haematopoietic Growth Factors: Therapeutic Uses
Authors: Fetscher Sebastian , Mertelsmann Roland 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Haematopoietic growth factors (HGF) belong to the family of cytokines that are glycoprotein products of activated cells. Their main biological function is as a means of short‐range intercellular communication influencing survival, self‐renewal, proliferation, differentiation and activation of cells at all levels of haematopoietic development. The clinical application of HGF was one of the main contributors to increased therapeutic possibilities in medicine achieved during the last two decades of the twentieth century.
Hodgkin Disease
Authors: Ng Andrea K , Mauch Peter M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Hodgkin disease is a malignancy of the lymphatic system, affecting predominantly young adults. Advances in diagnosis, staging and treatment in the last 30 years have allowed long‐term cure in the majority of patients. Current challenges include better understanding of the aetiology and pathophysiology of the disease, optimization of control rates especially in patients with unfavourable prognosis or advanced‐stage disease, modification of therapeutic approaches to reduce the risk of long‐term complications, and increasing the awareness of patients and physicians of the potential late effects of treatment so that patients can receive appropriate follow‐up care.
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemia
Authors: Catovsky D 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
CLL results from the expansion of a clone of CD5+ B lymphocytes with distinct morphology and membrane antigens. The clinical course is variable and is determined by the stage of the disease. Genetic abnormalities detected by FISH analysis are important determinants of prognosis. Treatment is only indicated in symptomatic patients with active disease.
Acute Myelogenous Leukaemia
Authors: Lichtman Marshall A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Acute myelogenous leukaemia is the result of a malignant transformation of a primitive cell in the bone marrow. The neoplastic transformation imparts a growth and/or survival advantage to the cell. The functional result of this alteration is to impair blood cell production, which normally occurs in the marrow, leading to a profound decrease in red blood cells (anaemia), white blood cells (leucopenia), and platelets or thrombocytes (thrombocytopenia) in the blood. Untreated, the disease results in death in weeks.
AIDS
: Clinical Manifestations
Authors: Dore Gregory J , Cooper David A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
People with HIV infection experience a wide range of clinical manifestations. Due to their association with HIV‐induced immunodeficiency, more than 20 conditions, including opportunistic infections and malignancies, have now been classified as AIDS‐defining illnesses. The spectrum of AIDS illnesses is determined by several demographic and clinical factors and has contrasting patterns in developing and industrialized country settings.
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Authors: New Maria I 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a family of treatable disorders whose common feature is impaired cortisol synthesis, most often due to an enzymatic defect. In some forms, a build‐up of steroids in the pathway prior to the defective enzyme leads to an overproduction of androgens and virilization of an affected female fetus.
Hypertension
Authors: Alper Arnold B , Calhoun David A , Oparil Suzanne 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Hypertension is defined as a sustained increase in blood pressure. Historically, the level of blood pressure designating hypertension has been a systolic blood pressure of 140 mmHg or more and/or a diastolic blood pressure of 90 mmHg or more. However, the risk imparted with increasing blood pressure is continuous, such that the level of blood pressure must be considered within the context of the overall cardiovascular risk profile.
Roots: Contribution to the Rhizosphere
Authors: Gunawardena Uvini , Zhao Xiaowen , Hawes Martha C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Diverse compounds exuded by different parts of the root system create a unique environment known as the rhizosphere. Interactions among microorganisms found within the rhizosphere and communication between these microorganisms and plant roots play an important role in maintaining plant health.
Brown‐Séquard, Charles Edouard
Authors: Aminoff MJ 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
1817

–

1894

Mauritian

‐born

British

(later

French

)

physiologist

who defined the sensory pathways in the spinal cord, emphasized the importance of functional processes in the operation of the nervous system, showed experimentally that the adrenal glands are essential to life, and founded modern hormone replacement therapy by his use of organ extracts.
Primary Cell Cultures and Immortal Cell Lines
Authors: Stacey Glyn 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Primary cell cultures can be established from tissue explants or, more usually, from disaggregated tissue samples. Cells that can be subcultured many times are called cell lines and examples have been isolated from diverse tissues and cell types. Continuous cell lines of unlimited lifespan can be generated by means of a number of immortalization techiques, although in most cases such cell lines have arisen spontaneously.
Yeast Cell Culture
Authors: de Spencer Alicia l Ragout , Spencer JFT 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Yeasts – unicellular, eukaryotic fungi with membrane‐bound nucleus and mitochondria – were among the first microorganisms to be domesticated. They are still used for brewing and baking, but under appropriate culture conditions they also find numerous technological applications, including fodder production, production of fermented foods, waste disposal and, when genetically engineered, the production of vaccines and therapeutic proteins.
Animal Cell Separation and Fractionation
Authors: Bird R Curtis , Bird Allison E Church , DeInnocentes Patricia 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Many cell types containing many different compartments can be fractionated into special cell populations or subcellular compartments. Fractionation strategies must be tailored to provide the highest quality enrichment of the fraction of cells, organelles or complexes sought and after careful assessment of the target and the uses to which the final enriched fraction will be put.
hnRNP: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Tan Jia‐huai , LeStourgeon Wallace M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

During transcription in higher eukaryotes, the elongating pre‐messenger RNA is bound by a unique set of abundant nuclear proteins to form a repeating array of 20–22‐nm particles termed 30–40S heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) particles. A variety of methods exist for the isolation and purification of hnRNP complexes and for the
in vitro
assembly of hnRNP assembly intermediates.
Tumorigenicity Assays
Authors: Frandsen Thomas Leth , Holst‐Hansen Claus , Brünner Nils 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Tumorigenicity is defined as the ability of cultured cells to give rise to either benign or malignant progressively growing tumours showing viable and mitotically active cells in immunologically nonresponsive animals over a limited observation period. The ability of a cell line to produce tumour in an animal is highly dependent on and defined by the assay in which it is tested. A variety of animal systems are suitable for
in vivo
tumorigenesis studies.
Vesicle Transport Assay
Authors: Langford George M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Microtubules and actin filaments function as cytoplasmic filaments for vesicle transport. Vesicle transport assays were devised to study the movement of vesicles on these filaments. Video‐enhanced microscopy is an excellent method for such assays, with the possibility of detecting vesicles as small as 100 nm in diameter and microtubules 25 nm in diameter.
Cell Staining: Fluorescent Labelling of Endocytic Compartments
Authors: Gorvel Jean‐Pierre , Méresse Stéphane 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Endocytic compartments are acidic organelles involved in the transport of extracellular solutes and ligands from the plasma membrane to early, then to late endosomes and eventually to lysosomes. Endocytic compartments can be fluorescently labelled by fluid phase endocytosis, internalized specific ligands, resident proteins and pH‐sensitive probes.
Fluorescent Probes Used for Measuring Intracellular Calcium
Authors: Petersen Ole H , Burdakova Nina 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Calcium signals are produced by sudden increases in the intracellular calcium concentration. The most effective techniques for measuring this concentration use fluorescent or luminescent probes. Two types of probe are widely used: those that undergo a change in fluorescence when calcium is bound, and those that emit light when calcium is bound.
Posttranslational Processing: Peptide Hormones and Neuropeptide Transmitters
Authors: Varro Andrea 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The regulatory peptides that act as hormones, paracrine messengers or neurotransmitters are generally synthesized initially as large, inactive precursors that are converted to their active forms by a variety of different posttranslational processing steps, including cleavage of the peptide chain and modification to individual residues by sulfation, phosphorylation, glycosylation and COOH‐terminal amidation.
Crystallization of Nucleic Acids
Authors: Holbrook Elizabeth L , Holbrook Stephen R 
Published: September 2006

AbstractCrystal structure analysis by X‐ray diffraction requires large, well‐ordered, single crystals. The crystallization of nucleic acids has become the limiting step in their structural analysis by X‐ray crystallography. Approaches to crystallization have included batch methods, dialysis, evaporation, interface diffusion and vapour diffusion. The most widely and successfully used technique is hanging‐drop vapour diffusion.