bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Second philosophy of mathematics
Authors: Maddy Penelope 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThough extra-mathematical philosophy is irrelevant to the methodological decisions of mathematics, a second-philosophical understanding of the human practice of mathematics requires answers to traditionally philosophical questions of metaphysics and epistemology. This chapter explores three broad schools of thought on these questions: Robust Realism, Thin Realism, and Arealism. One familiar version of Robust Realism is Gödel's platonism, which raises an equally familiar epistemological objection associated with Benacerraf. Thin Realism reorients the epistemological discussion by beginning from the idea that the way to find out about mathematical things is to do mathematics; the Second Philosopher argues that traditional characterizations (objective, nonspatiotemporal, acausal) are retained while the proper methods are just those ratified by mathematical goals and values (as in §IV.3). Arealism embraces the very same mathematical methods as Thin Realism, the very same choices and decisions in practice, but includes no added claims of truth or existence. The Second Philosopher argues that Robust Realism is problematic (though not for strictly Benacerrafian reasons), that Thin Realism and Arealism are viable, and indeed that Thin Realism and Arealism are cosmetic variants of the same view.
Second metaphysics
Authors: Maddy Penelope 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis final chapter touches on the large question of what Second Philosophy tells us about what there is. Some post-Quinean philosophers have argued for versions of fictionalism, or even felt driven to a kind of ontological nihilism, according to which there are no viable grounds on which to settle questions of existence. On examination, the Second Philosopher suspects that one source of difficulty here is an implicit presupposition that adequate ontological judgments must rest on perfectly general criteria. By her lights, a piece-meal approach seems warranted, as for example different types of considerations figure in the case for atoms and the case for the electro-magnetic field. These straightforward ontological investigations all fall comfortably within range of the second-philosophical method.
Rights, Regulation, and the Technological Revolution
Authors: Brownsword Roger 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
Rights, Regulation, and the Technological Revolution confronts a central question facing modern government: how can regulators respond to both the challenges and opportunities presented by a technologically driven society without sacrificing legitimacy for effectiveness, or weakening the essential conditions of a stable, aspirant moral community? The book analyses developments across biotechnology, information and communications technology, nanotechnology, and neurotechnology. In part one, Regulatory Challenge, it explores the difficulties facing the public control of rapid technological change, focusing on the problems of regulatory effectiveness, connection, legitimacy, and compliance. In part two, Regulatory Opportunity, it covers genetic databases, code and control and the corrosion of moral community. The book argues that as regulators struggle to find adequate frameworks to limit, license, and support new technologies, they will increasingly rely on a technological approach to complement, enhance, and even replace traditional legal strategies. The book breaks new ground by offering the first overarching commentary on the relationship between regulators, industry, and wider society as the new technologies of the 21st century achieve an ever-greater penetration in our daily lives.
The Challenge of Regulatory Legitimacy I
Authors: Brownsword Roger 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter begins with a discussion of the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights. It then identifies and maps three leading bioethical positions, each of which is compressed within the declaration. These positions, represented as the ‘bioethical triangle’, generate a background ethical plurality that sets the scene for regulators. The chapter comments on the increasingly important idea of human dignity, an idea which features strongly at two points of the bioethical triangle. Two illustrative applications of the bioethical triangle are discussed: the first concerns the regulation of (human embryonic) stem cell research and therapeutic cloning; the second involves the recognition of proprietary entitlements in relation to human tissue and (detached) body parts.
The Challenge of Regulatory Effectiveness
Authors: Brownsword Roger 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter examines two important attempts to develop our regulatory intelligence: the 20 basic principles for the guidance of regulators gathered together by Stuart Biegel at the conclusion of Beyond Our Control?, and the five starting points for regulators critically examined by Bert-Jaap Koops and his Tilburg co-authors in Starting Points for ICT Regulation. The chapter proceeds as follows. First, the concept of regulatory effectiveness and its relationship with regulatory economy and efficiency are discussed. Secondly, some salient features of our general regulatory intelligence, particularly underlining the risks of regulatory over-reach, of regulatory capture and of regulation having unintended (negative) consequences are considered. Thirdly, Biegel's 20 principles are reconstructed as a general guide to effective regulation. Finally, the chapter considers how the ICT starting points might contribute to our understanding of regulatory effectiveness.
The Challenge of Regulatory Cosmopolitanism
Authors: Brownsword Roger 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter completes the discussion of the regulatory challenges presented by modern technologies by considering some particular puzzles for regulatory cosmopolitanism. The first test case focuses on the interpretation of the moral exclusion (against patentability) that is characteristic of European patent regimes, both regionally and locally. The second test case also concerns local moral exclusion but, this time, against the principle of market access that is enshrined in regional and international free trade agreements. The third case involves a more direct assertion of power by the local community. In this case, a nation state endeavours to enforce its own local standards, particularly where the effectiveness of its own local regulation threatens to be undermined by the technology of the internet, a technology that knows no physical borders.
Genetic Databases and the First Signs of Regulatory Opportunity
Authors: Brownsword Roger 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter focuses on genetic databases, specifically their use as a regulatory instrument. It begins by considering forensic collections, entertaining the thought that in a community of rights, it might be plausible to argue for a comprehensive population-wide DNA database. The chapter then turns to collections for public health purposes. If the state is justified in compelling the supply of DNA samples for forensic purposes, there might seem to be a case for compelling participation in public health biobanking projects. It argues that agents who aspire to moral community need to be particularly mindful of the corrosive impact of a (bio)technological approach to social control whether concerned with the prevention of crime or the promotion of public health. If such an approach simply reduces the risks to which agents are exposed, all well and good; but if the effect is to corrode the conditions that underlie the very project of moral community itself, then this is a risk which no community of rights can afford to ignore and which it surely will not wish to run.
Seizing the Regulatory Opportunity: Code and Control
Authors: Brownsword Roger 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter draws a contrast between two ideal-typical forms of regulation: the East Coast and the West Coast. It sketches a particular type of West Coast approach, ‘techno-regulation’. The chapter begins by discussing the nature of techno-regulation. It considers the objection that techno-regulation, even if it makes for safer societies, fails to respect the values of good governance, especially the values of transparency and accountability. It then turns to the deep objection that techno-regulation — by undermining notions of respect and responsibility — is corrosive of the conditions of moral community.
3 Contact and Boundaries
Authors: Hudson Hud 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter begins with an attempt to analyze the relation of being in perfect contact. Five proposals are evaluated and the final proposal endorsed. Along the way, puzzles invoking zeno-series and mereology yield refutations of intuitive views about contact and surprising results about receptacles and topology. The topics of boundaries and borders furnish a number of metaphysical puzzles, and some of these are explored with emphasis on the proper analysis of ‘boundary’, boundary ownership, vague boundaries, and concealed boundaries. A delightful puzzle about contact and boundaries is presented without final solution, yet together with a number of suggested solutions each of which seems genuinely terrible. Finally, these reflections on contact and boundaries make their way into the History of Zenopia, a brief story in which the celebrated four-color conjecture is subjected to counterexample (or at least in which two of its most famous three formulations are subjected to counterexample).
4 Extended Simples and Diachoric Identity
Authors: Hudson Hud 
Published: January 2009

AbstractA substantivalist dualist who believes in spacetime and material objects is committed to a relation of occupation or location. This chapter explores different candidate descriptions of this relation and investigates some of the philosophical difficulties which arise for the resulting conceptions. One reason to focus on the metaphysics of occupation relations is that some of them seem to make room for the possibility of extended mereological simples. The chapter critically evaluates several philosophical attempts to promote the cause of extended simples. Four problems are then advanced to yield the conclusion that extended mereological simples are conceptually possible yet metaphysically impossible: the problem of spatial intrinsics, the problem of shapes, the problem of parsimony, and the problem of diachoric identity.
6 Mirror Determinism and Mirror Incompatibilism
Authors: Hudson Hud 
Published: January 2009

AbstractAfter a primer on logical, causal, and theological determinisms, as well as an introduction to naïve, Frankfurt, conditional-analysis, soft-fact, altered-law, and altered-past compatibilisms, a new puzzle emerges for consideration in this chapter: the puzzle of mirror determinism and mirror incompatibilism. This chapter takes a critical look at this new kind of determinism; contrasts it with another lesser-known kind, many-brothers determinism; and canvasses the options for a compatibilistic resolution to its associated threats to freedom and moral responsibility. In addition to discussing the metaphysics of images and surfaces, the chapter also contains a discussion of the unexpected uses of counterpart theory.
7 Hyperspace and Theism
Authors: Hudson Hud 
Published: January 2009

AbstractOne argument for the non-existence of God says that an essentially omnipotent, essentially omniscient, and essentially perfectly good being must create the best possible world. Since the amount, the types, the intensity, and the distribution of evil we see around us guarantee that ours is not the best, God does not exist. This chapter shows that the hypothesis of hyperspace provides support for the Leibnizian position that ours is the best after all. Many different arguments appear under the heading ‘the problem of evil’. The hypothesis of hyperspace is also shown to provide a rather new and unexpected route of escape from one of the more popular of these arguments, an escape that does not rely on standard theistic maneuvers.
The Uses of Darkness
Authors: Hadfield Phil 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter draws upon the personal experiences of the author and a diverse range of published works on the cultural and natural histories of night-time in Western societies. Night-time is revealed as a social setting of highly ambivalent status, symbolising the times and places of restful recuperation, as well as those of restless hedonism, escape, and ‘dark deeds’. It explores how security concerns, fortification, and policing of the night have accompanied the governance of cities throughout history. Since the onset of industrialized urbanization, the night-time has been progressively colonized by the forces of commerce, and given over to forms of consumption and commodification which often challenge the contradictory will to impose order on the night-time streetscape.
Contesting the Night
Authors: Hadfield Phil 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis final chapter draws together and extends the book's main arguments concerning both the policing and control of urban spaces and the nature of the regulatory processes which govern the night-time city. It presents a critique of the existing licensing system and its inability to reflect upon, and respond to, evidence relating to the problem of order. The adversarial system, it is argued, represents an impediment to attempts to ascertain the ‘truth’ and instead becomes an attempt to weigh up (often incommensurate) partisan claims, with little accountability to, or democratic involvement by, affected communities. An inquisitorial mode of licensing hearing, it is argued, would lead to fairer and more representative decisions, whilst at the same time helping cure some of the contemporary ills of the night-time British city.
Shadowing the Night People: A Methodological Postscript
Authors: Hadfield Phil 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis postscript provides a detailed account of the research design and methodology of the PhD project upon which the book is based. Issues addressed include those of the selection of research settings, access to restricted data and powerful groups, reflexivity, ethics, and emotional management. The chapter describes how aspects of the author's personal biography helped shape the topics under investigation, the content and form of the fieldwork conducted, and the research activities and roles he assumed. It recounts how various unanticipated events, hurdles, and opportunities arose leading to the creation of both ‘dead ends’ and exciting emergent themes. It therefore illustrates the advantages of adopting or building-in inductive and exploratory techniques as part of a qualitative or mixed-method approach to social research. Clear benefits were accrued from embracing such ‘flexibility’ in the form of opportunities to gain more nuanced and complex understandings of the topic, forge interdisciplinary connections, and garner more rich and valid data.
Introduction: The Significance of Paul A. Samuelson in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Szenberg Michael , Ramrattan Lall , Gottesman Aron A. , Arrow Kenneth J. 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis introductory chapter looks at the various ways in which Paul Samuelson was appraised by the contributors. The features that stand out bear close correspondence with scientific, mathematical techniques, and the genius of a craftsman. Paradigm, scientific research program, anthology, and epistemological viewpoints can be read into the program. Samuelson is renowned as one who puts heavy weight on reality in his mathematical models, exhibiting great regards for facts. He has been presented as a leader in the neoclassical framework, building models that share constant assumptions, dependent and independent variables with various laws that put the models into motion. The area of international trade is a solid example of the fruits of his research, where the theory of factor price equalization and the Stolper–Samuelson Theorem are now textbook paradigms. The Cambridge Controversy on the theory of capital came alive through Samuelson's surrogate production function. Samuelson is also responsible for introducing Keynes to the practitioners of economics through his neoclassical synthesis.
Overlapping Generations
Authors: Solow Robert M. 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter describes the original Samuelson model, which invites the distinction between theoretical and practical applications of the model. Overlapping generation models operate in infinite time. Assuming three periods, a person who wants to save for retirement in the next period can lend to a person in the first period. This is essential because the model deals with generations that are defined in terms of age, and people typically have different tastes and preferences over different age cohorts. Using the didactics of Samuelson's three-period model, the middle generation may want to lend excess current income (savings) to the younger generation, but not to the older one, for when the middle generation becomes old, it will want to consume its savings and earned interest. The interest rate is a bridge between current and postponed consumption. And consumption plus savings is constrained by the amount of wealth.
Paul Samuelson's Amazing Intergenerational Transfer
Authors: Kotlikoff Laurence J. 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter presents an overlapping generation model in which the government plays a role of redistribution over the different generations by taking from the young and redistributing to the old. Price changes allow generations to swap consumption from one generation to another in order to equalize the interest rate with the population growth or biological rate. Starvation is possible as an extreme outcome. Social contracts can be set up as enforcement between generations. The so-called Samuelson's Relativity Theory shows how an observer's reference point creates varying policy perceptions. The chapter's model calls for generational accounting to address the phenomenon of young and future generations being affected by net tax rates. While intergenerational transfer can help the old on the one hand, it can also hurt the young on the other.
Prospective Shifts, Speculative Swings: “Macro” for the Twenty-First Century in the Tradition Championed by Paul Samuelson
Authors: Phelps Edmund S. 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter presents Samuelson's economics from the expectation and uncertainty points of view. It applies Samuelson model for stagflation, for instance, to show how shifts in the underlying parameters that affect inflation and unemployment could cause swings in an economy. Economies are driven by ‘visions’ and ‘fear’, which require a disequilibrium paradigm, as it was advocated by Keynes in Chapter 12 of his General Theory. The latter underlines Samuelson's brand of expectation and uncertainty. Such a view of the economy cannot be captured in a rational expectation model, as ‘personal knowledge’ of the economic agents cannot be made public for analysis. Samuelson's model has the potential to capture big swings in the economy unlike the rational expectation point of view, which requires vibration around a saddle point.
Paul Samuelson and Global Public Goods
Authors: Nordhaus William D. 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
The distinction between public and private goods follows from concerns about the concepts of market efficiency. This chapter fits in with the appraisal of polar cases of fact from an epistemological appraisal point of view. It argues that a public good for which the cost of extending the service to an additional person is zero, is a polar case of an externality. Externality, non-rivalry, and non-excludability are budding research programs which will be of great concern for the 21st century because private markets generally do not guarantee efficient outcomes. The ‘stock externalities’ concern for public goods, particularly with regards to nuclear energy and greenhouse gases, has a firm hold in 21st century policy issues, as well as implications for the course for the future course of international laws.
Paul Samuelson on Karl Marx: Were the Sacrificed Games of Tennis Worth It?
Authors: Harcourt Geoff 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter challenges us to delve into Samuelson's ideas from an eraser's point of view. When we observe carefully, we find Samuelson saying: ‘Contemplate two alternative and discordant systems. Write down one. Now transform by taking an eraser and rubbing it out. Then fill in the other one. Voila! You have completed your transformation algorithm’. Here is a question and Samuelson's answer on this idea applied to Marx's transformation problem: ‘The ‘algorithmic’ transformation from the ‘value’ model to the ‘price’ model (or vice versa), is truly a process of rejection of the former and replacement by the latter’. Samuelson presents the slam dunk version of what he considered to be the truth of the transformation problem, which as it turned out is an attack on Marx.
Paul Samuelson and Piero Sraffa—Two Prodigious Minds at the Opposite Poles
Authors: Pasinetti Luigi L. 
Published: January 2009

Abstract
This chapter appraises the source of Samuelson's interest in Piero Sraffa's work. It finds that the two authors were attracted to each other because their works are of equally foundational character. Samuelson's Foundations of Economic Analysis (1947) is on the side of maximization under constraints, with the use of mathematics as a language, while Sraffa's Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities (1960) tries to weed out ambiguities in solving analytical problems, starting with a prelude and advancing to a more constructive stage. Although their approaches are different, they have reached the same analytical conclusion. However, with different nuances, accentuation of details, or shades of emphasis as this is illustrated by the debate on re-switching. Samuelson and Sraffa however differ in the aspect of methodology. Samuelson defends the exchange paradigm, while Sraffa defends the production paradigm.
Samuelson and the Keynes/Post Keynesian Revolution
Authors: Davidson Paul 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter appraises the many versions of Keynes — Old Neoclassical, New Keynesians, Old Classical or New Classical Theorists — as adopting Keynesian general theory as their basic framework. It considers a different stream of post-Keynesian economics. The Samuelson brand is also aligned with the works of James Tobin and Franco Modigliani, all of which address how changes in the money supply engineered by Federal Reserve policy have important effects upon the level of money, gross national product, real output and the price level. Samuelson enunciated three post-Keynesian propositions: 1) changes in thriftiness and the marginal propensity to consume can affect output, prices, and production; 2) an exogenous burst in investors' instinctive behavior has a systematic effect on GNP; and 3) an increase in public expenditure, or a cut in the tax rates, has a systematic effect on GNP.
Paul Samuelson and International Trade Theory Over Eight Decades
Authors: Dixit Avinash 
Published: January 2009

AbstractThis chapter provides an appraisal of Samuelson's work on trade theory. It explains the scientific importance of starting with the Ricardian 2x2 model and the current literature on comparative advantage. Samuelson rests this model on the shoulders of giants, whether we want to explain gains from trade by swapping bananas for steel, or from the modern theoretical points of view. Samuelson has picked up this model without any rigorous proof and has given it many ‘operational’ assumptions so that one can test — or falsify — its predictive or explanatory powers. Proof of this model led to the welfare gain concept that Samuelson advanced from the classics, and anchored squarely on the First and Second Welfare Theorems. With these theories, trade can now be modeled to assess who gains, for instance, in the formation of a free trade agreement. This kind of research has only just begun.