bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Protein Export from the Endoplasmic Reticulum to the Cytosol: Methods
Authors: McCracken Ardythe A , Brodsky Jeffrey L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
ER‐associated protein degradation, a component of protein quality control in the secretory pathway, is a process by which aberrant proteins of the ER are selected for export, via retro‐translocation, to the cytosol for subsequent degradation by the proteasome.
Hummingbirds (Trochilidae)
Authors: Calder William A 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The hummingbirds (of order Apodiformes) are very small birds, mostly with iridescent plumage. Their ‘wrist and hand’ wing articulation derives lift on both the up‐ and down‐strokes, permitting stationary, upward and reverse hovering. They subsist on flower nectar, tree sap and small insects.
Protein Phosphatases
Authors: Wishart Matthew J , Guan Kun‐Liang 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Eukaryotic protein phosphatases are generally classified according to substrate specificity and three‐dimensional structure into two large groups: protein serine/threonine phosphatases, metalloproteins that dephosphorylate substrates via a single‐step reaction involving a metal‐activated water molecule, and protein tyrosine phosphatases, which contain an active‐site cysteine thiolate that forms a phosphoenzyme intermediate prior to nucleophilic breakdown by an activated water.
Bioethics of Organ Transplantation
Authors: Caplan Art 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
There is no consensus about what constitutes fair distribution with respect to scarce resources. There are theories of justice that would direct resources to those most likely to benefit from them, to those who are seen as most deserving, to those who are seen as likely to make the greatest social contribution in the future, to those willing to pay the highest price for them, to those who have the greatest responsibility for nurturing the lives of others, to those likely to enjoy the highest quality of life, or through a random system of allocation such as a lottery.
Ethics of Research: Protection of Human Subjects
Authors: Gifford Fred 
Published: September 2006

AbstractResearch involving human subjects is invaluable for answering both scientific and clinical questions, especially those centred on making medical intervention as effective and safe as possible. But it raises a number of difficult moral issues: such experimentation can impose risk, questions arise about the adequacy of informed consent, and clinical research creates a tension between the roles of clinical therapist and research scientist.
Motor Proteins in
DNA
Metabolism: Structures and Mechanisms
Authors: Bujalowski Wlodzimierz 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Major processes of DNA metabolism such as replication, recombination and repair, require mechanical, vectorial translocation of enzymes along the nucleic acid. Enzymes involved in these processes, particularly helicases and polymerases, must possess motor protein capabilities to be able to perform their functions.
Herbert McLean Evans
Authors: Long Diana E 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
1882

–

1971

American

anatomist and biologist

whose scientific achievements included,

the discovery of Evans blue dye (widely used for estimating mammalian and human blood volume), biological analysis of the oestrus cycle in the rat, the isolation and analysis of the hormones of the anterior pituitary, and the discovery and initial characterization of vitamin E

.
History of Penicillin
Authors: Quirke Viviane M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Penicillin was the first broad‐spectrum antibiotic. It revolutionized the treatment of infectious diseases, and became an instrument of mass medical care in the aftermath of World War II. Deep‐fermentation methods, which had been developed for the production of penicillin during the war, gave rise to the antibiotics industry, and contributed to the new biotechnology industry which appeared in the 1970s. For all these reasons, penicillin had a major impact on the second half of the twentieth century.
Sensory Processing in Invertebrate Motor Systems
Authors: Büschges Ansgar , Schmidt Joachim , Wolf Harald 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
In invertebrates (as in vertebrates), vision, chemical and mechanical senses, and audition are the main sensory modalities employed for orientation in the environment, locomotor control and equilibrium. The control of posture, limb and body movements is achieved by integrating sensory input with motor control function in neuronal networks with particular topography, connectivity patterns and emerging processing capabilities.
Collectins
Authors: Ruddy Marcella Kuhlman , Takahashi Kazue , Stehle Thilo , Ezekowitz Alan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Collectins are proteins of the mammalian innate immune system, circulating pattern‐recognition molecules involved in recognizing and clearing pathogens in an antibody‐independent way. The family of these proteins contains six main members. Collectins contain carbohydrate‐recognition domains that bind simple sugars and this ability is fundamental to their ability to recognize self from nonself.
Eusociality and Cooperation
Authors: Keller Laurent , Chapuisat Michel 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The evolution of eusociality, here defined as the emergence of societies with reproductive division of labour and cooperative brood care, has occurred under specific ecological, genetic and life history conditions. Although sophisticated levels of cooperation have evolved in the largest and more complex societies, conflicts among individuals are still common because, in contrast to cells of an organism, they are not genetically identical.
Asterids
Authors: Bremer Birgitta 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The informal angiosperm group asterids consists of 107 families and over 80 000 species. It is named after the genus
Aster
of the Asteraceae family. Today 10 orders, viz. Cornales, Ericales, Garryales, Gentianales, Lamiales, Solanales, Aquifoliales, Apiales, Asteriales, and Dipsacales, are included in the group.
Dioscoreales (Yams)
Authors: Bharathan Geeta 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Dioscoreales are a group of largely tropical, often climbing, plants with broad, reticulate‐veined leaves that make them look like ‘dicots’. The group contains plants that are important to humans as food and medicine, and includes the ‘true’ yams (
Dioscorea
). Yams may be among the earliest domesticated crops, and may be intimately connected with early human history and migrations.
Pandanales (Screw Pine)
Authors: Cox Paul Alan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Pandanales, a group of economically important monocotyledons, consisting of trees, shrubs and vines of a single family, the Pandanaceae, are confined to the old world tropics. These plants have a remarkable diversity of pollinators, which yield insights to the relationships between pollination and the evolution of plant‐breeding systems.
Zingiberales (Gingers and Bananas)
Authors: Prince Linda M , Kress W John 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The Zingiberales is a group of plants including gingers, bananas, heliconias and prayer plants. This group is made up of eight families distributed in tropical areas of Africa, the Americas, Asia and the South Pacific. Members are generally herbaceous, play an important ecological role in their native habitats, and are a source of foods, spices, medicines and ornamentals.
Bacterial Membrane Transport: Superfamilies of Transport Proteins
Authors: Maloney Peter C 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Bacteria have solute transport systems enabling them to accumulate needed nutrients, extrude unwanted byproducts and modify their cytoplasmic content of salts so as to maintain a composition conducive to growth and development. Most bacterial transport systems resemble their counterparts in eukaryotic cells, and similar principles operate in both cell types. Two widely spread superfamilies of solute transporters, the ion‐coupled systems that take part in chemiosmotic circuits, and the ABC solute ATPases, whose operation is linked to ATP hydrolysis, are universally distributed among living cells and account for a large fraction of their membrane transport activities.
DNA Replication: Prokaryotes and Yeast
Authors: Hoelz Derek J , Hickey Robert J , Malkas Linda H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
An organism's ability to pass on genetic information to further generations requires the accurate reproduction of its genomic DNA, a process termed DNA replication. Examination of the events that take place during DNA replication has revealed numerous well‐orchestrated protein–protein interactions and enzymatic reactions, which ultimately leads to synthesis of an essentially identical replica of the cell's complete genome.
Restriction Mapping of Cloned
DNA
Authors: Woodward K 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The procedure of restriction mapping involves cleavage of DNA with a variety of restriction endonucleases, followed by separation of the DNA by gel electrophoresis and determination of the number and molecular weight of the fragments generated. Single and double enzyme digests are usually performed and, by comparing the sizes of the fragments generated, cleavage sites for each
restriction endonuclease
can be localized with respect to one another and a physical map of the DNA can be constructed. An alternative method involves linearizing the DNA, radiolabelling the ends of the DNA fragments, followed by partial digestion using restriction endonucleases with frequent cleavage sites. The fragments are electrophoresed, detected by autoradiography and the cleavage sites are mapped with respect to the end label.
Filamentous Phage Display
Authors: Palmer Donald B , Lorenzo Claudia De 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Bacteriophage display systems have been developed to allow the selection of a protein or peptide based on its ability to bind to a selected target molecule. The antibody‐display approach uses filamentous phage that express combinations of randomly assembled pairs of heavy and light chain genes either as a single chain antibody fragment or
fragment antigen binding (Fab) format. These proteins are fused to the phage minor coat protein, pIII, to allow their expression and display on the surface of the phage, where they are available to bind antigen. Phage(s) expressing a particular sFv/Fab are enriched by panning on an immobilized target. Various antibody‐display phage libraries have been described and this system provides an alternative and powerful tool in generating specific antibodies.
PCR‐mediated Mutagenesis
Authors: Chamberlain J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
PCR allows a defined sequence to be amplified with high specificity from complex mixtures of DNA. However, when starting with cloned DNA as a template, the PCR can be performed under relaxed stringency conditions that allow short primers or primers containing significant mismatches with the template to amplify the cloned DNA. These features can be used to alter the sequence of a cloned template by the use of PCR primers with single or multiple base changes relative to the cloned template. Similarly, primers can be designed that will either add or remove sequences from the final amplified product. In this manner a large number of defined mutations can be introduced rapidly into cloned genes by PCR.
Conjugation of Proteins with Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP)
Authors: Gjøen Tor , Berg Trond 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

The intracellular pathway of endocytosed ligands can be followed by density shift methods. When the ligand is conjugated to an enzyme like horseradish peroxidase (HRP), the organelle can be made denser by the addition of a substrate for this enzyme, diaminobenzidine (DAB). When this substrate is metabolized in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H
2
O
2
), an insoluble aggregate is formed and the organelle will increase in density.
Alkaline Blotting of DNA Gels
Authors: Southern Edwin M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Quite often the gel electrophoretic migration pattern of individual components in a sample is determined not by analysing the gel but rather by analysing an image of the gel created by blotting the gel on to membrane. One of the simplest procedures is capillary blotting. However, for blotting DNA gels using Zeta‐Probe, the blotting can be done in alkali, in which case the denatured DNA becomes fixed to the filter.
Gel Electrophoresis of
RNA
in Denaturing Formaldehyde Agarose Gels
Authors: Southern Edwin M 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Formaldehyde reacts with RNA, and when RNA is heated in the presence of formaldehyde all secondary structures are removed. Hence, gel electrophoresis of RNA in agarose gels containing formaldehyde provides a good denaturing gel system.
Radiolabelling Nucleic Acids: Generating DNA Probes by Random Priming
Authors: Sheardown S 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The ability to label nucleic acids is one of the most fundamental techniques in molecular biology. Radiolabelling is still the method of choice for the most sensitive applications and also in situations where it would be difficult to visualize a nonradioactive label, such as the gel mobility shift assay where the probe remains within the gel matrix.
Manifold Dot or Slot Blotting of DNA on to Nitrocellulose or Uncharged Nylon Membrane
Authors: Beauchamp J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Manifold dot or slot blotting of DNA on to nitrocellulose or uncharged nylon membranes are described together as they involve the same steps but differ in the buffers used and in the method of post‐blotting fixation.
Isolation of Mononuclear Cells from Human Blood (Density Barrier Sedimentation)
Authors: Graham John M , Rickwood David 
Published: September 2006

AbstractMononuclear cells (lymphocytes and monocytes) can be isolated from other blood cell elements on the basis of their lower density. There are three variations of the basic method: (1) sedimentation on to a density barrier using diatrizoate (plus a polysaccharide) or Nycodenz or iodixanol; (2) flotation after raising the density of the plasma by mixing blood with Nycodenz or iodixanol; (3) flotation through an iodixanol density barrier.
Homogenization of Tissue Culture Cells in Suspension
Authors: Graham John M 
Published: September 2006

AbstractFor this procedure, the cells are first swollen in a buffered hypo‐osmotic medium containing potassium chloride, magnesium acetate and dithiothreitol to render the plasma membrane more susceptible to subsequent homogenization. After pelleting the cells, most of the ‘swelling’ medium is removed; the cells are resuspended in the residual medium and homogenized by Dounce homogenization.
Western Blotting Analysis of Translation Products
Authors: Whitehouse D , Lovegrove J 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Western blotting (immunoblotting) is a system for the immunological detection of specific proteins that have been transferred from a polyacrylamide gel to an immobilizing membrane. Proteins transferred to immobilizing filter membranes, such as nitrocellulose, are well suited to high‐sensitivity solid‐phase immunoassay detection techniques.
snoRNAs: Biogenesis, Structure and Function
Authors: Dragon François , Lemay Vincent , Trahan Christian 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The small nucleolar (sno) ribonucleic acids (RNAs) are mainly involved in the modification and processing of ribosomal RNA precursors, however, some are used to modify small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs), messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and transfer RNAs (tRNAs). They function in the form of ribonucleoproteins (snoRNPs).
Leishmaniases
Authors: Chang Kwang‐Poo 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Leishmaniases are diseases transmitted by sand flies. These diseases are largely zoonotic, but sometimes anthroponotic, and have a spectrum of clinical manifestations ranging from self‐healing cutaneous lesions to visceralization with fatal consequences. The causative agents are the trypanosomatid protozoa
Leishmania
, widespread in temperate, tropical and subtropical areas. Intralysosomal parasitism of macrophages is a key feature for these parasites in considering molecular mechanisms of their virulence relevant to developing effective drugs and vaccines needed.
Restriction Enzymes
Authors: Mani Mala , Kandavelou Karthikeyan , Chandrasegaran Srinivasan 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Type II restriction enzymes are the molecular scissors that catalyse the double‐strand cleavage of DNA at specific base sequences. In the future it may be possible to design/engineer chimaeric nucleases to target a specific DNA site within a genome.
Ligation: Theory and Practice
Authors: Kandavelou Karthikeyan , Mani Mala , Reddy Sekhar PM , Chandrasegaran Srinivasan 
Published: September 2006

AbstractLigation is the process by which NAD DNA ligases catalyse the formation of phosphodiester bonds between juxtaposed 3′‐hydroxyl group and 5′‐phosphate termini in duplex deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Ligases use adenosine triphosphate or nicotinamide–adenine dinucleotide (NAD) as cofactors for this covalent joining of DNA.
Mutagenesis: Site‐specific
Authors: El‐Gewely M Raafat , Fenton Chris , Kjeldsen Elisabeth , Xu Hao 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Site‐specific mutagenesis techniques are aimed at the precise substitution, insertion or deletion of any coding sequence
in vitro
. More recently, however, such precise alterations are also being developed for
in vivo
gene/genome modifications. These techniques are revolutionizing our understanding of the genetic and molecular mechanisms in several biological systems, which could lead to the development of new enzymes, therapeutics as well as improved agricultural applications.
Stress‐induced Premature Senescence (
SIPS
)
Authors: Toussaint Olivier , Salmon Michel , Pascal Thierry , Magalhaes Joao Pedro , Chainiaux Florence 
Published: September 2006

Abstract

Replicative senescence is a process in which normal proliferative cells lose replicative potential and acquire specific biomarkers as a result of serial passages in culture. Stress‐induced premature senescence (SIPS) is the long‐term appearance of the biomarkers of replicative senescence after exposure of human diploid cells to subcytotoxic stress. The processes of signal transduction triggering SIPS are now better understood, as well as the changes in protein expression taking place in SIPS. SIPS could play a role in the tissue changes occurring with
in vivo
ageing, as biomarkers of replicative senescence also appear after repeated exposure of human diploid fibroblasts not only to various types of oxidative stress but also to proinflammatory cytokines.
Transfer
RNA
Modification
Authors: Motorin Yuri , Grosjean Henri 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Naturally occurring transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) always contains numerous chemically altered nucleosides formed by enzymatic modification of the primary RNA transcript during the complex tRNA maturation process. These modifications favour correct folding and stabilize the tRNA architecture, protect RNAs against nucleolytic degradation and improve its performance in the different interactions in which tRNA is involved, namely in aminoacylation by cognate aminoacyl‐tRNA synthetases, interactions with initiation and elongation factors as well as in decoding of messenger RNA on the ribosome. In eukaryotic cells, RNA modification may also help in tRNA transport across internal membranes.
Ribonucleases
Authors: Pingoud Alfred , Meiss Gregor 
Published: September 2006

AbstractRibonucleases are a very heterogeneous group of enzymes, both with respect to structure and function. They all catalyse the cleavage of phosphodiester bonds, endonucleolytically or exonucleolytically, with more or less specificity. They occur ubiquitously and are involved, directly or indirectly, in almost every cellular process.
Supercoiled
DNA
: Structure
Authors: Bowater Richard Peter 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Supercoiling is introduced into DNA molecules when the double helix is twisted around its own axis in three‐dimensional space. Generally, DNA molecules are negatively supercoiled inside cells, although the level of supercoiling is not equal throughout the genome and many supercoils may be constrained by bound proteins. Supercoiling increases the free energy of DNA and influences DNA metabolism by promoting or hindering specific enzymatic processes.
Nucleotide Synthesis via Salvage Pathway
Authors: Nyhan William L 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThe biosynthesis of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides takes place overde novosynthetic pathways from small molecules and by salvage pathways from preformed purine or pyrimidine bases or nucleosides. The pathways ofde novosynthesis are the same in animals and microorganisms. Salvage pathways are considerably more energy‐efficient thande novopathways, which require 5 (pyrimidine) or 6 (purine) moles of ATP for each mole of nucleotide produced.
Free Radicals and Other Reactive Species in Disease
Authors: Halliwell Barry 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Free radicals can be generated in a wide variety of chemical and biological systems, including the formation of plastics, the ageing of paints, the combustion of fuels and in the human body. In living organisms, the levels of free radicals and other ‘reactive species’ are controlled by a complex web of antioxidant defences, which minimize (but do not completely prevent) oxidative damage to biomolecules.
Folates
Authors: Kisliuk Roy L 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Folic acid is a vitamin required for normal growth. It was discovered as a stable factor in extracts of yeast and of liver, which cured anaemia in pregnant women. The preponderant forms of folic acid in tissues are tetrahydrofolate polyglutamates with single carbon adducts corresponding to methanol, formaldehyde and formate. Folates are essential for the enzymatic oxidation, reduction and transfer of single carbon units involved in the metabolism of thymidylate, purine nucleotides, methionine, serine, histidine and choline.
mRNA Formation: 3′ End
Authors: Wahle Elmar 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
The 3′ end of eukaryotic messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is not generated by termination of transcription but by processing of the primary transcript. Posttranscriptional 3′ end formation almost always consists of cleavage of an internal phosphodiester bond, followed by the addition of a poly(A) tail to the upstream cleavage fragment.
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex
Authors: Patel Mulchand S , Korotchkina Lioubov G 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) is a highly organized multienzyme complex that plays a key role in glucose metabolism providing a direct link between glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid cycle. PDC is tightly regulated according to changing demands in glucose consumption in different tissues and under different nutritional and pathophysiological conditions.
Peptide Chain Elongation: Models of the Elongation Cycle
Authors: Nierhaus Knud H , Wilson Daniel N 
Published: September 2006

AbstractThree models of the ribosomal elongation cycle are used to explain the mechanism of protein synthesis on the ribosome. These are the allosteric three‐site model, the hybrid site model and the α–ε model. Recent cryoelectron microscopy analyses significantly modify the current models.
Gene Expression: Decoding and Accuracy of Translation
Authors: Nierhaus Knud H 
Published: September 2006

Abstract
During decoding of the genetic message, the ribosome must select the correct substrate, a ternary complex aminoacyl‐tRNA–EF‐Tu–GTP, from a large number of almost identical complexes. The problem is solved by dividing substrate binding into two steps: (1) decoding, which is mainly restricted to codon–anticodon interactions, and (2) interactions between substrate and ribosome, which are mainly responsible for high‐affinity binding rather than for selectivity.