bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Analysis of the Contact Deformation of a Radial Tire with Camber Angle
Authors: Kagami S. , Akasaka T. , Shiobara H. , Hasegawa A. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The contact deformation of a radial tire with a camber angle, has been an important problem closely related to the cornering characteristics of radial tires. The analysis of this problem has been considered to be so difficult mathematically in describing the asymmetric deformation of a radial tire contacting with the roadway, that few papers have been published.
In this paper, we present an analytical approach to this problem by using a spring bedded ring model consisting of sidewall spring systems in the radial, the lateral, and the circumferential directions and a spring bed of the tread rubber, together with a ring strip of the composite belt.
Analytical solutions for each belt deformation in the contact and the contact-free regions are connected by appropriate boundary conditions at both ends. Galerkin's method is used for solving the additional deflection function defined in the contact region. This function plays an important role in determining the contact pressure distribution. Numerical calculations and experiments are conducted for a radial tire of 175SR14. Good agreement between the predicted and the measured results was obtained for two dimensional contact pressure distribution and the camber thrust characterized by the camber angle.
Some Notes on the Finite Element Analysis of Tires
Authors: Gall R. , Tabaddor F. , Robbins D. , Majors P. , Sheperd W. , Johnson S. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Over the past ten years the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) has been increasingly integrated into the tire design process. The FEA has been used to study the general tire behavior, to perform parameter studies, and to do comparative analyses. To decrease the tire development cycle, the FEA is now being used as a replacement for certain tire tests. This requires the accuracy of the FEA results to be within those test limits. This paper investigates some of the known modeling techniques and their impact on accuracy. Some of the issues are the use of shell elements, assumptions for boundary conditions, and global/local analysis approaches. Finally, the use of new generation supercomputers, massively parallel processing systems (MPP), is discussed.
Measurement and Visualization of the Contact Pressure Distribution of Rubber Disks and Tires
Authors: Sakai E. H. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The contact conditions of a tire with the road surface have a close relationship to various properties of the tire and are among the most important characteristics in evaluating the performance of the tire. In this research, a new measurement device was developed that allows the contact stress distribution to be quantified and visualized. The measuring principle of this device is that the light absorption at the interface between an optical prism and an evenly ground or worn rubber surface is a function of contact pressure. The light absorption can be measured at a number of points on the surface to obtain the pressure distribution. Using this device, the contact pressure distribution of a rubber disk loaded against a plate was measured. It was found that the pressure distribution was not flat but varied greatly depending upon the height and diameter of the rubber disk. The variation can be explained by a “spring” effect, a “liquid” effect, and an “edge” effect of the rubber disk. Next, the measurement and image processing techniques were applied to a loaded tire. A very high definition image was obtained that displayed the true contact area, the shape of the area, and the pressure distribution from which irregular wear was easily detected. Finally, the deformation of the contact area and changes in the pressure distribution in the tread rubber block were measured when a lateral force was applied to the loaded tire.
Calculation of the Three-Dimensional Free Surface Flow Around an Automobile Tire
Authors: Grogger H. , Weiss M. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The 3D flow around a 195/65R15 automobile tire is calculated. To describe the free surface behavior with the usual conservation equations for mass and momentum, an additional equation for the water mass fraction is solved. For modeling the effects of turbulence, the well-known k,ε-model is used. The resulting fluid mechanics equation system is solved by a finite volume method. A finite element calculation considering inflation pressure and tire deflection gives the surface for the flow calculation. The goal is to determine the lift force of the tire at a certain velocity to predict the tendency of the tire to hydroplane. For a slick tire, the calculated pressure distribution in the water is presented. The lift and drag forces are evaluated from the pressure acting directly on the tire surface. The calculation is performed at three different velocities, 30, 60, and 90 km/h. A comparison with experimental data shows good agreement regarding the pressure distribution on the road in front of the tire.
Friction and Wear of Tire Tread Rubber
Authors: Sakai H. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Using a flat-belt tire test machine, this study investigated causal factors in the wear of tire tread. To ensure the success of the experiment, the accuracy of the testing device was improved and the trial conditions were kept under close control. As a measure against sticky particles of worn rubber clinging to the surfaces of the safety-walk and tires, a uniform amount of mica powder was electrostatically coated onto the tire tread surfaces. Surface whiteness was measured and controlled automatically to maintain a constant level. The amount of wear was calculated by weighing the tire on a precision six-order electrical balance sensitive down to 0.1 g. Consequently, in a relatively short time it was possible to ascertain measurable rates of wear, and the effects of main factors on the wear rate (the weight reduction per unit distance travelled) of car tires, the linear wear rate (the weight reduction per unit distance slid), the energetic wear rate (the weight reduction per unit energy lost), and friction coefficient were evident.
Three-Dimensional Deformation Comparison Between F-16 Bias and Radial Aircraft Tires
Authors: Lin P. P. , Chawla M. D. , Wagner P. M. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
This paper presents an optical technique called fringe projection to measure 3D tire deformation subjected to different loads, percentages of deflection, and yaw angles. Unlike the well-known Moiré method, the proposed technique uses a single light source and one grating, thus requiring no image superposition. As a result, the measurement is not as sensitive to vibration as the Moiré method. The fringe projection also differs from the commonly used optical inspection technique in manufacturing industry via line scanning known as structured light, which cannot be applied to dynamic deformation measurements. The recently developed subpixel resolution was employed to accurately locate the optical fringe centers, which in turn improves the accuracy in 3D geometry determination. A fiber-optic displacement sensor was also placed close to the tire sidewall to measure the deformational change of the selected reference point. Finally, the deformations are compared between F-16 bias and radial aircraft tires when subjected to the same loading conditions.
Structure-Borne Tire Noise Statistical Energy Analysis Model
Authors: Lee J. J. , Ni A. E. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The application of the Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA) technique on vehicle high frequency noise has gained popularity. It is desirable to model the tire to provide the capability of vehicle system NVH prediction. An SEA model for the structure-borne noise has been developed. The point mobility shows good agreement with measurement. The modeling methodology on tread bands, sidewalls, and their coupling are discussed. The modeling requirements and prospects are also included.
Tire Pressure Loss and Intracarcass Pressure Modeling
Authors: Costemalle B. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The inflation pressure loss and carcass pressure build-up (intracarcass pressure or ICP) of tubeless tires can be predicted with a simple theoretical model. Tire construction and relative air permeabilities of the main tire components are significant factors in the pressure loss and ICP. Highly impermeable liners play a major role in obtaining optimum results. Application of the model to recent European passenger tire surveys is shown.
Normalization of Tire Force and Moment Data
Authors: Radt H. S. , Glemming D. A. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Semi-empirical theories of tire mechanics are employed to determine appropriate means to normalize forces, moments, angles, and slip ratios. Force and moment measurements on a P195/70R 14 tire were normalized to show that data at different loads could then be superimposed, yielding close to one normalized curve. Included are lateral force, self-aligning torque, and overturning moment as a function of slip angle, inclination angle, slip ratio, and combinations. It is shown that, by proper normalization of the data, one need only determine one normalized force function that applies to combinations of slip angle, camber angle, and load or slip angle, slip ratio, and load. Normalized curves are compared for the effects of inflation pressure and surface water thickness. Potential benefits as well as limitations and deficiencies of the approach are presented.
Viscohyperelastic Modeling of Rubber Vulcanizates
Authors: Johnson A. R. , Quigley C. J. , Young D. G. , Danik J. A. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The use of internal hyperelastic solids for modeling viscoelastic deformations of rubber vulcanizates is reviewed. The model is applied in one dimension to viscoelastic uniaxial tension and uniaxial shear experiments. Step-strain relaxation tests are used to determine the model's parameters. A hyperelastic energy function, which represents the sum of the internal solids' energy functions, is obtained by least squares fitting a constrained third-order invariant expansion of the Rivlin function to the difference between the step-strain stresses and the relaxed stresses (the standard hyperelastic solid's stresses). The difference energy function is split into two parts and relaxation parameters (related to the rate of change of the internal solids' reference lengths) are selected so that numerically simulated step-strain relaxation stresses approximate the experimental values (at approximately 50 ms). The model is then used to predict the experimental results from a different type of test, cyclic strain data, at three different strain rates (cyclic frequencies). Increased stress due to increased strain rate was indicated by the model for large strains.
Implementation of Material Stiffness Coefficients in Finite Element Applications to Rubber
Authors: Kim Y. , Saleeb A. F. , Chang T. Y. P. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Two classes of constitutive models are widely used in the current literature to describe the general strain state of rubber under large deformations: the Invariant-based (Rivlin type) and the Principal-value based (Ogden type). However, their predictive capabilities, coupled with the finite element method, will greatly depend on the material coefficients determined from experimental stress-strain curves by nonlinear curve fitting. In addition, special care must be exercised in their numerical implementations, which is particularly true for the Ogden type models, when evaluating the material tangent stiffness coefficients. Several issues in connection with these are discussed and a number of simulations and test comparisons are presented.
Study on Cornering Properties of Tire and Vehicle
Authors: Sakai H. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
This paper presents theoretical analysis on the cornering properties of tire and vehicle. First, the side force, braking driving forces and self-aligning torque on the tire are shown as functions of slip angle, slip ratio, camber angle and load. Next, the steady cornering properties of the vehicle using these tires are analyzed with the rolling conditions. Slip angle, slip ratio, camber angle and load, and forces and moments of the four tires are calculated. Effects of main factors on the above vehicle properties such as the load distribution, camber/roll ratio, front/rear drive ratio, tire size, tire wear, tire inflation pressure and tire friction are discussed.
Loss of Adhesion of Cord-Rubber Composites in Aircraft Tires
Authors: Clark S. K. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
The degradation of adhesive strength between plies in aircraft tires was studied as a function of aging temperature, time, and environment. Adhesive strength degraded much faster than the cord tensile strength under the aging conditions used. Adhesive strength degraded faster in air than in nitrogen during the long-term aging. A 50% loss in adhesive strength is suggested as a reasonable critical value in determining tire life.
A Simple Model for Cornering and Belt-edge Separation in Radial Tires
Authors: Popper P. , Miller C. , Filkin D. L. , Schaffers W. J. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A mathematical analysis of radial tire cornering was performed to predict tire deflections and belt-edge separation strains. The model includes the effects of pure bending, transverse shear bending, lateral restraint of the carcass on the belt, and shear displacements between belt and carcass. It also provides a description of the key mechanisms that act during cornering. The inputs include belt and carcass cord properties, cord angle, pressure, rubber properties, and cornering force. Outputs include cornering deflections and interlaminar shear strains. Key relations found between tire parameters and responses were the optimum angle for minimum cornering deflections and its dependence on cord modulus, and the effect of cord angle and modulus on interlaminar shear strains.
On the Three-Dimensional Computation of Steel-Belted Tires
Authors: Rothert H. , Gall R. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A geometrically-nonlinear finite element model of a complete tire is used in an analysis for inflation and footprint loadings. Each reinforced layer of the tire is approximated as being homogeneous, orthotropic, and linear elastic. The finite element model used in the analysis allows the computation of interply shear strains due to inflation and footprint loads. Some numerical results on loaded tires are also presented and compared with those obtained experimentally.
Finite Element Analysis of a Steady-State Rotating Tire Subjected to Point Load or Ground Contact
Authors: Kennedy R. , Padovan J. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A radial automobile tire undergoing steady-state rotation is analyzed by a finite element method. A special formulation is used which allows the finite element equations to be solved as a quasi-static problem using static analysis solution procedures, rather than as a dynamic problem requiring solution in the time domain. This is accomplished through a transformation of variable that changes time derivatives, present through inertia, to spatial derivatives. Solution time for the analysis is thereby shortened.
The tire is modeled first as a two-dimensional ring on an elastic foundation, then in its full three-dimensional geometry. Rotational speeds are those at which resonance occurs so that the dynamics can be easily visualized and the response easily verified. The models are subjected to point load excitation or ground contact. Point load is used to predict resonance responses of the undamped tire. Results agreed well with experimental measurements. The effect of inertia components and damping on vibrational response of the tire was studied by imposing ground contact at one of the resonance speeds. Damping is included in the model through a two-element Kelvin-Voight viscoelastic material model. Responses of the models were similar to standing wave deformations in a tire.
A Finite Element Analysis of the General Rolling Contact Problem for a Viscoelastic Rubber Cylinder
Authors: Oden J. T. , Lin T. L. , Bass J. M. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Mathematical models of finite deformation of a rolling viscoelastic cylinder in contact with a rough foundation are developed in preparation for a general model for rolling tires. Variational principles and finite element models are derived. Numerical results are obtained for a variety of cases, including that of a pure elastic rubber cylinder, a viscoelastic cylinder, the development of standing waves, and frictional effects.
Development and Validation of a Method for Approximating Road Surface Texture-Induced Contact Pressure in Tire-Pavement Interaction
Authors: Clapp T. G. , Eberhardt A. C. , Kelley C. T. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
In tire-pavement interaction, road surface texture is an important variable that influences many properties such as tire noise, skid resistance, vehicle performance, and rolling resistance. Efforts to understand and quantify these texture effects have been limited by difficulties in experimentally and theoretically determining the many individual contact areas and contact pressures produced by irregularly-shaped asperities indenting the tire tread. The numerical method developed here to approximate the contact information is based on classical two-dimensional (2D) contact theory. The purpose of this paper is to describe this development. The method computes information on texture-induced contact pressure and length. The required inputs are 2D road surface texture data, tread rubber modulus, and tire inflation pressure. The approximated contact information is used to characterize road surfaces and advance understanding of how their textures affect tire-pavement interaction.
Principles of Tire Design
Authors: Curtiss W. W. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Design procedures based on sound mechanical principles have become a necessity to meet the ever-increasing demands of performance placed upon the tire of today. This discussion gives an overview of the design process and calculations employed in developing the modern tire: performance and sizing, envelope shape as a function of construction, structural stress, design of the tire skin, and construction of the “green” tire.
Tire Design Methodology Based on Safety Factor to Satisfy Tire Life (Simulation Approach to Truck and Bus Tire Design)
Authors: Kabe K. , Rachi K. , Takahashi N. , Kaga Y. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A tire is not only simply made of rubber, but also twisted cord, which we can call FRR (Fiber Reinforced Rubber). The rubber in FRR is made of many materials, including rubber compound, carbon black, silica, and other materials. FRR is a double composite material, which means a particle reinforced material in a microscopic view and also a fiber reinforced one in a macroscopic view. Therefore, it is very difficult to apply fracture mechanics to the evaluation of tire durability on a practical tire design level.
This paper gives a proposal for a new design methodology considering the actual tire condition which gives tire profile growth and rubber aging due to heat build-up under operation. These two issues are especially important for truck and bus tire design. Tire profile growth is a very important one because the change of tire profile induces different strains in the rubber at the same location in the tire during its life. We apply the FEM (Finite Element Modeling) based Double Inflation Pressure (DIP) method to simulate the experimental fact of the change of tire profile. In order to use the relationship between the change of the tire profile and change of rubber properties, like breaking strain in the tire as service time passes, the concept of safety factor is introduced. The low modulus rubber parts in the tire dominate the strain field and allow the large deformations of the tire. Safety factors derived from the strain field are called “Margin of Safety.” On the other hand, the durability of FRR, like the belt layer and carcass layer with the cord part, is evaluated by stress because the FRR part reacts to the stress of the internal pressure and load of the tire. But, the Margin of Safety of the rubber part is more important because the cord part has enough safety factor in comparison with the rubber part. Tire life is predicted with the Margin of Safety described above.
Fatigue Life Prediction for Cord-Rubber Composite Tires Using a Global-Local Finite Element Method
Authors: Han Y. H. , Becker E. B. , Fahrenthold E. P. , Kim D. M. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
A failure analysis, based on fracture mechanics, may be useful for predicting the lifetime of a cord-reinforced rubber composite pneumatic tire. This paper presents a new three-dimensional Finite Element (FE) local model to calculate the energy release rate at the belt edge region. The new local model uses a three-dimensional (3D) Finite Element Modeling (FEM) fracture analysis based on a steady-state rolling assumption, in conjunction with a global-local technique in ABAQUS. Within the local model, a J-integral variation study is performed in the crack region. This consists of a prediction of the crack propagation direction and a mesh density analysis of the crack model. Furthermore, the study is used to determine the crack growth rate analysis. This study assumes that a flaw exists inside the tire, in the local model, due to a mechanical inhomogeneity introduced in the manufacturing of the tire. This paper also considers how different driving conditions, such as free-rolling, braking and traction, contribute to the detrimental effects of belt separation in tire failure.
Evaluation of a Pseudo-Elastic Model for the Mullins Effect
Authors: Mars W. V. 
Published: June 2006

Abstract
Typically, the stress-strain response in filled rubbers depends strongly on the maximum loading previously encountered. The phenomenon, known as the Mullins effect, can be idealized for many purposes as an instantaneous and irreversible softening of the stress-strain curve that occurs whenever the load increases beyond its prior all-time maximum value. At times when the load is less than a prior maximum, nonlinear elastic behavior prevails. Ogden and Roxburgh proposed an empirical model capable of describing this phenomenon, based on a pseudo-elastic concept. Their model, with minor adaptations, has recently been implemented in a commercial finite element program. This paper demonstrates the effectiveness of the implemented model for several benchmark cases including uniform hydrostatic loading, simple tension, pure shear, and equibiaxial tension. The paper also compares model predictions with experimental results for a series of experiments conducted with various combinations of axial tension/compression and torsion loading.