bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lyell’s views on organic progression, evolution and extinction
Authors: Hallam A. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract

Following Cuvier, Lyell was readily prepared to accept a succession of species extinctions in the past but he rejected Cuvier’s ideas on episodes of catastrophic mass extinction. In the
Principles of Geology
he argued against organic progression in the fossil record, believing instead that organic traces had been substantially removed from older rocks by metamorphism and other factors, and that groups such as land mammals should not be expected, except very rarely, in the marine strata of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic. He did, however, accept that the human species was of modern origin, but emphasized that the most significant feature of humanity emergence was in the moral rather than the physical sphere. Lamarck’s theory of evolution involving species transmutation was vehemently rejected; like Cuvier, Lyell believed in the stability of species. As evidence continued to accumulate in favour of some kind of organic progression in the stratigraphic record, Lyell’s resistance eventually crumbled, but he continued to believe in the extreme imperfection of the fossil record. Like Darwin, he could find no direct evidence from it for evolution. In the 1860s he eventually came to accept some form of evolution, while adhering to the rest of his uniformitarinism, but continued to reject Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
The age of the Earth and the invention of geological time
Authors: Burchfield Joe D. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
During Charles Lyell’s lifetime the concept of geological time was gradually rendered meaningful through the construction of a heuristic geological timescale, the development of quantitative methods to calculate the duration of that scale, and the acceptance of a quantitatively determinable limit to the age of the Earth. This paper describes a few episodes in the process of ‘inventing’ the concept of geological time, episodes chosen primarily for their relevance to the work of Lyell.
From William Smith to William Whitaker: the development of British hydrogeology in the nineteenth century
Authors: Mather John 
Published: September 2007

Abstract

Some of the earliest applications of the principles of geology to the solution of hydrologic problems were made by William Smith, who used his knowledge of strata succession to locate groundwater resources to feed the summit levels of canals and supply individual houses and towns. The industrial revolution led to a huge demand for water resources to supply new towns and cities. Nottingham, Liverpool, Sunderland and parts of London all relied on groundwater. By the middle of the nineteenth century James Clutterbuck had already recognized that groundwater was a finite resource and that if abstraction was more rapid than replenishment by rain, water levels would decline and quality would be affected by saline intrusion. In 1851 Prestwich produced the first British geological map that included groundwater information. Before 1870 the Geological Survey had shown little concern for groundwater, perhaps because its Director, Murchison, had little interest in the economic applications of geology. After his retirement in 1871 there was an explosion of activity. Lucas introduced the term ‘hydrogeology’ in 1874 and produced the first real hydrogeological map in 1877 after leaving the Survey to work as a consultant water engineer. De Rance was for 20 years the secretary of a British Association Committee set up in 1874 to inquire into the underground circulation of water and in 1882 produced a 600 page volume on the water supply of England and Wales. William Whitaker, sometimes described as the ‘father of English hydrogeology’, was a collecter of well records and his work led to the inclusion of page after page of well records in survey publications in the southeast of England and in 1899 to the first water supply memoir —
The Water Supply of Sussex from Underground Sources
. From Smith to Whitaker, knowledge of groundwater grew throughout the nineteenth century, providing the basis for the sophisticated models of today.
The legacy of Charles Lyell: advances in our knowledge of coal and coal-bearing strata
Authors: Scott Andrew C. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractOn his travels in both Britain and North America Sir Charles Lyell paid particular attention to coalfields and their fossils. Understanding the formation of coal and associated rocks was the subject of several publications. In this contribution three aspects of this work are highlighted, all of which are the subject of ongoing modern research. Lyell was interested in modern analogues for the Carboniferous coal swamps and was amongst the first to suggest analogies with the mires of the eastern United States, such as the Dismal Swamps. A brief review of recent research on new modern analogues from Southeast Asia is presented. Lyell observed ‘mineral charcoal’ in some of the coals and noted its anatomical structure. Considerable advances in our understanding of the role of fires in terrestrial ecosystems and their potential as an agent of fossil preservation are addressed. One of Lyell’s most important palaeontological finds was of remains of the earliest reptiles (these proved to be amphibians but Sir William Dawson found reptiles subsequently) preserved in the Upper Carboniferous tree trunks at Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada. Whilst this occurrence of reptiles is no longer the oldest, the reasons for the remarkable tetrapod occurrences in upright sandstone-filled lycophyte trees at Joggins are currently being investigated and recent progress is presented.
Mount Etna: monitoring in the past, present and future
Authors: Rymer Hazel , Ferrucci Fabrizio , Locke Corinne A. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
Mount Etna is important to the economy of eastern Sicily, with agriculture and summer and winter tourism providing employment for thousands of people. Although there are no permanent homes within 10 km of the summit, year-round human activities on the upper slopes are proliferating and the risks from even a small eruption are consequently magnified. The earliest form of monitoring at Etna, as for other volcanoes, was direct observation. Modern volcano monitoring at its most effective is a synergy between basic science and hazard assessment. A prerequisite to effective monitoring is an understanding of volcanic structure and history. Sir Charles Lyell was among the first to make systematic observations of Mount Etna and laid the foundation of more modern studies. A huge array of monitoring techniques has been tested on Etna; methods that have proved successful in monitoring and sometimes in predicting eruptions include observations of seismicity, ground deformation and microgravity. These, together with electromagnetic, magnetic, gas geochemistry and various remote sensing techniques have also provided key information on the volcanic plumbing system and the eruption process. Monitoring techniques were formerly based on the most easily measured phenomena; other effects were either not recorded or were treated as noise. Future progress will be enhanced by taking account of these more subtle or complex effects and by the more comprehensive acquisition and real-time analysis of continuous data sets over extended periods. Important monitoring techniques and strategies available both now and in the near future are reviewed here in the context of Etna. The need to develop a reliable scientific platform for routine and inexpensive volcano monitoring throughout the world is highlighted.
Structural modelling of the south Porcupine Basin, offshore Ireland: implications for the timing, magnitude and style of crustal extension
Authors: Baxter K. , Buddin T. , Corcoran D. V. , Smith S. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
Regional structural synthesis together with 2D forward and reverse flexural isostatic basin modelling techniques have been used to investigate the extensional and subsidence history of the southern part of the Porcupine Basin. Two structural interpretations of seismic line GSP97-19 have been considered: (1) a Mid-Late Jurassic rift basin based upon seismic interpretation of well-defined tilted fault blocks, with subsidence modelling of the thick overlying sediment section predicting high lithosphere stretching factors of up to β = 6; (2) a Mid-Jurassic-Early Cretaceous rift responsible for a thick Barremian-Aptian synrift sequence within the basin centre resulting in reduced maximum lithospheric stretching factors of β = 2.3. The variance in published estimates of crustal thickness beneath the basin cannot distinguish between these scenarios. A comparison between stretching factors and the amount of observable upper-crustal faulting suggests that depth-dependent lithospheric stretching may be a feature of the basin, as in other sedimentary basins along the Atlantic margin, and is directly associated with the onset of Cretaceous plate break-up in the Atlantic.
Direct assessment of groundwater vulnerability from borehole observations
Authors: Worrall F. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
A method is developed for measuring the vulnerability of the catchment of a borehole to groundwater pollution based on observation of contaminant in the borehole and the region. The method uses Bayesian statistics to compare the proportion of pesticide detections in the region with that found in the borehole as a measure of groundwater vulnerability of that borehole catchment. Using data from California the method is demonstrated for multi-annual borehole observations of a set of compounds. The method has distinct advantages over present vulnerability assessment methods. The method calculates a continuous measure of borehole vulnerability rather than an index or score. This measure of borehole vulnerability is based solely on observations and not on expert opinion or the application of models. The use of Bayesian methods means that results can be used within a probabilistic risk assessment and can be updated as more information becomes available or as new regional data are considered. The assumptions and disadvantages of the methodology are discussed, but such methods could form the basis of testing the importance of climatic, soil and geological factors in controlling pollutant movement leading to improved management and protection of groundwater resources.
Assessments of the sensitivity to climate change of flow and natural water quality in four major carbonate aquifers of Europe
Authors: Younger P. L. , Teutsch G. , Custodio E. , Elliot T. , Manzano M. , Sauter M. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract

A numerical modelling approach has been developed to predict the vulnerability of aquifers to future climate change. This approach encompasses changes in recharge regime, dynamics of flow and storage patterns within aquifers, and natural hydrochemical changes. An application of the approach has been made to four hypothetical spring catchments representative of major carbonate aquifers in three European climatic zones. Since prolific carbonate aquifers typically combine a high transmissivity with a low specific yield, they can be expected to be more sensitive than clastic aquifers to changes in recharge patterns. Simulations of the study systems to the middle of the 21
st
century predict different outcomes in the three different climate zones: (1) in the northern maritime zone (UK) recharge (and therefore discharge) is predicted to increase by as much as 21 0n response to anticipated increases in precipitation; (2) in the continental zone (Germany) recharge in winter is predicted to remain approximately the same as at present, but summer recharge will decline dramatically (by as much as 32%), so that a net decrease in aquifer discharge is predicted; and (3) in the Mediterranean zone (Spain) recharge is predicted to decrease by as much as 160f the present-day values. For all three systems, increases in water hardness in response to rising CO
2
are predicted, but are expected to be negligible in water resources terms.
Simulation of the impacts of climate change on groundwater resources in eastern England
Authors: Yusoff I. , Hiscock K. M. , Conway D. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
This study investigated the impacts of climate change on the Chalk aquifer in west Norfolk. A two-layer transient groundwater flow model of the aquifer system was calibrated and validated for the period 1980–1995 and provided the historic flow record for the climate change simulations. Two future scenarios were selected from the Hadley Centre’s climate change experiments using HadCM2: (1) a medium-high (MH) emissions scenario; and (2) a medium-low (ML) emissions scenario of ‘greenhouse’ gases. Two future periods were considered: 2020–2035 and 2050–2065. Future recharge to the aquifer was estimated by adjusting the historic record of monthly precipitation and potential evapotranspiration by factors calculated from comparing control and future HadCM2-generated values. Impacts of climate change were evaluated by incorporating the monthly estimated recharge inputs within the flow model. The most noticeable and consistent result of the climate change impact simulations is the decrease in recharge expected in autumn for all scenarios (decreases ranging from 17 to 35%) as a consequence of the smaller amount of summer precipitation and increased autumn potential evapotranspiration. For the 2050MH scenario, these conditions lead to a 42 0ncrease in autumn soil moisture deficit and a 26% reduction in recharge. Hence, west Norfolk can expect longer and drier summers that are predicted to have relatively little effect on summer groundwater levels (generally a 1 to 2 0ecrease) but will result in a decrease of up to 14 0n autumn river baseflow volumes.
Mars: a review and synthesis of general environments and geological settings of magma-H
2
O interactions
Authors: Head James W. , Wilson Lionel 
Published: September 2007

Abstract

The advent of a global cryosphere likely occurred very early in the history of Mars, and much of the available water and related volatiles (CO
2
, clathrates, etc.) were sequestered within and below the cryosphere. This means that magmatism (plutonism and volcanism) as a geological process throughout the history of Mars cannot be fully understood without accounting for the interaction of magma and water (and related species) in both solid and liquid form. We review and outline the probable configuration of water and ice deposits in the history of Mars, describe environments and modes of magma-H
2
O interaction, and provide specific examples from the geological record of Mars. Magma and water-ice interactions have been interpreted to have formed: (1) massive pyroclastic deposits; (2) large-scale ground collapse and chaotic terrain; (3) major outflow channels; (4) mega-lahars dwarfing terrestrial examples; (5) sub-ice-sheet eruptions and edifices; (6) pseudocraters; (7) landslides on volcanic edifice flanks; and (8) hydrothermal sites. The global nature of the cryosphere, its longevity, and the diversity of environments means that Mars is an excellent laboratory for the study of magma-H
2
O interactdions and the role of related volatile species.
Basaltic pahoehoe lava-fed deltas: large-scale characteristics, clast generation, emplacement processes and environmental discrimination
Authors: Skilling I. P. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
Basaltic pahoehoe lava-fed deltas are important coastal constructions of many oceanic islands and continental flood basalt provinces. Whilst littoral processes associated with their formation have been described, little is known about subaqueous processes and products. This study is primarily focused on field studies of lava-fed deltas from the James Ross Island Volcanic Group (JRIVG), Antarctica, but also on other published studies of lava-fed deltas, and on information from studies of coarse-grained alluvial deltas. Seven coherent lava facies and eight subaqueously deposited clastic facies from the JRIVG are described and interpreted. Clastic facies are dominated by cobble-sized angular lithic and fluidal lithic-vitric breccias. The fluidal lithic-vitric breccias are derived from various slope failure processes acting on large-volume ponded lavas in the frontal crest area, or from gravity-driven ductile detachment of the margins of active pillow and sheet lavas on the steep subaqueous slope. Angular lithic breccias are generated mostly by similar brittle processes operating on cooled and jointed lavas ponded upslope. Subaqueous emplacement is mostly by density-modified grain flows with associated small buoyant plumes of finer sediment, and by high-density turbidity currents, many of which infill debris chutes. Basaltic lava-fed deltas have large-scale characteristics and processes that are similar to those of Gilbert-type and gravitationally-modified Gilbert-type alluvial deltas. Important contrasts that influence processes and facies in lava-fed deltas include the absence of any effluent force and the presence of hot clasts. Study of lava-fed delta deposits is important for palaeoenvironmental analysis because marine examples record relative sea level changes, and englacial examples provide evidence of minimum ice sheet thicknesses and meltwater levels. Characteristics that may be used to distinguish lava-fed deltas in marine and englacial lake environments are discussed, and littoral zone facies analysis is emphasized. Suggestions for future research include correlation of the physical parameters of subaerial and subaqueous lavas and the nature of cogenetic clastic products, submersible dives on active deltas, detailed facies analysis of individual tangential foreset beds, and comparative studies with steep coarse-grained alluvial deltas.
Physical volcanology of a subglacial-to-emergent rhyolitic tuya at Rauðufossafjöll, Torfajökull, Iceland
Authors: Tuffen H. , McGarvie D. W. , Gilbert J. S. , Pinkerton H. 
Published: September 2007

AbstractThis paper presents the first modern volcanological study of a subglacial-to-emergent rhyolite tuya, at SE Rauðufossafjöll, Torfajökull, Iceland. A flat-topped edifice with a volume ofc.1 km3was emplaced in Upper Pleistocene time beneath a glacier >350m thick. Although it shares morphological characteristics with basaltic tuyas, the lithofacies indicate a very different eruption mechanism.Field observations suggest that the eruption began with vigorous phreatomagmatic explosions within a well-drained ice vault, building a pile of unbedded ash up to 300m thick. This was followed by a subaerial effusive phase, in which compound lava flows were emplaced within ice cauldrons. Small-volume effusive eruptions on the volcano flanks created several lava bodies, with a variety of features (columnar-jointed sides, subaerial tops, peperitic bases) that are used to reconstruct spatially-heterogeneous patterns of volcano-ice interaction. Volcaniclastic sediments exposed in a stream section provide evidence for channelised meltwater drainage and fluctuating depositional processes during the eruption.Models are developed for the evolution of SE Rauðufossafjöll, and the differences between subglacial rhyolitic and basaltic eruption mechanisms, which are principally caused by contrasting hydrological patterns, are discussed.
Rootless cones on Mars: a consequence of lava-ground ice interaction
Authors: Fagents S. A. , Lanagan P. , Greeley R. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract

Fields of small cratered cones on Mars are interpreted to have formed by rootless eruptions due to explosive interaction of lava with ground ice contained within the regolith beneath the flow. Melting and vaporization of the ice, and subsequent explosive expansion of the vapour, act to excavate the lava and construct a rootless cone around the explosion site. Similar features are found in Iceland, where flowing lavas encountered water-saturated substrates. The martian cones have basal diameters of
c
. 30–1000 m and are located predominantly in the northern volcanic plains. High-resolution Mars Orbiter Camera images offer significant improvements over Viking data for interpretation of cone origins. A new model of the dynamics of cone formation indicates that very modest amounts of water ice are required to initiate and sustain the explosive interactions that produced the observed features. This is consistent with the likely low availability of water ice in the martian regolith. The scarcity of impact craters on many of the host lava flows indicates very young ages, suggesting that ground ice was present as recently as <10–100 Ma, and may persist today. Rootless cones therefore act as a spatial and temporal probe of the distribution of ground ice on Mars, which is of key significance in understanding the evolution of the martian climate. The location of water in liquid or solid form is of great importance to future robotic and human exploration strategies, and to the search for extraterrestrial life.
Deterioration of the Globigerina Limestone of the Maltese Islands
Authors: Cassar Joann 
Published: September 2007

Abstract
The Globigerina Limestone occurs as two types of building stone: the resistant ‘franka’ and the easily weathering ‘soll’. Research on both fresh and weathered samples has led to an understanding of the main differences in these two types of stone. The causes and mechanisms of deterioration have also been established. ‘Franka’ and ‘soll’ differ in geochemical and mineralogical composition and in physical properties. The ‘soll’ is richer in the non-carbonate fraction, which occludes some of the pore space, resulting in a lower overall porosity and a higher proportion of small pores. The ambient local environment, heavily loaded with sea salt, particularly sodium chloride and sulphates, readily induces deterioration in ‘soll’, whereas ‘franka’ tends to resist better in this aggressive environment. The weathering process of Globigerina Limestone in general has been explained as a sequence of steps, from the formation of a thick and compact superficial crust, to the loss of this crust, to the initiation of alveolar weathering. Understanding the deterioration mechanisms of Globigerina Limestone permits criteria for proper conservation treatment to be established.
Ultrasonic wave velocities as a diagnostic tool for the quality assessment of marble
Authors: Weiss T. , Rasolofosaon P. N. J. , Siegesmund S. 
Published: September 2007

Abstract

Marbles are frequently used as building stones even if they mostly show a limited durability. Thus, different marbles with different fabric types and states of preservation have been investigated in order to constrain the interaction between fabric, state of deterioration and ultrasonic wave velocities. Experimental data reveal that the state of preservation of a marble is clearly documented by ultrasonic wave velocities of compressional waves. For a maximum porosity of up to 1% velocities determined on dry samples range from about 1 km s
−1
to over 6 km s
−1
. Anisotropy of ultrasonic wave velocities is a common feature of marbles due to a lattice preferred orientation of the anisotropic rock-forming minerals calcite and dolomite. Pre-existing and thermally induced microcracks tend to increase this anisotropy. For Lasa marble, this increase can be explained by a coincidence of intrinsic anisotropy and the effect of pre-existing and thermally induced microcracks. For many marbles, velocities are reduced to at about 1 km s
−1
as a consequence of thermal degradation due to only one heating cycle up to 100°C. Model calculations reveal that the velocity reduction is caused by cracks with an extremely small aspect ratio of about 0.005 or even less. The porosity associated with this very early stage of deterioration will not be increased significantly and thus, thermal degradation cannot be determined by other petrophysical measurements.