bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Generalization of Faustmann's Formula for Stochastic Forest Growth and Prices with Markov Decision Process Models
Authors: Buongiorno Joseph 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Faustmann's formula gives the land value, or the forest value of land with trees, under deterministic assumptions regarding future stand growth and prices, over an infinite horizon. Markov decision process (MDP) models generalize Faustmann's approach by recognizing that future stand states and prices are known only as probabilistic distributions. The objective function is then the expected discounted value of returns, over an infinite horizon. It gives the land or the forest value in a stochastic environment. In MDP models, the laws of motion between stand-price states are Markov chains. Faustmann's formula is a special case where the probability of movement from one state to another is equal to unity. MDP models apply whether the stand state is bare land, or any state with trees, be it even- or uneven-aged. Decisions change the transition probabilities between stand states through silvicultural interventions. Decisions that maximize land or forest value depend only on the stand-price state, independently of how it was reached. Furthermore, to each stand-price state corresponds one single best decision. The solution of the MDP gives simultaneously the best decision for each state, and the forest value (land plus trees), given the stand state and following the best policy. Numerical solutions use either successive approximation, or linear programming. Examples with deterministic and stochastic cases show in particular the convergence of the MDP model to Faustmann's formula when the future is assumed known with certainty. In this deterministic environment, Faustmann's rule is independent of the distribution of stands in the forest. FOR. SCI. 47(4):466–474.
Assessing the Priorities Using A'WOT Among Resource Management Strategies at the Finnish Forest and Park Service
Authors: Pesonen Mauno , Kurttila Mikko , Kangas Jyrki , Kajanus Miika , Heinonen Petri 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
We examined a hybrid method, referred to here as the A'WOT [Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) in SWOT analysis], for improving the usability of SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis. A commonly used decision analysis method, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), and its eigenvalue calculation framework are integrated with SWOT analysis. The connection of AHP with SWOT yields analytically determined and quantifiable priorities for the factors included in SWOT analysis. The aim in applying the hybrid method is to improve the quantitative basis of strategic planning processes. After applying the A'WOT method, decision-makers have information at their disposal about how alternative strategies are congruent with internal and external environmental factors. In a decision–making process, this information can be utilized in concert with other produced decision–support elements.
The A'WOT was used in connection with the strategic planning of natural resource management at the Finnish Forest and Park Service (FFPS). Four alternative strategies were produced during the planning process. The alternatives produced were Forestry Strategy (emphasis on sustainable economic use of forests); Recreation Strategy (emphasis on recreational use of forests and social and economic sustainability); Protection Strategy (emphasis on nature protection and ecological sustainability); and the Basic Strategy (current land allocation and forestry practice principles). Opportunities determined by the priorities of the scaling factors had the greatest weight in all the business units of the FFPS. The most important internal factors included both strengths (know–how, land, and water property ) along with a couple of weaknesses (lack of information concerning biodiversity due to insufficient planning resources, age, and development class structures of forests). FOR. SCI. 47(4):534–541.
Foreign Direct Investment, Exports and Exchange Rates: The Case of Forest Industries
Authors: Uusivuori Jussi , Laaksonen-Craig Susanna 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Foreign direct investment (FDI) by forest companies has increased rapidly in the 1990s. An interesting question is to what extent FDI and traditional trade in the forest sector are substitutes or complements to each other. For example, does FDI lead to increased or decreased exports of forest products from the home country in the long run? This article explores the dynamic relationship between FDI and exports of forest industries with U.S., Finnish, and Swedish data. Both short-term and long-term interrelationships between FDI and exports are studied, as well as the short-term and long-term effects of exchange rate movements and exchange rate variation. The results show that for the U.S. forest industries, FDI and exports of forest products may have become full substitutes in the 1990s. In the case of the Finnish and Swedish forest industries, exports seem to affect negatively the investments abroad, while FDI does not affect exports in the long run. Both the FDI and exports by the U.S. forest industries are unaffected by dollar variability. In the 1980s, the strengthening value of the dollar increased the FDI by the U.S. forest industries. FOR. SCI. 47(4):577–586.
Woody Plants and Woody Plant Management: Ecology, Safety, and Environmental Impact
Authors: Miller James H. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Wise and effective woody plant management is an increasing necessity for many land uses and conservation practices, especially on forests and rangelands where native or exotic plants are affecting productivity, access, or critical habitat. Tools and approaches for managing woody plants have been under concerted development for the past 50 years, integrating mechanical, herbicidal, manual, cultural, and biocontrol techniques. This period was fraught with controversy as herbicide use increased with its consequences persistently questioned. Nevertheless, eager adopters of new tools and strategies have been managers for forestry, range, right-of-ways, wildlife, recreation, industrial sites, and more recently natural areas and preserves. Drawn to the generic title of this book, all these users would have great expectations for information to fit their many needs.
Precision of Density Estimates from Fixed-Radius Plots Compared to N-Tree Distance Sampling
Authors: Lessard V.C. , Drummer T.D. , Reed D.D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
We computed and compared the statistical properties of the estimators for the number of trees/ha (density) for fixed-radius plot and n-tree distance sampling. In forests with random spatial patterns, n-tree distance sampling density estimators are at least as precise as those of plot sampling if the fixed-radius plot size is less than the ratio of (n - 2) and the expected density, where n is the number of trees included at an n-tree location. A similar result holds for the clustered forest, where the ratio is multiplied by a factor involving a constant of heterogeneity. If the expected number of trees per plot and the plot sizes are the same for both the random and clustered spatial patterns, the variance of the plot sampling density estimator for the clustered pattern will always be greater than for that of the random spatial pattern. FOR. SCI. 48(1):1–6.
Co-integration of Timber and Financial Markets—Implications for Portfolio Selection
Authors: Heikkinen V-P. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
The short-run and long-run correlations between Finnish forestry returns and financial market instruments are examined. Financial assets include the general stock market index HEX, bond rate and deposit rate. The results indicate that timber prices and bond and deposit rates are co-integrated in the long run. The study demonstrates the influence of co-integration on expected asset returns and the optimal investment portfolio. FOR. SCI. 48(1):118–128.
Effects of Management on the Composition and Structure of Northern Hardwood Forests in Upper Michigan
Authors: Crow Thomas R. , Buckley David S. , Nauertz Elizabeth A. , Zasada John C. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
To improve our understanding of how management affects the composition and structure of northern hardwood forests, we compared managed with unmanaged sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) dominated forests. Unmanaged old-growth and unmanaged second-growth forests provided baselines for comparing the effects of even-aged and uneven-aged forest management on selected aspects of biological diversity. Three replications of each condition were located on the Winegar Moraine in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. Old-growth forests were multistoried, dominated by a few, large trees with well-developed crowns extending over a subcanopy stratum 10–15 m in height and an abundance of woody vegetation (mostly sugar maple seedlings) at 2–3 m. This complex stand structure contrasts with the relatively uniform structure of unmanaged second-growth forests with a closed overstory canopy and limited understory development. Forest management, both even- and uneven-aged, created forest structures that were more complex than their unmanaged second-growth baselines, yet managed forests lacked some of the structural complexity characteristic of old-growth. Managed forests had fewer large trees (stem diameter at 1.37 m &gt; 50 cm) and considerably less basal area in dead trees when compared with old-growth. There were fewer tree species in managed forests because commercially important tree species were favored for retention and, when present, early successional species (e.g., Populus grandidentata Michx., Populus tremuloides Michx.) were harvested. A subcanopy comprised of large shrubs and small trees characteristic of old growth was absent in managed forests, but this structural element may develop with time under management. As expected, thinning the overstory and disturbing the forest floor through tree harvesting promoted understory development in managed forests. Most of the added species, however, were common in the landscape and thus added little to overall species richness. FOR. SCI.48(1):129–145.
Forest Policies and Many Governments
Authors: Amacher Gregory S. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
In this article, I examine pressures on the forest stock when multiple governments, which control different policies, have distinct revenue needs and respond to different constituencies. I assume one type of government controls public forest harvesting, while other governments (typically local or lower ones) control taxes on productive firms in their constituency. Preservation of public forests provides nontimber benefits, or public goods, for consumers at both local and national levels, and these public goods values may vary across constituencies. I investigate how public goods depend on types of government coordination including revenue sharing, shared constituencies, transfers between governments, and federalism (i.e., where one government responds only to its own revenue needs and constituencies without regarding the impact on other governments' revenues or constituents). The results suggest there are several forms of government coordination that either enhance or reduce fiscal constraints imposed on governments, and these spill over onto the forest stock through policy-induced changes in harvesting. In contrast to previous work, in the forestry case reduced government coordination and fiscal federalism can actually protect forest resources and increase public goods produced from preserving forests. If governments perceive increased revenues from public harvesting, then forest exploitation is reduced by shifting fiscal responsibilities away from governments that own resources. It is also shown that pure transfers may not reduce pressures on forest stocks unless certain restrictive conditions are met, and revenue sharing can provide incentives to increase public harvesting and reduce public goods in order to support revenue collections of all governments. Forest Science 48(1):146–158.
Modeling the Joint Distribution of Tree Diameters and Heights by Bivariate Generalized Beta Distribution
Authors: Li Fasheng , Zhang Lianjun , Davis Craig J. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
A bivariate generalized beta distribution (GBD-2) is fit to the joint frequency distribution of tree diameters and heights of 43 Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca [Beissn.] Franco) plots in Idaho. The model fitting and performance are compared with the Johnson's SBB distribution using goodness-of-fit χ2 tests for the marginal distributions of diameters and heights, a bivariate goodness-of-fit test for the joint distribution of the two variables, and model predictions of tree heights and volumes. We found that the GBD-2 is more flexible and successful than the Johnson's SBB in describing both marginal and joint distributions of tree diameters and heights. On average, the relative bias (%) from the GBD-2 is three times smaller than that from the Johnson's SBB across the 43 plots when the models are used in tree volume prediction. FOR. SCI. 48(1):47–58.
Designing Compact and Contiguous Reserve Networks with a Hybrid Heuristic Algorithm
Authors: Nalle Darek J. , Arthur Jeffrey L. , Sessions John 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Conflicting opinions from environmental advocates and economic interests on the best strategy for management of public lands often leaves land managers in a difficult position. Since ecosystem sustainability is in the long-term interest of each group, the establishment of nature reserves could simultaneously address both views. To promote sustainability, fragmentation of existing natural habitats should be avoided, since it is commonly recognized as being disruptive to the species adapted to these habitats. Therefore, when designing an efficient nature reserve, the compactness and contiguity of the land reserved is an essential consideration. A new formulation of the reserve selection problem is presented that explicitly addresses these issues; specifically, the model minimizes a weighted combination of compactness and contiguity measures subject to constraints on the minimal representation of each habitat class.
Motivated by the ongoing reserve efforts in the large and diverse Klamath-Siskiyou region of southwestern Oregon and northwestern California, common heuristic search techniques are implemented and results compared on various simulated test problems. From these findings a new heuristic is developed that reduces solution time and increases solution quality. When applied to the Klamath-Siskiyou region, results are promising. FOR. SCI. 48(1):59–68.
Sapwood Area as an Estimator of Leaf Area and Foliar Weight in Cherrybark Oak and Green Ash
Authors: Meadows James S. , Hodges John D. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
The relationships between foliar weight/leaf area and four stem dimensions (dbh, total stem cross-sectional area, total sapwood area, and current sapwood area at breast height) were investigated in two important bottomland tree species of the southern United States, cherrybark oak (Quercus falcata var. pagodifolia Ell.) and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.). In all models tested and for both species, total sapwood area was consistently more highly correlated with foliar weight and leaf area than were the other three measures. However, there was little difference in accuracy among simple linear, multiple, and nonlinear models that used total sapwood area to predict either foliar weight or leaf area. Accuracy was improved slightly through the addition of total height and live crown ratio to the linear model. Foliar weight of both species was best described as a function of total sapwood area and live crown ratio (r2 = 0.97, n = 16 for both species). Leaf area of cherrybark oak was best described as a function of total sapwood area, total height, and live crown ratio (r2 = 0.96, n = 16), whereas leaf area of green ash was best described as a nonlinear function of total sapwood area (r2 = 0.95, n = 16). In contrast with other studies on upland oaks in relatively cool climates, we found that current sapwood area was only a fair estimator of foliar weight and leaf area in cherrybark oak and was a poor estimator in green ash. These results lead to the speculation that more of the sapwood than just the most recent one or two growth rings may be active in water conduction in bottomland species in warm climates. Specific leaf area was highest in the lower crowns of trees of both species and was highest among trees of the lower crown classes. Although based on a limited sample size of four trees per crown class per species, we found that the vertical distribution of foliage within the crown differed among crown classes in both species. Most of the foliage on dominant and codominant trees of both species was concentrated in the upper one-third of the crown, with only a very small proportion of the foliage in the lower one-third of the crown. Intermediate and overtopped cherrybark oaks and intermediate green ash trees had a more even distribution of foliage throughout their crowns, while the foliage of overtopped green ash trees was highly concentrated in the lower one-third of the crown. The leaf area:sapwood area ratio did not differ significantly among crown classes in either species, but averaged 0.67 m2 cm-2 in cherrybark oak and 0.24 m2 cm-2 in green ash. FOR. SCI. 48(1):69–76.
Comparing Fixed- and Variable-Base-Age Site Equations Having Single Versus Multiple Asymptotes
Authors: Cieszewski C.J. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Site equations compute values of a variable Y as a function of both variable t and a value of the variable Y = Y0 measured at an arbitrary t = t0. For example, the plant size (Y) can be defined as a function of both age (t) and a reference size (Y0) measured at the base age t0. The base age can be implicit (i.e., implied but hidden), as in fixed-base-age equations [e.g., Y = f(t, S), where S is Y at t = 50], or explicit (i.e., readily exposed and changeable), as in dynamic equations [e.g., Y = f(t, t0, Y0)]. Using as the main criterion the ability of an equation to generate concurrent polymorphism and multiple asymptotes, I compare a fixed-base-age height growth site equation with several dynamic equations, derived through the traditional and the Generalized Algebraic Difference Approaches. The comparison leads to conclusions about desirable model properties, the methodologies of derivations, and expected outcomes of the different methodologies. The conclusions suggest that the ability to simulate concurrent polymorphism and multiple asymptotes is an important property of site equations that should be considered during modeling various growth trends. Furthermore, the conclusions suggest that both algebraic difference approaches are more parsimonious and robust than the fixed-base- age approaches. The Generalized Algebraic Difference Approach can increase model usefulness considerably through derivation of more complex equations that can achieve more desirable properties. FOR. SCI. 48(1): 7–23.
The Ratio of Live Crown Length to Sapwood Area as a Measure of Crown Sparseness
Authors: Maguire Douglas A. , Kanaskie Alan 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Leaf area density is a biologically appealing index of forest tree health because it can provide an assessment of foliage loss or retention; however, it is difficult to measure directly. In contrast, the ratio of crown length to sapwood area (CL:SA) is quite amenable to objective field measurement, and could be interpreted as an index of crown sparseness. CL:SA was computed for Douglas-fir trees from 70 plots covering a range in average size, stand density, site quality, and crown condition in the Oregon Coast Range. When expressed as cm:cm2, the index ranged from 2 to 100 for individual trees and from 2 to 11 for plot averages based on the 200 largest trees per ha. In general, individual trees with a high CL:SA had a lower relative height within the stand. The index also increased with increasing severity of needle loss on sites where Swiss needle cast (SNC) is causing premature loss of foliage. After correcting for stand density and stand age, plot basal area growth increased significantly with a decrease in plot average CL:SA across a gradient in Swiss needle cast severity. CL:SA has strong potential for discriminating effectively among stands with varying degrees of foliage loss and growth reduction due to other disturbances as well, such as air pollution and defoliating insects. FOR. SCI. 48(1):93–100.
The Effectiveness of Stand-Level and Landscape-Level Variables for Explaining Bird Occurrence in an Industrial Forest
Authors: Hagan John M. , Meehan Amy L. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
We evaluated the effectiveness of habitat variables derived at two spatial scales for explaining the presence or absence of 20 bird species at 363 point count stations in an extensive industrial forest in Maine. Sixteen stand-level (microhabitat) and seven landscape-level (within 1 km radius, or 3.14 km2) variables were used in stepwise logistic regression models to evaluate the relative roles of these two spatial scales for explaining each species' occurrence at a point count station. Species were classified as either early-successional (n = 6) or late-successional (n = 14) species for analysis. Three regressions were run for each of the 20 species: (1) stand variable only, (2) landscape variable only, and (3) stand and landscape variables combined. Regression models that included only stand-level variables averaged significantly higher model concordance scores than regression models that included only landscape variables. For 17 of 20 species, regressions that included only stand-level variables better explained the presence or absence of a species at a point than did regression that included only landscape-level variables. The presence of two species was better explained by landscape variables, and the presence of one species could not be explained by either stand- or landscape-level variables. Because many variables were positively associated with presence of some species and negatively associated with other species, management for particular stand- or landscape-level features must be preceded by a determination of which species are more important to conserve. FOR. SCI. 48(2):231–242.
Avian Habitat Relationships at Multiple Scales in a New England Forest
Authors: MacFaden Sean W. , Capen David E. 
Published: April 2024

Abstract
Habitat selection by birds is a complex phenomenon that varies by species and ommunity. Some birds select habitat according to specific combinations of microhabitat characteristics, which pertain to the structure and composition of site-specific vegetation. Recently, however, habitat selection studies have shifted from site-specific characteristics to consideration of coarser environmental scales. We examined habitat relationships for 31 bird species in the White Mountain National Forest at a series of scales from microhabitat (fine scale) to the landscape (coarse scale). Relative abundance data were collected through 10 min. point counts at 360 points organized into 15 transects. Habitats sampled included a diversity of forest-cover types (deciduous to coniferous) and management strategies (wilderness to clearcuts). Species-specific logistic regression models based on subsets (183 and 48 points) of the original dataset corroborated the historical focus on microhabitat, but models including other scales indicated that some birds respond to coarser scale environmental characteristics. These results also supported the premise that some birds respond to multiple environmental scales. Community gradient descriptions, based on anonical correspondence analysis (CCA), supported results of logistic regression, indicating that microhabitat constituted the most important level followed by lesser, but significant, contributions from other scales. Through species-environment biplots, CCA also effectively illustrated avian habitat selection as a multiple-scale phenomenon, showing the hierarchical organization of landscape components and how they affect the spatial distribution of bird communities. FOR. SCI. 48(2):243–253.